Conference PaperPDF Available

Comparative study on the land-use policy reforms to promote agrivoltaics

Authors:
  • Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies
  • Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies

Abstract and Figures

An increasing number of governments worldwide recognize the potential of agrivoltaics. However, the current legal frameworks and land-use policies are still a limiting factor for a broader expansion of agrivoltaics. This preliminary study compares the legal and policy frameworks in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and Massachusetts in the United States to identify common barriers and learning opportunities. The comparative study revealed positive changes for agrivoltaics in most countries in recent years, but many obstacles remain. To unleash the full potential of agrivoltaics, we suggest (1) advancing the institutionalization of agrivoltaics, (2) improve the social acceptance of agrivoltaics, and (3) provide financial incentives specifically for agrivoltaics. Many promising good practice examples to advance these three objectives already exist in the analyzed countries, showing the importance of knowledge sharing in the relatively new field of agrivoltaics to facilitate a fast expansion and avoid costly mistakes.
Content may be subject to copyright.
AIP Conference Proceedings 2635, 050003 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0115906 2635, 050003
© 2022 Author(s).
Comparative study on the land-use policy
reforms to promote agrivoltaics
Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 2635, 050003 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0115906
Published Online: 06 December 2022
Makoto Tajima, Christian Doedt and Tetsunari Iida
ARTICLES YOU MAY BE INTERESTED IN
The effect of establishment method and shade zone within solar arrays on pasture production
in an agrivoltaic production system
AIP Conference Proceedings 2635, 090001 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0103429
Agrivoltaics help to realize BLUE plan
AIP Conference Proceedings 2635, 110001 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0103215
Toward assessing photovoltaic trackers effects on annual crops growth and building
optimized agrivoltaics systems based on annual crops
AIP Conference Proceedings 2635, 140001 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0103326
Comparative Study on the Land-use Policy Reforms to
Promote Agrivoltaics
Makoto Tajima1,2,a), Christian Doedt 1,3,b) and Tetsunari Iida1,2,c)
1Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies, iTEX bldgs., 16-16, Yotsuya San-ei-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0008,
Japan
2Japan Community Power Association, 16-16, Yotsuya San-ei-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0008, Japan
3Graduate School of Environmental Studies Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
a)Corresponding author: tajima_makoto@isep.or.jp
b)christian_doedt@isep.or.jp, c)tetsu@isep.or.jp
Abstract. An increasing number of governments worldwide recognize the potential of agrivoltaics. However, the current
legal frameworks and land-use policies are still a limiting factor for a broader expansion of agrivoltaics. This preliminary
study compares the legal and policy frameworks in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and Massachusetts in the
United States to identify common barriers and learning opportunities. The comparative study revealed positive changes
for agrivoltaics in most countries in recent years, but many obstacles remain. To unleash the full potential of agrivoltaics,
we suggest (1) advancing the institutionalization of agrivoltaics, (2) improve the social acceptance of agrivoltaics, and (3)
provide financial incentives specifically for agrivoltaics. Many promising good practice examples to advance these three
objectives already exist in the analyzed countries, showing the importance of knowledge sharing in the relatively new
field of agrivoltaics to facilitate a fast expansion and avoid costly mistakes.
INTRODUCTION
Farmland is a prime site for photovoltaics [1], and the world is in the midst of explosive solar photovoltaic (solar
PV) growth. However, the development of ground-mounted solar PV systems comes with its cost. The land use is
relatively high [2] which is at odds with reducing land sealing [3]. It is also causing a decline in biodiversity and
fragmentation of habitats [4]. Agrivoltaics (APV) can be a possible solution to increase land-use efficiency by
satisfying both food and energy needs on the same plot of land [5] while maintaining the agroecosystem [6].
Moreover, agrivoltaics protect the crop, particularly in the hot and dry environment [5], which can effectively
combat global climate change [7]. It also strengthens farm management by diversifying income sources or providing
electricity [8]. The potential installed capacity of agrivoltaics in Japan is estimated at 2447 GWp [9], and 1700 GWp
in Germany [10]. Theoretically, converting less than one percent of farmland to agrivoltaics will suffice the global
energy demand [1]. Promoting this technology can significantly contribute to the global energy transition.
Despite the numerous benefits listed above, why is the world yet to see the broad application of agrivoltaics? A.
Cherp et al. [11] proposed that you need to integrate three perspectives to succeed in energy transition: (1) techno-
economic, (2) socio-technical, and (3) political. This comparative study attempts to answer the question by focusing
on the latter two perspectives. We analyzed the legal and policy frameworks necessary for implementing agrivoltaic
projects in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and Massachusetts in the United States. These countries
recognize the importance of agrivoltaics in their recent energy policies. However, they are distinct in many other
ways. This diversity can show the universality of barriers that agrivoltaics face in countries with different contexts
around the world. Future research should widen the scope and, for example, include China and France as countries
with a rapid expansion of agrivoltaics. For now, we conducted a preliminary study by (1) surveying experts from
South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and the United States, and (2) performing a literature review of the legal
frameworks in all countries. In this initial analysis, we identified common barriers, promising good practice
AgriVoltaics2021 Conference
AIP Conf. Proc. 2635, 050003-1–050003-8; https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0115906
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-4276-4/$30.00
050003-1
examples that mitigate these constraints, on which we based our policy recommendations for the promotion of
agrivoltaics.
THE ROLE OF AGRIVOLTAICS IN ENERGY POLICIES
All countries of this study recently announced more vigorous efforts to significantly reduce carbon emissions to
reach carbon neutrality or net-zero emission by 2050 at the latest. The decarbonization of the energy sector with a
shift to renewable energy is usually at the center of these climate targets. These governments increasingly recognize
the importance of agrivoltaics in the energy transition (Table 1).
TABLE 1. Climate targets and the role of agrivoltaics in the energy policies of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and
the United States
Japan South Korea Taiwan Germany USA
National
climate targets
Carbon
Neutrality by
2050
Carbon
Neutrality by
2050
Discussion about
2050 Net Zero
Emissions
Climate
Neutrality by
2045
Net Zero
Emission by
2050
The Role of
APV in energy
policies
Cabinet Council
announced the
importance of
APV in 2019
[12]
Renewable
Energy 3020
Plan aims for
10GW APV by
2030 [13]
Ministry of
Economic Affairs
actively promotes
aquavoltaics [14]
APV will be
included in the
EEG
innovation
tender [15]
Several states
passed APV-
friendly
legislations [16]
Japan announced that “Farming-photovoltaics, where photovoltaics equipment is installed above farmland, will
be expanded nationwide” to strengthen the agricultural sector in a country with a declining population in its
“Follow-up on the Growth Strategy” in 2019 [12]. The Ministry of Economic Affairs of Taiwan recognized the
importance of the dual use of lands to achieve their 20 GW of solar energy goal in 2025 since the available land for
photovoltaic projects is limited. A priority is given to aquavoltaics in areas with the least negative environmental
and social impact [14]. The German government included agrivoltaics in the latest amendment of the Renewable
Energy Sources Act (EEG). Agrivoltaics will be able to participate in a special innovation auction in April 2022,
which will also include bids from floating PV and carport PV [15]. Ten states in the United States have passed
agrivoltaic friendly legislation, many of which focus on pollinator-friendly solar projects [16]. We can find the most
extensive recognition of agrivoltaics in South Korea. The government’s Renewable Energy 3020 Plan aims to
produce 20% of its energy from renewable energy by 2030. The plan includes the target of providing 10 GW of
agrivoltaics by 2030 [13].
The recent recognition of the importance of agrivoltaics in governments around the world is commendable.
However, a clear and supporting legal and policy framework is crucial to make these goals a reality. We, therefore,
analyze the specific circumstances in the agrivoltaics related sectors, namely the energy and agricultural sector, and
the permission process in the various countries in the following sections.
ENERGY SECTOR
The introduction of feed-in tariffs (FIT) enabled the rapid expansion of renewable energy, especially solar
energy, in many countries. Amendments of FIT laws are common to adapt to the dynamic progress of the energy
sector. Recently, there was an increasing number of agrivoltaic-related FIT amendments, including specific
regulations for agrivoltaics and preferential treatments for the dual use of land (Table 2).
050003-2
TABLE 2. Financial incentives for agrivoltaics in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and Massachusetts, the United
States
Japan South Korea Taiwan Germany MA, USA
Financial
Incentives for
APV
FIT with
preferential
treatment for
APV [17]
Up to
100kW/person
eligible for FIT if
a farmer is the
main actor of the
project [18]
FIT available,
with a mark up of
0.1862 NTD/kWh
for dual use on
(fish) farms [19]
APV will be
included in the
innovation
tender of EEG
in 2022 [20]
FIT base rate
compensation +
+ additional
US$0.06/kWh for
APV [22]
Japan first enforced the FIT scheme in 2012, facilitating a ten-fold increase of solar PV from 7600 GWh in 2012
to 77 000 GWh in 2019. Among the two amendments of the Japanese FIT law, the 2nd amendment includes the
preferential treatment for agrivoltaics. This amendment obliged small-scale photovoltaic facilities between 10 – 50
kW to allocate 30% of generated electricity for regional use, which would apply to most agrivoltaics in Japan, where
most projects are small-scale. However, the compulsory minimum self-consumption rate of 30% is waived for
agrivoltaics as long as it can provide electricity for regional use during the disaster and if the project already
obtained a ten-year farmland conversion permit [17].
The South Korean government aims to support small-scale photovoltaic developers and farmers with its
Renewable Energy 3020 Implementation Plan to advance the energy transition and provide the aging and low-
income farmer population with additional income. Therefore, agrivoltaic projects with up to 100 kW in which a
farmer is the main actor can sign up for the South Korean FIT and earn an additional annual average income of
around 10.7 million won (around US$ 9500) for 20 years [18].
The Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA) of Taiwan announced the new Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariffs
for Taiwan in January 2021. One key change for agrivoltaics is the FIT markup for “agricultural or aquacultural
management combined with solar energy facilities” to encourage dual land use. The markup tariff is 0.1862
NTD/kWh (around US$0.0068/kWh), which equals 5% of the ground-mounted system tariff. The feed-in tariff is
paid for 20 years [19].
German law mentioned agrivoltaics in the Renewable Energy Source Act for the first time in the most recent
amendment in 2021. Agrivoltaics can take part in special innovation auctions and receive a payment if (1) the
installed capacity of the systems is at least 100 kW, (2) the installation is in combination with other renewable
energy systems or a storage system, and (3) the electricity is not used for own supply. Floating-PV and carport-PV
will also compete for the available 150 MW in the same category as agrivoltaics in the innovation auction, which
will take place on 1st April 2022 [20]. However, there are concerns that agrivoltaics will have difficulties competing
against the other technologies under the current design and may not receive any payments through the innovation
auction [21]. The Federal Network Agency must define the final requirements by October 2021.
Massachusetts is the first state to offer financial compensation for agrivoltaics in the United States. The Solar
Massachusetts Renewable Target (SMART) program regulates incentives for different kinds of grid-connected solar
PV developments since 2018. The capacity from this declining block incentive program was doubled last year from
1600 MW to 3200 MW. It is designed to promote sustainable, cost-effective, and innovative solar development in a
tariff-based system. There are six types of location-based Compensation Rate Adders in the program that provide an
additional payment to the base compensation rate between $0.14-$0.26, depending on the project size and local
utility supplies. The Agricultural Solar Tariff Generation Unit (ASTGU) is one of the location-based adders and
awards an additional $0.06/kWh for agrivoltaics over the program duration. Moreover, the SMART program
reserves a share of the available capacity for small-scale projects (<25 kW), small commercial projects (25 – 500
kW), and projects that bring benefits to low-income households [22].
The increasing recognition of agrivoltaics in the FIT laws is a positive trend. However, the requirements for
eligible projects are still too restrictive, and the compensation for this new and relatively expensive technology is too
low in many cases.
Besides, there are still many barriers in the energy sector that are not unique for agrivoltaics but obstruct the
expansion of renewable energy in general. We must resolve technical barriers, such as the limited availability of
national grid capacity, especially in rural areas of Japan and South Korea. Furthermore, the profit of large-scale
renewable energy projects often leaves the rural communities for the urban area where the big companies are
located. We need to promote broader community involvement and ownership and equal share of benefits in
renewable energy projects to enhance social acceptance.
050003-3
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Decision-makers from agricultural divisions are still skeptical of developing agrivoltaics on prime farmland in
many countries. Therefore, we find many limiting factors in the legal and policy framework in the agricultural
sector. For example, land-use restrictions on farmland or the necessity for a land-use conversion before
implementing agrivoltaics are common (Table 3).
TABLE 3. Land use restrictions and conversion for agrivoltaics in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Germany, and Massachusetts,
the United States
Japan South Korea Taiwan Germany MA, USA
Land use
restriction and
conversion for
APV
APV is allowed on
all categories of
farmland only after
the approval of
partial land
conversion for non-
agricultural use [17]
APV is prohibited in
agricultural
promotion zones and
only allowed in other
areas after temporary
use of utility is
granted [23]
APV is
only
allowed on
designated
farming
areas [24]
Adaption of the
development
plan and
building permit
generally
required [10]
APV on Land
in Agricultural
Use or on
Prime
Agricultural
Farmland is
incentivized
[22]
In Japan, you can install agrivoltaics in all categories of farmland, but only after obtaining approval for partial
land-use conversion to non-agricultural use for the area of the mounting foundation. This permission process is
stipulated in the directive on agrivoltaics issue by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF) in 2013
(24 Noushin No. 2657). Initially, the permit was valid for three years, but this was extended to 10 years in the 2nd
directive in 2018 (30 Noushin No. 78), if (1) a farmer can demonstrate his competence in agricultural practices and
management, (2) agrivoltaics takes place in the “devastated farmland,” or (3) agrivoltaics takes place in “second
class farmland” or “third class farmland [25].” Furthermore, the Task Force for Review of Regulations on
Renewable Energy initiated in December 2020 led by the Japanese Administrative Reform Minister Taro Kono
brought about further reforms. The task force has been conducting a comprehensive review of regulations related to
renewable energy, including agrivoltaics, across relevant government ministries and agencies, intending to reduce
legal barriers [26]. The task force’s review resulted in the most recent 3rd directive in March 2021 (2 Noushin No.
3854) [27], which exempts agrivoltaics on devastated farmland from the land conversion permission handled by
Local Agricultural Commissions at the municipality level [17]. We will discuss the requirements for approval in the
following section.
The South Korean government prohibits land use other than agricultural use on high-quality farmland financed
by taxes. Therefore, agrivoltaic systems are prohibited on all agricultural promotion zones, accounting for 50% of
the available area. Besides, you must obtain temporary utility use for other purposes under Article 36 of the
Farmland Act before installing agrivoltaics on farmland outside agricultural promotion zones [23]. The permits are
granted for eight years, but an extension to 20 years is currently under discussion.
Until recently, there was no need to change farmland use under 2 hectares before installing small-scale solar PV
in Taiwan. This loose regulation led to the overdevelopment of small-scale solar PV systems on farmland at the
expense of agricultural production. Farmers could rent their farmland out for a ten times higher amount than the
profits gained from farming. This exploitation of farmland received strong criticism from organizations concerned
with sustainable agricultural production and environmental protection. The Council of Agriculture of the Executive
Yuan finally banned the development of small-scale solar PV in July 2020. This ban, in turn, caused protest from
solar PV developers. Eventually, the Executive Yuan rented out 20,000 ha of government-owned land for solar PV
development. The Board of Agriculture simultaneously took strict measurements against agrivoltaics on farmland
since, in the past, there were many bad practices of agrivoltaics that were heavily biased towards electricity
generation rather than agricultural production. In the end, the promotion of agrivoltaics on farmland has essentially
stopped. Currently, the Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA) promotes only aquavoltaics [24].
Agrivoltaics in Germany is not considered a standalone technology yet. It falls under the category of ground-
mounted solar PV systems and follows its requirements. The simplest solution for agrivoltaics in the complex
German permission process is to specify a “Special Area Photovoltaic” in the development plan. However, dual land
use is currently not recognized in the development, leading to ineligibility for EU agricultural subsidies. Fraunhofer
ISE proposes to add a “Special Agrivoltaic Area” to solve this problem [10].
050003-4
Contrary to the other countries, the State of Massachusetts in the United States actively encourages installing
agrivoltaics on “Land in Agricultural Use” or on “Prime Agricultural Farmland” by providing the above-mentioned
location-based adders within the SMART program to these categories of land.
The surveyed experts emphasized that the bureaucracy of land-use conversion is overly time-consuming.
Moreover, the approval process involves high uncertainty since many local governments and agricultural councils
are still inexperienced or unfamiliar with agrivoltaics. Low awareness about agrivoltaics among local decision-
makers and farmers further aggravates the situation. The local stakeholders are often unaware of the difference
between ground-mounted solar PV systems, with which they might have negative experiences in the past, and
agrivoltaic systems. Poor awareness of agrivoltaics leads to a skeptical view and a low social acceptance of
agrivoltaics in the agricultural sector.
PERMISSION PROCESS
You need to meet numerous requirements for building permits and land use conversion before installing
agrivoltaic systems. These requirements for agrivoltaics need to be revised regularly to adapt to design changes and
innovation in this relatively new technology. Not all countries have specific requirements for agrivoltaics yet (Table
4).
TABLE 4. Major building permits and land-use conversion requirements for agrivoltaics in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan,
Germany, and Massachusetts, the United States
Japan South Korea Taiwan Germany MA, USA
Major
requirements
for building
permits and
land use
conversion
- Agricultural
productivity
standards
(reduction of yield
<20% compared to
the average level
of the surrounding
farmland)
- The shading rate
must ensure
enough sunlight
penetration for
plant growth
- Minimum panel
height: 2 m, except
vertical APV [17]
The
government
is currently
discussing
agricultural
productivity
standards
- Agricultural
productivity
standards (at
least 70% of
the previous
three years’
average)
- Aquavoltaics
must fit
Environment
and Social
Checklist [14]
Requirements
currently the
same as for
ground-
mounted PV
[10]
- Agricultural
productivity
standards (Balance
between electrical
generation and
agricultural
production must be
guaranteed)
- Shading rate of max
50%
- Minimum panel
height: 2.5 m (fixed
tilt panel system),
3 m (horizontal
position for tracking
systems) [22]
Japan legally permitted agrivoltaics on farmland in 2013. The local Agricultural Commissions grants the land-
use conversion if (1) the mounting structure is only temporary and easily removable, (2) the shading rate ensures
enough sunlight penetration for plant growth, (3) the minimum panel height is 2 m except for vertical APV, (4) the
installment does not hinder agricultural practice in surrounding areas and (5) the reduction of yield must be under
20% compared to the average level of the surrounding farmland with the exception of projects on devastated land
[17]. This process is time-intensive and differs between the 1703 local Agricultural Commission at the municipality
level. It is challenging to convince Agricultural Commissions to approve the first agrivoltaic project in their
jurisdiction.
Besides Japan, the SMART program in Massachusetts also has a comprehensive list of requirements that you
need to fulfill to obtain payments. It stipulates that the agrivoltaic system must be (1) installed on property officially
defined as Land in Agricultural Use or Prime Agricultural Farmland, (2) the capacity of the system must be under 2
MW, (3) the lowest edge of the panel must be at least 8 feet (ca. 2.5 m) above the ground for fixed-tilt panel systems
or 10 feet (ca. 3 m) at the horizontal position for tracking systems, (4) the shading rate during the growing season
must not exceed 50%, and (5) the system must be designed to optimize the balance between electrical and
agricultural production over the 20-year program period. In addition, it is mandatory to submit an annual report
about the productivity of crops or herd, crop management, and potential changes for future years [22].
050003-5
Taiwan similarly added the requirement of an agricultural productivity standard to avoid more bad practices on
farmland. The yield must be equivalent to 70% of the previous three years’ average. Moreover, even when you build
aquavoltaics, it is mandatory to undergo the “Rapid Environmental and Social Assessment of Aquaculture
Photovoltaic,” developed by the government and NGOs. It is a structured process during the planning stage of
aquavoltaics that aims to identify environmental and social issues with the help of stakeholder participation and
develops countermeasures before granting permission. It also seeks to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
the permission process to guarantee a fast decision [14].
Discussion about requirements for agrivoltaics in South Korea is still ongoing. Currently, the government
debates over agricultural productivity standards to avoid the exploitation of farmland.
Classified as ground-mounted solar PV, agrivoltaics has no other specific requirements in Germany than
fulfilling those for the ground-mounted solar PV. See [10] for a detailed description of the German permission
process.
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Overall, we observed a positive trend in the legal and policy framework of agrivoltaics in the analyzed countries.
Nevertheless, continuous improvement of regulations and policies is required to ensure the fast dissemination of this
new and promising technology.
We identified three main objectives required for the successful promotion of agrivoltaics: (1) Institutionalization
of agrivoltaics, (2) the increase of community, market, and socio-political acceptance [28] of agrivoltaics, and (3)
financial incentives for agrivoltaics. We propose several vital measures to achieve the objectives and complement
them with good-practice examples from the analyzed countries (Table 5).
TABLE 5. Objectives, vital measures, and good practice examples for the fast dissemination of agrivoltaics
Objectives Vital Measures Good Practice Examples
Institutionalize APV
Legal recognition of APV Preferential treatment in FIT law
(Japan)
Dual land usage category in
the development plan
“Special Area APV” as proposed by
Fraunhofer ISE (Germany)
Governance building Task Force for Review of Regulations
on Renewable Energy (Japan)
Priority grid connection for
RE/APV
German Renewable Energy Sources
Act (Germany)
Improve social acceptance of APV
Demonstration projects Research and Verification projects
(South Korea)
Stakeholder participation Environmental and Social Assessment
(Taiwan)
Transdisciplinary research and
knowledge sharing
Fraunhofer ISE – Agrivoltaics Group
(Germany)
Provide financial incentives Special feed-in tariff for APV
Agricultural Solar Tariff Generation
Units adder in the SMART program
(USA)
The institutionalization of agrivoltaics is necessary to fully integrate agrivoltaics in the legal framework, reduce
legal barriers, and decrease uncertainties in the permission process. A challenge is to consider all concerning sectors:
agriculture, energy, and construction. The communication between responsible ministries and agencies is often
insufficient and obstructed by conflicting motivations, such as promoting renewable energy versus protecting
farmland. The Task Force for Review of Regulations on Renewable Energy in Japan is one way of overcoming this
governance flaw to reduce legal barriers and increase the legal recognition of agrivoltaics. With the political will and
leadership, key decision-makers from various sectors can collaborate and promptly move forward for reforms.
The lack of dual land usage category in development plans forces farmers to convert their land to non-farmland
in an uncertain process, which may differ between local governments. The land conversion raises the question of the
eligibility of farming subsidies and discourages investment due to its lengthy and uncertain process. The “Special
Area Agrivoltaics,” as proposed by Fraunhofer ISE, could reduce some of the uncertainties [10].
050003-6
Dissemination is only possible if the relevant stakeholders are convinced to favor agrivoltaics. Unfortunately, our
analysis showed that this is not yet the case, especially in the agricultural sector. Improving the social acceptance of
agrivoltaics is therefore of paramount importance. Research and verification projects in South Korea and
transdisciplinary research conducted by Fraunhofer ISE – Group Agrivoltaics can demonstrate the benefits to
increase the mutual understanding of agrivoltaics, but only if we effectively collaborate and share the research
knowledge with the diverse stakeholder groups.
Active stakeholder participation during the planning process is also crucial for improving social acceptance.
Taiwan's Environmental and Social Assessment of Aquavoltaics presents an inclusive and solution-oriented
approach that we may want to mimic in other countries.
Lastly, financial incentives for agrivoltaics are vital to accelerating its development. Agrivoltaics should be
adequately rewarded for its apparent benefits over ground-mounted solar PV systems, as seen in the SMART
program under the location-based adders for Agricultural Solar Tariff Generation Units.
CONCLUSION
An increasing number of governments worldwide recognize the importance of agrivoltaics in a successful energy
transition to include it in the national energy policies. However, legal frameworks are often limiting rather than
supporting factors for expanding agrivoltaics in many countries. Especially regulations from the agricultural sector
are restrictive since agricultural ministries and agencies protect prime farmland and are still not fully aware of the
beneficial effects of agrivoltaics. Therefore, land use restriction or the necessity of land use conversion before
installing an agrivoltaic system are standard. These processes tend to be lengthy, complicated, and uncertain,
discouraging investors and farmers from pursuing agrivoltaic projects. A collaborative approach between relevant
ministries to solve legal barriers is also hampered by contradicting motivations.
Moreover, local stakeholders, especially in South Korea and Taiwan, had negative experiences with solar PV
systems. This negative view is transferred to agrivoltaics since the difference between ground-mounted solar PV
systems and agrivoltaics is not fully understood. Therefore, we must foster trust and mutual understanding by
demonstrating the benefits of agrivoltaics for the communities.
In the energy sector, recent FIT amendments in Japan included preferential treatments for agrivoltaics. However,
these changes are unlikely to be enough to trigger a widespread expansion. The apparent benefits of agrivoltaics
over ground-mounted solar PV systems should be properly rewarded to advance a broader dissemination.
This initial comparative analysis suggests that the institutionalization of agrivoltaics, an improvement of social
acceptance, and agrivoltaic specific financial incentive can mitigate the constraints to expand agrivoltaics.
Considering the rapidly changing legal environment surrounding agrivoltaics, we felt an urgency to document
our findings to aid the global agrivoltaic community, even though they are preliminary. We hope subsequent studies
provide a more comprehensive analysis to reach feasible and definitive recommendations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful and indebted for their valuable inputs, advice, and insights: Dr. Lim, Cheolhyun of Green
Energy Research Institute and Professor Soo-Young Oh of Yeungnam University for South Korea; Chen Chiao-Chi
of Taiwan Environment and Planning Association for Taiwan; Max Trommsdorff and Charis Hermann of
Fraunhofer ISE, and Jens Vollprecht of Becker Büttner Held for Germany; and Gerry Palano of Massachusetts
Department of Agriculture for the United States.
REFERENCES
1. E. H. Adeh, S. P. Good, M. Calaf, and C. W. Higgins, “Solar PV Power Potential is Greatest Over Croplands,”
Sci. Rep., vol. 9, no. 1, p. 11442, Dec. 2019, doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-47803-3.
2. U. R. Fritsche et al., “Energy and Land Use - Global Land Outlook Working Paper,” 2017. doi:
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.24905.44648.
3. European Commision, “Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe,” Brussels, 2011. [Online]. Available:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0571&from=EN.
4. J. Y. Kim, D. Koide, F. Ishihama, T. Kadoya, and J. Nishihiro, “Current site planning of medium to large solar
power systems accelerates the loss of the remaining semi-natural and agricultural habitats,” Sci. Total Environ.,
050003-7
vol. 779, p. 146475, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146475.
5. M. Trommsdorff et al., “Combining food and energy production: Design of an agrivoltaic system applied in
arable and vegetable farming in Germany,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 140, no. December 2020, 2021,
doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2020.110694.
6. M. Graham et al., “Partial shading by solar panels delays bloom, increases floral abundance during the late-
season for pollinators in a dryland, agrivoltaic ecosystem,” Sci. Rep., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 1–14, 2021, doi:
10.1038/s41598-021-86756-4.
7. D. F. J. Chopard, A. Bisson, G. Lopez, S. Persello, C. Richert, “Development of a Decision Support System to
Evaluate Crop Performance under Dynamic Solar Panels,” AgriVoltaics2020, AIP, 2020.
8. Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, “Guidebook for Supporting Farm-based Solar Power
Generation Initiatives (FY2020 edition),” Tokyo, Japan, 2020.
9. EX Research Institute Ltd. and L. Asian Air Survey Co., “FY2019 Report on Commissioned Work for
Development and Publication of Basic Zoning Information on Renewable Energy,” 2020.
10. Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE and Fraunhofer ISE, Agrivoltaics: opportunities for
agriculture and the energy transition; a guideline for Germany, 1st ed. Fraunhofer ISE, 2020.
11. A. Cherp, V. Vinichenko, J. Jewell, E. Brutschin, and B. Sovacool, “Integrating techno-economic, socio-
technical and political perspectives on national energy transitions: A meta-theoretical framework,” Energy Res.
Soc. Sci., vol. 37, no. November 2017, pp. 175–190, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2017.09.015.
12. Cabinet Office, “Follow-up on the Growth Strategy,” Tokyo, Japan, 2019. [Online]. Available:
https://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/keizaisaisei/pdf/fu2019en.pdf.
13. Ministry of Trade Industry and Energy, “Korea’s Renewable Energy 3020 Plan,” 2018. [Online]. Available:
http://gggi.org/site/assets/uploads/2018/10/Presentation-by-Mr.-Kyung-ho-Lee-Director-of-the-New-and-
Renewable-Energy-Policy-Division-MOTIE.pdf.
14. Bureau of Energy Ministry of Economic Affairs, “Fishery and Electric Symbiosis - Environmental and Social
Inspection,” Taipei City, Taiwan, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.sfea.org.tw/.
15. Bundesamt für Justiz, Verordnung zu den Innovationsausschreibungen (Innovationsausschreibungsverordnung
- InnAusV) § 15 Festlegung zu besonderen Solaranlagen. 2021.
16. A. Bingle, “State level agrivoltaic policy: the next pioneer of the American west?,” (unpublished).
17. M. Tajima and T. Iida, “Evolution of agrivoltaic farms in Japan,” AIP Conference Proceedings 2361, 2021. (in
press).
18. S. W. Choi, “Policy Directions for Expanding the Supply of Agrivoltaics,” PV Mark. Insights, 2021.
19. The Ministry of Economic Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan), “2021 Feed-In Tariffs of Renewable
Energy,” 2021. [Online]. Available:
https://www.moeaboe.gov.tw/ECW/main/content/wHandMenuFile.ashx?file_id=8446.
20. Bundesamt für Justiz, “Verordnung zu den Innovationsausschreibungen,” 2021. [Online]. Available:
http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/innausv/index.html.
21. Fraunhofer ISE and Deutscher Bauernverband, “Agri-Photovoltaik: Fraunhofer ISE und Deutscher
Bauernverband sehen Korrekturbedarf im EEG,” 2021. [Online]. Available:
https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Positionspapier-Agri-PV-
ISE-DBV.pdf.
22. Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources, “Solar Massachusetts Renewable Target (SMART)
Program,” 2021. https://www.mass.gov/info-details/solar-massachusetts-renewable-target-smart-program.
23. Korea Legislation Research Institute, “Farmland Act,” 2018.
https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_mobile/viewer.do?hseq=49663&type=lawname&key=Farmland+Act.
24. F.-T. Cheng, “Currently of solar sharing in Taiwan: ‘Agricultural power symbiosis’, ‘Fishing power symbiosis’
and ‘Livestock power symbiosis,’” 2021. https://energy-shift.com/news/7f85508e-2e57-42b6-b901-
c21cb1610cd1.
25. Director-General Rural Development Bureau Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, “Notification No.
30 Noushin Article 78,” 2018.
26. Cabinet Office, “Task Force for Review of Regulations on Renewable Energy,” 2021.
https://www8.cao.go.jp/kisei-kaikaku/kisei/conference/energy/e_index.html.
27. Director-General Rural Development Bureau Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, “2 Noushin No.
3854,” 2021.
28. R. Wüstenhagen, M. Wolsink, and M. J. Bürer, “Social acceptance of renewable energy innovation: An
introduction to the concept,” Energy Policy, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 2683–2691, 2007.
050003-8
... APV remains an emerging option, policies vary across regions, and its role in the current socio-technical system is not clear. For instance, Japan and Massachusetts have established clear standards, whereas Europe still lacks a cohesive framework [13,14]. ...
Article
Our study delves into the evolving landscape of Agrivoltaics (APV) diffusion in Italy, where this innovative application of photovoltaics encounters multifaceted challenges. Through an analysis of press reports and experts' interviews, we aim to elucidate the Social Representations of APV, considering the nuanced perspectives of both expert and non-expert stakeholders. Within these viewpoints, a complex interplay emerges, marked by four major themes: ambiguity, justice, (agronomic) risk, and exploitation. By analysing the representational processes behind the construction of each theme, we posit the need for a more comprehensive understanding of sustainability in the context of APV diffusion, highlighting the importance of clear definitions and guidelines within regulations and policies.
... considera granjas solares con fines comerciales las colmenas, las explotaciones ganaderas alimentadas por paneles solares, y algunos sistemas agro fotovoltaicos convencionales que utilizan cultivos como alfalfa, lechuga, espinacas, judías, col rizada, etc. [16]. Por otro lado, el Ministerio de Energías Nuevas y Renovables (MNRE) de India, firmó un acuerdo con los Gobiernos de Malasia y los Países Bajos para fomentar y promover el empleo de la tecnología, mediante la sensibilización y la investigación en colaboración con las partes implicadas [17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
El cambio climático y el uso de energías no renovables representan una amenaza mundial. Para mitigar este problema, la implantación de energías renovables, como la solar, está ganando popularidad. Sin embargo, para esta se necesitan grandes extensiones de terreno. En consecuencia, la tecnología agrivoltaica (APV) se presenta como una alternativa que combina la agricultura y la energía solar de forma beneficiosa y sinérgica. En este documento se evaluó la factibilidad de implementar cultivos de cacao en Cabuyaro, Meta, utilizando APV. Para ello, se diseñó un sistema conceptual teniendo en cuenta los requerimientos del cultivo y las características técnicas del municipio. Se simularon dos escenarios utilizando HOMER Pro: uno con APV operando como microrred aislada y otro conectado a la red. Se realizó un análisis económico de ambos casos, demostrando la viabilidad del sistema. Finalmente, el estudio concluye con una perspectiva sobre la utilidad de este concepto en el país.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Achieving optimal yield and quality at harvest depends on the grower’s ability to avoid abiotic stresses (water, light, and temperature). This task has usually been satisfied through the implementation of adequate horticultural practices. In the context of clean energy transition and global climate change, growers nowadays have the possibility to grow their crops under solar panels, which modify the micro-environment of the crops. Being able to anticipate the behavior of plants under these new micro-environmental conditions would help growers adapt their horticultural practices. For electricity producers, in the context of dynamic agrivoltaic systems, anticipating the crop status is useful to choose a solar panels steering policy that maximizes electricity production while ensuring favorable environmental conditions for the crop to grow. To help electricity producers and growers estimate a crop status under panels, we developed a decision support system (DSS) called crop_sim. As of now, it can be used to monitor two types of perennial crops: grapevines and apple trees. crop_sim produces three indicators of the crop status: predawn water potential, canopy temperature and carbon production. Besides providing information on the crop status, the DSS incorporates an expert system which indicates the best time and the amount of irrigation to maintain a desired water status under the new micro-environmental conditions. This paper first focuses on the description of crop_sim and the usefulness of the three indicators. Then, a case study is presented. Our results show that, in a mature vineyard, with a typical panel steering policy conservative on crop yield, growers could save 13% of water compared to an open-field reference. Experimental data pertaining to apple trees, grapevines, tomatoes, and maize are being collected. They will be used to adapt the model to tomato and maize, evaluate it and make it robust enough to bring to market. Further improvements of the crop_sim model may be required to finely reproduce observations in the field. A full validation of the model is expected when all data from the experiments will be available. The DSS will evolve depending on the requirements of the agrivoltaics community and may incorporate additional plant indicators and new expert system rules.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Development of agrivoltaics in Japan started in 2004 in Chiba Prefecture initiated by Akira Nagashima. Today, 1,992 agrivoltaic farms (560 ha) exist throughout Japan except one prefecture out of 47 prefectures. Most agrivoltaics in Japan is small-scale less than 0.1 ha. It is estimated that total power generated by agrivoltaics is 500,000 to 600,000 MWh or 0.8% of the total power generated by photovoltaics in Japan in 2019. Farmland must be converted to non-agricultural use to install photovoltaics, in which agrivoltaics has an advantage over solar parks applicable to all 5 classes of farmland. Increase of devastated and abandoned farmland is a grave concern for the Japanese agriculture and agrivoltaics is expected to contribute to solve this issue. Over 120 crops are grown in agrivoltaics in Japan and for 69% of cases, cultivated crop is changed upon installation of agrivoltaics, which is causing concern that it may disrupt small, fixed markets of those crops. Shading rate in agrivoltaics ranges from 10 to 100% with its median at 30 to 40%. The choice of shading rate is made according to light saturation point of the crop, but a high shading rate is often determined first to maximize profit from electricity sale, because it is much greater than the one from agriculture itself, then suitable crop for that shading rate is chosen. Agrivoltaic development in Japan took off after the introduction of feed-in tariff (FIT) in 2012. FIT was significantly effective in policy impact compared to RPS system previously acquired in Japan, increasing renewable energy supply in Japan by 76% from 2012 to 2019. Photovoltaics has been a driving force increased from 7,600 GWh to 77,000 GWh during the same period. Two directives from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), one in March 2013 and another in May 2018, institutionalized agrivoltaics and promoted its development. The second amendment of FIT Law in June 2020, which will be enforced in April 2022, further paved the way for agrivoltaics preferentially treating it. Agrivoltaics is expected play an important role to revitalize the Japanese agriculture including reclamation of devastated or abandoned farmland, as being included in the above-mentioned policies. If all abandoned farmland were converted to agrivoltaic farms, 280 GW of electricity could be produced. The potential of agrivoltaics in 8 prefectures in Kanto region is estimated at least 15 to 39 GW. Emerging innovative agrivoltaics, such as one we see in a high value-added tea agrivoltaics in Shizuoka prefecture, is an economically and environmentally sound business model, which we may want to replicate elsewhere.
Article
Full-text available
Habitat for pollinators is declining worldwide, threatening the health of both wild and agricultural ecosystems. Photovoltaic solar energy installation is booming, frequently near agricultural lands, where the land underneath ground-mounted photovoltaic panels is traditionally unused. Some solar developers and agriculturalists in the United States are filling the solar understory with habitat for pollinating insects in efforts to maximize land-use efficiency in agricultural lands. However, the impact of the solar panel canopy on the understory pollinator-plant community is unknown. Here we investigated the effects of solar arrays on plant composition, bloom timing and foraging behavior of pollinators from June to September (after peak bloom) in full shade plots and partial shade plots under solar panels as well as in full sun plots (controls) outside of the solar panels. We found that floral abundance increased and bloom timing was delayed in the partial shade plots, which has the potential to benefit late-season foragers in water-limited ecosystems. Pollinator abundance, diversity, and richness were similar in full sun and partial shade plots, both greater than in full shade. Pollinator-flower visitation rates did not differ among treatments at this scale. This demonstrates that pollinators will use habitat under solar arrays, despite variations in community structure across shade gradients. We anticipate that these findings will inform local farmers and solar developers who manage solar understories, as well as agriculture and pollinator health advocates as they seek land for pollinator habitat restoration in target areas.
Article
Full-text available
Solar energy has the potential to offset a significant fraction of non-renewable electricity demands globally, yet it may occupy extensive areas when deployed at this level. There is growing concern that large renewable energy installations will displace other land uses. Where should future solar power installations be placed to achieve the highest energy production and best use the limited land resource? The premise of this work is that the solar panel efficiency is a function of the location’s microclimate within which it is immersed. Current studies largely ignore many of the environmental factors that influence Photovoltaic (PV) panel function. A model for solar panel efficiency that incorporates the influence of the panel’s microclimate was derived from first principles and validated with field observations. Results confirm that the PV panel efficiency is influenced by the insolation, air temperature, wind speed and relative humidity. The model was applied globally using bias-corrected reanalysis datasets to map solar panel efficiency and the potential for solar power production given local conditions. Solar power production potential was classified based on local land cover classification, with croplands having the greatest median solar potential of approximately 28 W/m2. The potential for dual-use, agrivoltaic systems may alleviate land competition or other spatial constraints for solar power development, creating a significant opportunity for future energy sustainability. Global energy demand would be offset by solar production if even less than 1% of cropland were converted to an agrivoltaic system.
Article
Full-text available
Among diverse factors shaping energy transitions, economic development, technological innovation, and policy change are especially prominent. Therefore explaining energy transitions requires combining insights from disciplines focusing on these factors. The existing literature is not consistent in identifying these disciplines nor proposing how they can be combined. We conceptualize national energy transitions as a co-evolution of three types of systems: energy flows and markets, energy technologies, and energy-related policies. The focus on the three types of systems gives rise to three perspectives on national energy transitions: techno-economic with its roots in energy systems analysis and various domains of economics; socio-technical with its roots in sociology of technology, STS, and evolutionary economics; and political with its roots in political science. We use the three perspectives as an organizing principle to propose a meta-theoretical framework for analyzing national energy transitions. Following Elinor Ostrom's approach, the proposed framework explains national energy transitions through a nested conceptual map of variables and theories. In comparison with the existing meta-theoretical literature, the three perspectives framework elevates the role of political science since policies are likely to be increasingly prominent in shaping 21st century energy transitions.
Article
Full-text available
This paper introduces the special issue on Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Innovation. It is a collection of best papers presented at an international research conference held in Tramelan (Switzerland) in February 2006. While there are ambitious government targets to increase the share of renewable energy in many countries, it is increasingly recognized that social acceptance may be a constraining factor in achieving this target. This is particularly apparent in the case of wind energy, which has become a subject of contested debates in several countries largely due to its visual impact on landscapes. This paper introduces three dimensions of social acceptance, namely socio-political, community and market acceptance. Factors influencing socio-political and community acceptance are increasingly recognized as being important for understanding the apparent contradictions between general public support for renewable energy innovation and the difficult realization of specific projects. The third dimen
Article
The global transition to renewable energy sources has accelerated to mitigate the effects of global climate change. Sudden increases in solar power facilities have caused the physical destruction of wildlife habitats, thereby resulting in the decline of biodiversity and ecosystem functions. However, previous assessments have been based on the environmental impact of large solar photovoltaics (PVs). The impact of medium-sized PV facilities (0.5–10 MW), which can alter small habitat patches through the accumulation of installations has not been assessed. Here, we quantified the amount of habitat loss directly related to the construction of PV facilities with different size classes and estimated their siting attributes using construction patterns in Japan and South Korea. We identified that a comparable amount of natural and semi-natural habitats were lost due to the recent installation of medium solar facilities (approximately 66.36 and 85.73% of the overall loss in Japan and South Korea, respectively). Compared to large solar PVs, medium PV installations resulted in a higher area loss of semi-natural habitats, including secondary/planted forests, secondary/artificial grasslands, and agricultural lands. The siting attributes of medium and large solar PV facilities indicated a preference for cost-based site selection rather than prioritizing habitat protection for biodiversity conservation. Moreover, even conservation areas were developed when economic and topological conditions were suitable for energy production. Our simulations indicate that increasing the construction of PVs in urban areas could help reduce the loss of natural and semi-natural habitats. To improve the renewable energy share while mitigating the impacts on biodiversity, our results stress the need for a proactive assessment to enforce sustainable site-selection criteria for solar PVs in renewable energy initiatives. The revised criteria should consider the cumulative impacts of varied size classes of solar power facilities, including medium PVs, and the diverse aspects of the ecological value of natural habitats.
Article
Combining agriculture and photovoltaics on the same land area gains in attention and political support in a growing number of countries accompanied by notable research activities in France, USA and Korea, amongst others. This study assesses the technical feasibility of agrivoltaic (APV), while it gives insights on how to design an APV system. Furthermore, it analyses the electrical yield and the behavior and productivity of four crops grown in Germany's largest agrivoltaic research facility installed in 2016 near Lake Constance within the research project APV-RESOLA by Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE. The German design differs from most other agrivoltaic approaches by allowing for a wide range of machine employment, facilitated by a vertical clearance of 5 m and a width clearance of up to 19 m. Crops cultivated under the APV system and on the reference field under a crop rotation scheme include potato, celeriac, clover grass and winter wheat. The land use efficiency measured by the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) indicated a rise between 56% and 70% in 2017 while the dry and hot summer in 2018 demonstrated that the agrivoltaic system could increase land productivity by nearly 90%. Radiation simulations showed that deviating from full south by around 30° resulted in equal distribution of radiation on ground level, representing the basis for the agrivoltaic design. Considering climate change and increasing land scarcity, our overall results suggest a high potential of agrivoltaics as a viable and efficient technology to address major challenges of the 21rst century.
Agri-Photovoltaik: Fraunhofer ISE und Deutscher Bauernverband sehen Korrekturbedarf im EEG
  • Ise Fraunhofer
  • Deutscher Bauernverband
Fraunhofer ISE and Deutscher Bauernverband, "Agri-Photovoltaik: Fraunhofer ISE und Deutscher Bauernverband sehen Korrekturbedarf im EEG," 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Positionspapier-Agri-PV-ISE-DBV.pdf.