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Active Urbanism and choice architecture: Encouraging the use of challenging city routes for health and fitness

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Inactivity is one of the major health risks in technologically developed countries. This paper explores the potential of a series of urban landscape interventions to engage people in physical activity. Online surveys were conducted with 595 participants living in the UK by inviting them to choose between conventional pavement or challenging routes (steppingstones, balancing beams, and high steps) using photorealistic images. Across four experiments, we discovered that 80% of walkers claim they would pick a challenging route in at least one of the scenarios, depending on perceived level of difficulty and design characteristics. Where a challenging option was shorter than a conventional route, this increased the likelihood of being chosen by 10%, and the presence of handrails by 12%. This suggests that people can get nudged into physical activities through minor changes to the urban landscape. We discuss implications for policy makers and urban designers.
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Landscape Research
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Active urbanism and choice architecture:
encouraging the use of challenging city routes for
health and fitness
Anna Boldina, Paul H. P. Hanel & Koen Steemers
To cite this article: Anna Boldina, Paul H. P. Hanel & Koen Steemers (2023) Active urbanism
and choice architecture: encouraging the use of challenging city routes for health and fitness,
Landscape Research, 48:3, 276-296, DOI: 10.1080/01426397.2022.2142204
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2022.2142204
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa
UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
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Active urbanism and choice architecture: encouraging the
use of challenging city routes for health and fitness
Anna Boldina
a
, Paul H. P. Hanel
b
and Koen Steemers
a
a
Department of Architecture, The Martin Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK;
b
Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
ABSTRACT
Inactivity is one of the major health risks in technologically developed
countries. This paper explores the potential of a series of urban land-
scape interventions to engage people in physical activity. Online surveys
were conducted with 595 participants living in the UK by inviting them
to choose between conventional pavement or challenging routes (step-
pingstones, balancing beams, and high steps) using photorealistic
images. Across four experiments, we discovered that 80% of walkers
claim they would pick a challenging route in at least one of the scen-
arios, depending on perceived level of difficulty and design characteris-
tics. Where a challenging option was shorter than a conventional route,
this increased the likelihood of being chosen by 10%, and the presence
of handrails by 12%. This suggests that people can get nudged into
physical activities through minor changes to the urban landscape. We
discuss implications for policy makers and urban designers.
KEYWORDS
Active urbanism; choice
architecture; exercise;
invigorating landscape;
health; sociopsychology;
urban design
Introduction
Problem
The current level of inactivity in many countries is often described as an Inactivity pandemic
(Kohl et al., 2012) and is fueled further by technological development, availability of personal
transport, goods delivery, and working from home (Dobbie, Hydes, Alam, Tahrani, &
Cuthbertson, 2022).
Health organisations such as WHO (Word Health Organisation) and the British NHS (National
Health Service) recommend at least 150 minutes of Moderate or 75 minutes of Vigorous activity
spread over a week, including a variety of activities aimed at enhancing bones, muscles, and agil-
ity to stay healthy. In addition, adults over 65 are advised to perform strength, flexibility, and bal-
ance exercises (NHS, 2018).
Although increasing physical activity is a widely recognised aspect of health promotion,
engaging sedentary people in exercise requires better motivation: nearly 39% of the UK popula-
tion do not meet the recommended targets (Sallis & Owen, 2015; Teixeira, Carrac¸a, Markland,
Silva, & Ryan, 2012). The current consensus on physical activity promotion is to encourage exer-
cise that is incorporated into daily routines (Pate et al., 1995; Tesler, Endevelt, & Plaut, 2022).
CONTACT Anna Boldina ab2509@cam.ac.uk
Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2022.2142204
ß2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH
2023, VOL. 48, NO. 3, 276296
https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2022.2142204
Furthermore, studies show a strong influence of the context on human behaviour and suggest a
notable potential of the design of cityscapes on health outcomes (Anderson, Ruggeri, Steemers,
& Huppert, 2017; Thaler & Sunstein, 2009; TRB, 2005). Serendipitous exercising on the gohas
the benefit of being time-flexible and allows multitasking, thereby avoiding some of the main
constraints of organised sport and health programs: travel, cost, health-related anxieties, and
thoughts about finitude of life (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008).
The design principles for the built environment to improve health and well-being of users
form the central question of an increasing number of research studies (Baker, Nick, & Steemers,
2019; Barton, Grant, & Guise, 2020; Chen, Nguyen, & Comaroff, 2021; Fudge, Grant, & Wallbaum,
2020; Guo & Mell, 2021; Marques, McIntosh, & Kershaw, 2021; Steemers, 2015). Some of the
insights from such research have already been incorporated into planning guidelines and policies
(Barton, Tsourou, & WHO 2000; Department for Transport, 2020a; Healthy Streets for London,
2017; Ministry of Housing & Community & Local Government, 2021). This paper contributes to
this growing literature by focusing on modifications to the urban pedestrian landscape that
could nudge pedestrians into safe and intrinsically motivated exercise whilst on their daily rou-
tine walks: to work, shopping, or promenading. The main target group of the research are seden-
tary people not meeting the NHS activity recommendations, however additional exercise would
benefit others as well.
Statistics in the UK show that 69.9% of UK residents walk over 30 min/day, and 86% walk over
10 min/day (Department for Transport, 2020b). There is a negative correlation between doing
vigorous sports (such as football or running) and regular long walks (Table 6). The above sug-
gests that there is a significant overlap between the target group (not active enough people)
and walkers. Slow walking on an even pavement is better than no exercise but it causes no sig-
nificant increase in heart rate so only qualifies as mild exercise (Burton, Stokes, & Hall, 2004). It
also does not significantly improve balance and bone density if it does not include jumping, bal-
ancing, and stepping down (Boldina, Gomes, & Steemers, 2022, Boldina, Henry, Santos, &
Steemers, 2022; Karlsson & Rosengren, 2012). We are looking for potential modifications to the
urban environment that could facilitate a wider range of exercises incorporated in waking.
The questions that the paper is aiming to answer are: what proportion of participants would
show an intention to choose a more challenging exercise route over a conventional one, and
how can this proportion be increased through changes to the design of the route?
Psychology of persuasion and choice architecture
The approaches taken in this research are based on several existing concepts:
Choice Architecturerefers to making good choices easier and less beneficial choices harder
and has been actively explored and applied by governments and organisations in the last dec-
ade. The concept is based on the observation that humans do not process all their decisions
with the same depth and often base their decisions on impulses (thinking fast), rather than on
logical cognition of remote goals (thinking slow) (Christenfeld, 1995; Kahneman, 2013; Petty &
Cacioppo, 1986; Thaler & Sunstein, 2009). Simply reminding people of their long-term goals and
values (such as being healthy) can work as a nudge (Kerr, Eves, & Carroll, 2001).
Another way to encourage healthier choices has been evidenced through the application of
Fun theorywhich is a strategy whereby physical activity is made more exciting, such as the use
of piano stairswhich play notes when stepped on, replacing ordinary stairs (Peeters, Megens,
van den Hoven, Hummels, & Brombacher, 2013). Designing more of such opportunities into the
cityscape encourages improvisation and interaction with strangers and can make people feel like
the spaces belongto them (Anderson et al., 2017; Jacobs, 1961; Sennett & Sendra, 2020).
Beyond making choices easier and more fun, six main principles of persuasion: reciprocity,
consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity (Cialdini, 2007) can be projected to
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 277
cityscape design. For example, walking straight can be perceived as more consistent than walk-
ing circuitously (Rom, 2003). People tend to be influenced by social norms such as seeing how
others choose their routes in the same landscape (de Groot, Bondy, & Schuitema, 2021). The
degree to which a route is likedis influenced by aesthetics, functionality, and perception of
safety (Hoogendoorn & Bovy, 2004; Seneviratne & Morrall, 1985).
Part of the decision-making process may not be fully conscious and the person in question
may not be able to articulate their own choice for taking one route over another (Hoogendoorn
& Bovy, 2004). Those route choices correlate with psychological traits: for example, drivers who
scored higher on sensation seeking, neuroticism, extraversion and consciousness have been
found to change their routes more often than others (Gila, Tomer, & Ben-Zion, 2011; Tawfik &
Rakha, 2012).
Studies show that if the motivation behind the intention, for example to exercise is intrinsic
it is likely to involve stronger feelings of personal investment, autonomy, as well as self-
identification and as a result a person is more likely to change their behaviour for an extended
period of time (Hein, M
u
ur, & Koka, 2004).
Knowledge gap
Previous research on healthy route choices has primarily focused on peoples likelihood of walk-
ing instead of using transport (Barton et al., 2020), but not how likely people are to pick a more
challenging route over a conventional one and which design characteristics influence such
choices. Some studies investigated whether pedestrians would displace from a tarmac walkway
to an informal path in the grass but did not elaborate on the physical parameters of both routes
(Arnberger & Haider, 2017). Moreover, existing research on pedestrian route choices has not con-
sidered the personal characteristics of people beyond demographics. This can be limiting as mar-
keting theory argues that segmentation (targeting subgroups rather than undifferentiated mass
audience) can make choice architecture more effective (Wymer, Knowles, & Gomes, 2021): for
example sensation seekers can be influenced in a different way to health enthusiasts (Rune,
Waaler, Halvari, Skjesol, & Ulstad, 2022). This paper addresses these gaps by investigating correla-
tions between personality traits with the selection of city routes that represent varying levels of
difficulty and challenge in terms of physical activity.
In summary, this paper aims to contribute to the implementation of active landscape through
assessing and recommending design interventions in the pedestrian landscape that encourage
increased physical activity and subsequent well-being.
The experiments
Method
To find out how likely people are to pick a more challenging route over a conventional one and
what can influence such choices, we created photorealistic images presenting two or more
routes. Participants were shown those images on a computer screen and asked which of those
would they choose for walking - a method successfully used in urban and landscape research for
decades to determine reactions to real situations (Daniel et al., 1976; Needham, Rollins, & Wood,
2004; van der Ham, Faber, Venselaar, van Kreveld, & L
offler, 2015).
The parameters that can potentially influence participantschoices were identified through lit-
erature review and street observations. Discrete choices were complemented with open ended
questions to understand the rationale of participants preferences. The insights gained from each
experiment informed the design of subsequent experiments, resulting in a sequence of five
experiments outlined in Table 1. Pictures of all scenarios, the data, as well as the exact wording
278 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
of the questions can be found on the Open Science Framework https://osf.io/574jv/?view_only=
098567dd6f90463dba70f09b0b2ac93c.
Participants
Recruiting participants through social networks of the researchers can lead to sampling and
social desirability biases. To minimise this effect, the online crowdsourcing platform Prolific
Academic was used to invite anonymous UK residents to complete an online Qualtrics question-
naire in February-July of 2021. They were paid £5.50 per hour.
A power analysis revealed that a sample size of 210 was required for a final experiment
(Study 2) to detect a medium effect size of f
2
¼0.25 with a power of 0.95 in a 2 2-between
subject ANOVA (a¼0.05).
Scenarios
Each study contains 712 scenarios: images of places shown to participants, with one, two or
four variations. Scenarios are assigned with numbers: P1P7 for the Pilot study, 1A1Y for Study
1 and 2A2J for Study 2. Photorealistic collages were created using Adobe Photoshop software
based on photographs from British cities.
The pilot study was designed to form a general understanding of various peoples thinking,
to grasp the main directions of further research, and to test whether our method is understood
by the participants. We defined a list of encouraging/discouraging parameters to be tested in
the scenarios (e.g. handrail or other people present vs absent). Scenarios that showed potential
for useful results (such as P3) were developed further, scenarios where participants showed little
interest in picking the challenging route (such as P2) were not included in Experiments 1 and 2.
Some of reasoning participants gave responding open-ended questions informed add-
itional scenarios
In the pilot study and Study 1 we varied only one parameter in each scenario. This allowed
us to calculate the proportion of participants showing the intention to pick a challenging route,
while Study 2 is aimed to quantify the effect of each design parameter (e.g. presence of unusual
sculpture). To measure the effect of one parameter all others needed to be constant, and there-
fore a calibrated images method with two-by-two design was applied: each scenario had four
variations to test the effect of 2 parameters per scenario, such as route length or the presence
of a handrail (Appendix A). As an exception due to ambiguous parameters that encourage some
people and discourage others, participants saw in questions 2F and 2H one of two pairs of
images and were offered the choice between picking a challenging route in only one of the
images, in both or in neither (Figure 1).
Table 1. Experiments and basic participant data 2.
Date
Number of
participants
Percentage
female Mean age Scenarios
Pilot study Feb 2021 33 42 Method testing 7 scenarios
Study 1 March 2021 203 62 34.01 12 Scenarios
Study 2 July 2021 303 55 37.3 9 Scenarios with 24
randomised variations
Study 2a (patch) July 2021 56 ––Amended versions of scenarios
2 A and 2 J from Study 2
Supporting study
route difficulty
Feb 2022 11 Data from this study was used
to define correlations in
main studies.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 279
Parameters were distributed between scenarios so that each parameter was tested in two or
more scenarios (Table 2). This allowed us to test the impact of various manipulations, while
keeping the number of participants and length of the survey manageable.
Results of scenarios A and J in Study 2 were skewed by technical issues with images, so
patchStudy 2a was created which only included correct images for those scenarios.
For Studies 1 and 2, we ran a survey to examine the perceived level of difficulty of each
route. Participants were asked to assign a score from 1 (as easy as walking on level tarmac) to 7
(I would not be able to do it). More details on the method can be found on the Open Science
Framework https://osf.io/574jv/?view_only=098567dd6f90463dba70f09b0b2ac93c .
Demographics and personality variables
To test whether the tendency to choose challenging routes is linked to demographic and per-
sonality factors, participants were asked to answer questions about their age, gender, habits,
health, occupation, and personality traits (such as sensation seeking or general anxiety). A stand-
ard alpha-level (a) of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance.
Sensation Seeking was measured with the 8-item Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS). The
internal consistency of this widely used test was adequate (Cronbachsa¼0.73) (van Dongen, de
Groot, Rassin, Hoyle, & Franken, 2022). Generalised Anxiety was measured with the 4-item ver-
sion of the Generalised Anxiety Scale (GAD-7, a¼0.76) (Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & L
owe, 2006).
The participantsoccupation was incorporated as a variable in Study 2: 30% of participants
self-reported as students, 31% employees, 12% managers, 8% business owners, 10%
unemployed, 8% retired, and 1% other, showing a reasonable resemblance to the UK population.
Figure 1. Scenario F. Example of question with paired images in Study 2.
280 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
Table 2. Scenario summary descriptions and organisation.
Pilot study
Challenge Scenario number Description
Balancing beam P1 Participants could choose between a shortcut in a park across a balancing
beam, or a conventional route on pavement which is 1.8 times longer
P2 Balancing beam and stepping pyramid by a river path running parallel,
hence same length.
Stepping stones P3 Shortcut in a park with steppingstones, default route on pavement is 1.8
times longer
P4 Existing steppingstones shortcut in Stratford Olympic Park (London), large
and easy to use, 5 times shorter
P5 Timber steppingstones in water, compared to 1.5 times longer
route around
P6 Tall concrete steppingstones in a park, running parallel with a
conventional route, of the same length, with a poster saying Exercise!
To stay fit and healthy
Cobbled stones P7 Choice between even pavers and cobblestones in a Cambridge college
with poster saying try walking on cobblestones, improve your balance
Study 1
Challenge Scenario number Description
Steppingstones, wave, and
balancing beam
1A,1F & 1D Shortcut in a park with steppingstones or balancing beam
(developed from P3)
1C & 1E Pedestrian street by St. Pauls Cathedral (London) with a
combination of challenging and conventional routes. 1C has
only a narrow steppingstone pass next to wide conventional
pavement. In 1E conventional pass is narrow and most of the
width is taken by various challenging routes: timber wave,
steppingstones, beams. Sign way to get fit and healthy.
1G Existing steppingstones shortcut, large and easy to use (P4)
1Y & 1H Stone steppingstones over water with and without handrail (P5)
1J Tall concrete steppingstones with a variety in heights (P6)
Jumping down 1B & 1I Jump down from a box before and after osteoporosis/bone density
information. Other 2 options are steps and ramp.
Cobbed stones 1K Choice between even pavers and cobblestones in an old
Cambridge college.
Study 2 and 2a
Challenge Scenario Description
Parameter
1 tested
Parameter
2 tested
Stepping stones 2A Steppingstones shortcut in a park with
flowers (Freeman et al., 2021) or winding
tarmac route around (1A)
Geometrical layout Flower beds
design suggests
the
steppingstones
are the
main route
2H Pair of images with steppingstones: right in
water, left in grass. Complemented with a
follow-up study
Handrail Chance of falling
into water
Presence
of people2J Tall steppingstones with a nudging poster
(developed from P6,1J)
Wording of poster
Balancing beam 2E Log with a handrail over a lake as one of 2
routes to the ice-cream van. In half of the
variations, we changed the pavement to
make the route over the log look like an
extension of the main route.
Geometrical
layout,
pavement
colour
Distances
2G Balancing beam as shortcut towards
fountain. In 2 of 4 variations, we added
flowers and a sculpture of a woman
riding a bear.
Handrail Fun effect
2F Balancing beam in a forest or pass next to
it. Comparison of 2 options
Presence of water,
beam width
and layout
(continued)
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 281
The data was analysed using Qualtrics built-in tools, as well as SPSS and R statistical software.
The research approach was based on existing techniques but applied in a novel way, and pro-
duced a rich combination of quantitative data and qualitative insights, which are discussed in
the following sections.
Results
Proportion of the population willing to take a challenging route in each given situation
The proportion of participants who stated they were willing to pick a more challenging route varied
from 14% (Scenario 1D) to 78% (Scenario 2E) depending on the perceived difficulty of the route and
to various situational advantages of the challenging route compared to other route(s), discussed in
more detail below.
There were a great variety of reasons for picking challenging routes, including tendencies to
take a shorter route: Because stepping down on the lightbox is quicker, staying healthier both
physically and mentally: Because Im still agile so Im gonna use it before I lose it,Practising
balance is an important part of staying fit and healthy,Changes in heights make your brain
work,The ramp is for those unable to use the stepand experiencing new sensations: The
ramp looks boring,I like unconventional way of exiting a place,
The participants who picked conventional routes had concerns about safety stating: because
it doesnt look safe for all makeshift not solid looking,dont want to break my ankle.
Another often mentioned reason was peer pressure from observers and a concept of how an
adult should behave. Participants were worried about how they would look and if they might do
something that would be frowned upon: I feel like the pavement is there for a reason and the
balancing beam is built for children. I guess, there are other adults around so would not want to
go on the beam for no apparent reason,Seems like it would be less "natural" and possibly
embarrassing to be seen trying to reach the floor using the lightbox. Also, there are no signs
suggesting that the lightbox is suitable or intended for this use.
Participants expressed their concerns about damage that activity might do to their clothes and
hair: dontwanttomessupthehairplusthatlooksmorelikeajump,dont like muddy shoes.
Role of individual design characteristics of the routes
Physical parameters
The perceived levels of difficulty (noted in Table 3 as DL) of each route (cf. Figure 2) were calcu-
lated as the average from the supporting study participantsresponses. This parameter of the
route was negatively correlated with the proportion of participants willing to take it. For the
Table 2. Continued.
Study 2 and 2a
Challenge Scenario Description
Parameter
1 tested
Parameter
2 tested
Timber wave 2C Choice between 4 routes by St. Paul
cathedral (London): timber wave,
conventional pavement
Presence of even
more
challenging
option
Presence
of people
Jump down 2B Choice between 3 routes: steps, ramp or
jump, London. Jumping is suggested from
a red box into a target painted on
the ground.
Screening
with bushes
2D Step down or ramp with distinctly
different aesthetics.
Handrails Design of ramp
282 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
Table 3. Overview summary and highlights of results for studies 1 and 2.
Type of challenge & potential
health benefit
Scenario and complexity level (cl;
0- obstacle course, 1-complex,
2- medium, 3-easy).
Proportion of
participants
picking the
challenging r.
Most mentioned encouraging
effects (multiple
answers possible).
Most mentioned discouraging effects (in
scenarios without open-end question
column left blank)
Stepping-stones
Balance, increased metabolic
rate, mindfulness calming
effect, more leg muscles co-
activating (Boldina, Gomes,
et al., 2022; Fattorini et al.,
2012; Voloshina et al., 2013)
1A DL 3.0 steppingstones shortcut with long
route around
36% N¼203 Of participants who picked
shortcut: 81% fun, 20%
shorter/faster, 8% view,
3% curiosity
Of participants who picked conventional
route (N¼74): 29% indicated that
steppingstones are safer, 20% easier,
12% assumed for children, 11% not
meant for walking, 9% dirty shoes, 6%
embarrassment, 5% wanted to walk
longer/take more steps
1F DL 3.0 steppingstones shortcut 38% ––
1C DL 2.1 Round stepping
stones in grass
29% 50% Too crowded, 49% slippery, 39% too
high, 3% too low, 37% not clear its for
walking on, 27% stones too far from
each other
1E four options DL 2.1 round
stepping- stones
on a lawn
28% 10% Overcrowding
6% safety
DL 3.1 tall stepping-
stones in grass
17%
Total 45%
1G DL 2.2 wide steppingstones 64% 18% Faster/shorter, 31% fun
1Y DL 3.6 rough stone steppingstones across
water, no handrail (Figure 4(a)).
18%
1H DL 3.1 rough stone steppingstones
across water with handrail
30% 26% Of those who picked the
conventional route would
pick the challenging route if
with friends or children. 5%
would try only if drunk.
18% Who did not pick the challenging
route mentioned water as a
discouragement, especially in cold
weather or when dressed up.
1J DL 3.1 tall concrete steppingstones 37%
2A DL 3 shortcut with stones (Figure 4(b)) 63% N¼303 Fun and quicker SHOES concerns
2H DL 2.3/3.1/3.6 steppingstones across
grass and water with or without
handrail (comparison)
32% grassþ10%
water þ33%
both ¼75%
Thrill: its more fun when
theres risk involved
concerns about weird texture on shoes,
danger of trauma or embarrassment
2J DL 3.1 tall concrete steppingstones 56% Sign giving playing legitimacy
for adults
Embarrassment, danger of trauma
Balancing beam.
Balance, mindfulness, more
upper body, arms and legs
muscles co-activating
1D DL 4.3 shortcut-balancing beam 14% N¼203
2E DL 2.6 log with a handrail as one of 2
routes to ice-cream van.
59% N¼303 16% Scenic:
10% Fun
12.5% Safety concerns: unless there are
handrails over the plank or someone
with me, again safety issues.78% N¼75
(continued)
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 283
Table 3. Continued.
Type of challenge & potential
health benefit
Scenario and complexity level (cl;
0- obstacle course, 1-complex,
2- medium, 3-easy).
Proportion of
participants
picking the
challenging r.
Most mentioned encouraging
effects (multiple
answers possible).
Most mentioned discouraging effects (in
scenarios without open-end question
column left blank)
2E DL 2.6 variation with van on the left and
design suggesting left.
2G DL 4.3 balancing beam as a shortcut
towards fountain
28% N¼303 Excitement: because there is
bluebells and a woman
riding a bear
Danger of falling
2F DL 4.9 balancing beam: comparison of
2 images
14% With dinos.
þ17% without þ
34% both ¼65%
Change to daily routine, to
prove own fitness: just to
prove that I could still keep
my balance when I am in
my seventies
Danger of injury
1F DL 2.2 variation with straight wide beam. 47%þ15%þ17%
¼79% N¼75
Timber wave. Increased heart
rate and calves stretching
1E DL 1.7 timber wave, other option
conventional
42% N¼203 New experience: the timber
wave is fascinating
Danger of trauma
2C DL 1.7 timber wave, one of 3
challenging options.
23% def. þ
25% prob. þ35%
pos. ¼303
Good balance of interesting
and not too difficult
Pavement is still easier
Assault course. Increased HR,
agility, strength
2C DL 5.9 assault course with monkey bars,
one of 3 challenging options
5% Definitely þ
11% prob. þ
26% possibly
New experience, interest Insufficient fitness, childish.
Jump/step down.
Bone density
1B DL 2.2 step down 0.5 m, other options:
conventional steps or ramp
45% Picking
20/100 and 22%
50/100.
16% Fun, 9% faster/
shorter route
28% Safest (1875yo), 17% easiest, 10%
worried about opinion of others, 8%
prefer what they are used to
1I DL 2.2 step down 0.5 m after health info,
other: conventional steps or ramp,
59%20/100,
35%50/100
16% Bone health for health
reasons, Ill jump because it
may help my bone density
Embarrassment: less attention grabbing,
but if Im with others I may choose the
red cube as I am aware of the benefit
2B DL 2.2 step down 0.5 m into circle, other
opt.: conventional steps or ramp.
10% Def. þ20%
probably þ
39% maybe
20% Fun 13% Safer, 8% particular health issues, 4%
its for children
2D DL 3.1 jump/step down on lightbox,
or ramp.
11% Def. þ
13% maybe
Cobblestones leg muscles co-
act., reflexology
1K DL 1.3 rounded cobblestones with info
poster, alternative: even pavement.
47% N¼203 Following the sign
recommendation
Pain in the feet, danger of trauma
Note. DL: difficulty level.
284 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
assault course in scenario 2C including monkey bars and jumping pads 16% of participants were
inclined to choose it over the conventional, while for the least complex route wide low step-
pingstones in scenario 2G 78% of participants were willing to take it.
Handrails next to the steppingstones increased the number of participants willing to choose
that particular route by12%. In multiple choice questions, 26% of participants picked handrail
for safetyas one of the aspects that would encourage them to use the challenging route.
Shortcuts
Making challenging routes shorter than conventional ones appears to be the most effective lay-
out, encouraging between 36 and 55% of participants (n¼203) to choose such a route.
Interestingly, the extent of reduction of a route with a shortcut did not make a significant differ-
ence (Figure 3).
Layout
The design of pavement, lighting, and flowerbeds can work as a nudge, for example in Scenario
2E, the test version colouring of the pavement suggested the challenging route was the
Figure 2. Level of difficulty of each route scored and ranked from 1 (easy) to 8 (hard).Graph by the authors.
Figure 3. Scenarios 1A and 1F, similar scenarios, but with different length of the route around.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 285
continuation of the main road while the conventional looked as a side turn. In the control vari-
ation, challenging and conventional routes had the same pavement. 10% more participants
picked the challenging route in the test version (Figure 4).
Aesthetics plays an important role as a choice factor: in Scenario 1A, 8% of participants men-
tioned the view as an incentive to pick the challenging route. In other scenarios, participants
mentioned the elements of nature and intriguing objects as motivation.
Signs were mentioned both as a reason to take a challenging route: The sign is pointing at
the stones, would probably check them out(Scenario 2J), and as a reason not to:The sign frus-
trates me; I dont want to be told what to do(Scenario 1J). In scenarios without signs, partici-
pants often mentioned they didnt know if they were meant to walk there: ‘…. Also, there are
no signs suggesting that the lightbox is suitable or intended for this use.
Perceived behaviour and social norms
The presence of people can have a positive effect (up to 9%) in reassuring participants that the
steppingstones are for walking on rather than an artistic display (Scenarios 1H, 1Y, and K1).
However, it can have a negative effect when it is perceived as causing overcrowding or observa-
tion (Scenarios 2A, 2D, 2E, and 2J). When answering the question how do you pick your
route ?3% mentioned following other people and 10% avoiding people. However, in Study 1,
40% of participants stated that active presence of other people on a challenging route was an
aspect that encouraged them to also choose that route. Participants, especially 2025-year-old
ones, expressed concerns about being observed and judged by others.
Demographics and personality
Correlations between participantspersonal characteristics (age, gender, personality traits etc.)
and their route choices and reasoning were calculated with SPSS software to identify the most
important correlations. Table 4 shows the ones applicable for cityscape design. Unrelated correla-
tions, such as between age and sensation seeking, are not reported.
CCR (Choice-of-Challenging-Route) for each participant was calculated as a sum of their
choices in all scenarios taken together, from 0 (would always pick only conventional routes) to
48 (would definitely pick all the challenging routes in all scenarios). Numbers in-between mean
the participant would either pick only a few routes or would maybe’’ take some of them. The
correlation of this variable with the regular physical activity level of participants was non-signifi-
cant (r¼0.024-0.047, ps>.05), which suggests that people of all levels of activity are equally likely
to pick a challenging route on an image. However, for the most difficult routes participants
who regularly engaged in strength and balancing exercises were more likely to choose them.
There is a significant negative correlation of CCR with age but the percentage of participants
who would take only the conventional route in all scenarios was low in all age groups (Figure 5).
Despite being less prepared to take adventurous routes themselves, older generations were of
the concept just as much as younger ones.
Participantsopinions about the concept of exercise route
Study 2 (N¼303) included a question What do you think about introducing one of the designs
you have just seen into your local park? Which ones? …’, 76% of participants were positive, 6%
explicitly negative, and 18% were found to be indifferent or gave no explicit approval of the
overall idea but were in favour of some elements.
Positivity of response to introducing Active Landscape in cities did not correlate with age,
gender, place of birth, sensation seeking, or anxiety. It only correlated with choosing exercise
routes r¼0.393, p<.001.
286 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
The reasons people gave to explain why they like the concept can be grouped into 3 main
categories: (1) providing easily available, inclusive exercise (the main target of this research), (2)
providing entertainment (this was meant only as a tool to encourage exercise), (3) adding visual
variety to the landscape (a pleasant side-effect)
Figure 4. Effect of the path appearance on route choice. (a) Scenario E. Two landscape designs. (b) Effect of the design on
preferences.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 287
The concept of making exercising seamless and enjoyable was fully understood by 14% of
respondents: All of them, it makes exercising fun and less like a chore.
Discussion and practical application for the built environment
The proportion of participants willing to pick a more challenging route varied from 14% for
the most difficult to 78% for the easiest of our challenges. While the increase in level and
extent of activity level can be modest in some cases, when projected to millions of people
using cityscapes on a daily basis, it can have a significant and beneficial impact on public
health. Previous examples of promoted travelling exercises, such as cycling and walking up
the stairs have resulted in a stable increase of activity (Assunc¸ao-Denis & Tomalty, 2019;
McGann, Jancey, & Tye, 2013). Repeated on a regular basis Active Landscape could shift the
calorie intake/expenditure balance (Hill et al., 2003), as well as improve heart, bone, and
mental health, especially when it results in the formation of new, healthier habits
(Verplanken & Wood, 2006).
Regarding the best locations to apply Active Landscape, people appeared to be more open to
exercise routes in their leisure time, accompanied by friends or children and not viewed by too many
onlookers. Routes that incorporate more difficult challenges, such as obstacle courses and narrow bal-
ancing beams, would benefit from being placed in areas more likely to be frequented by
younger users.
Making challenging routes even a little shorter than conventional ones is an effective measure
to encourage people to pick them. The intention to save time by taking a shorter route might
be the main reason, or there is a cognitive bias supporting an inclination to try something enter-
taining (Weiner, Graham, Peter, & Zmuidinas, 1991): further experiments could make the reasons
clearer and inform design decisions.
Figure 4. Continued.
288 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
Table 4. Significant correlations of demographic and personality of participants with the choices they make, N¼198.
Personal characteristic
Correlated with perceptions of active
landscape characteristics. Pearsonsr[95% CI]
Age Choice-of-challenging-route 0.287 [0.15, 0.41]
Concerns about being seen. 0.155[0.02, 0.29]
Occupation (binary: 0: no,
1: yes)
Director Understanding heath benefit of
exercise route
0.206 [0.07, 0.34]
Student Pick a route because it is
straightforward0.
0.235 [0.10, 0.36]
Sensation seeking (BSSS) Choice-of-challenging-route 0.491 [0.38, 0.59]
Picking route between scary
dinosaurs in scenario 2F
0.327 [0.20, 0.44]
Anxiety (GAD 7) Concerns about being seen and
judged when taking
challenging route.
0.243 [0.11, 0.37]
Seeing stepping down as childish 0.424 [0.30, 0.53]
Walking pattern: leisurely walk
over 30 min at least once a week
Playing football 0.250 [0.38, 0.12]
Being a student 0.186 [0.05, 0.32]
Sometimes walk over an hour 0.307 [0.18, 0.43]
Exercising per week Doing what is meant to be done 0.185 [0.05, 0.32]
Regular strength exercises Jumping from the box into blue
circle (Scenario 1B)
0.254 [0.12, 0.38]
Note. p<.05; p<.01; p<.001.
Self-reported occupation categories included: students, employee, dont manage anyone else, managers, business owners,
company directors, unemployed, retired, and others. 1-yes, belong to this category, 0-no. Excel table of correlations can
be found on the Open Science Framework https://osf.io/574jv/?view_only=098567dd6f90463dba70f09b0b2ac93c.
Figure 5. Association between age and adventurousness. Graph by authors.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 289
The least intimidating of challenging routes were those with wide, steady-looking balancing
beams (Scenarios 2F and 2E) and wide steppingstones (Scenarios 1G, 2A and J), especially with
the presence of handrails. At the same time, more challenging routes have larger health benefits.
Combining wide and narrow beams would accommodate a wider range of skill sets and confi-
dence levels. Multiple options generally tend to normalise the idea of the unusual routes avail-
able and attract more people to try at least one (Scenario 1E). The effect of handrails can be
explained as providing support while walking, a safety measure in case of slipping or losing bal-
ance, or as a sign that the beam is meant for walking on (Gamble & Walker, 2016). Structures
need to be as well as look strong and steady: participants raised concerns about the stability of
the structure in scenarios where a step looked less solid (Scenario 2 D and others) (Ghosn,
Alama, & Azhari, 2021).
In the scenarios presented, participants were sometimes unsure if a route was for walking or
only to be observed as an art display. Various scenarios showed that signage, materials, and lay-
out can help to reassure people that they are meant and encouraged to take this route. Adding
handrails works both for added perceived safety and for making it clear that the route is for
walking. Due to often raised by participants structural stability concerns, structures need not
only to be but also to look steady.
The assumption that routes are for children only, and not for adults, came up in multiple
responses and could be addressed by means of colours, design styles, and signage. At the same
time, funwas most often given as a reason for picking the exercise routes, and some respond-
ents commented specifically on enjoyable features of routes, such as the dinosaur sculptures or
the target painted on the pavement. Making exercising more interesting can turn it into an
enjoyable activity that participants want to repeat (Vernadakis, Kouli, Tsitskari, Gioftsidou, &
Antoniou, 2014).
Similarities to nature tend to remind people of pursuits like hiking, which makes walking over
water and natural materials, such as plants, timber, and stones especially popular. Glass and con-
crete suggest more formal behaviour (Scenarios 2A, 2C, and 2E) (Sennett & Sendra, 2020).
The correlation with personality traits sets the basis for potential market segmentation:
attracting Sensation Seekers might require exciting art pieces and a sense of adventure while for
people keen to improve their health, posters with information might be more effective.
While our findings are new in the area of Active Landscape, they are conceptually related to
research aimed to increase active travel such as walking or cycling (McLeod, Babb, & Barlow,
2020). For example, providing relevant and safe infrastructure alongside pro-cycling policies and
programs has been effective for promoting those activities (Assunc¸ao-Denis & Tomalty, 2019).
The findings can be applied outdoors or indoors, and our research supports those initiatives
underpinned by intuition in some designs from around the world (Figure 6).
Limitations
Data was collected on the Prolific platform, which can only collect answers from people who
have access to the internet through a computer (Peer, Rotschild, Evernden, Gordon, & Damer,
2021). Thus, our findings might be slightly different in representative samples.
We measured intention rather than behaviour in our study, because this allowed us to get a
better first impression of what factors can increase intentions to select a more challenging route.
While intentions and actual behaviour are correlated (Webb & Sheeran, 2006) and interventions
to change intentions also tends to result in behaviour change (McDermott, Oliver, Iverson, &
Sharma, 2016), future research is needed to test whether our interventions also lead to actual
behaviour change.
The main concept of this research is intrinsic motivation for exercise: giving people the oppor-
tunity to exercise because they want to do this move right now, rather than because they
290 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
believe it is expected of them. The way participants explained their choices demonstrate that
the scenarios offered all three types of intrinsic motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012): to know (curios-
ity to try unusual route); to accomplish (prove oneself to be able to do it), and to experiencing
Figure 6. (a) Corridor in Bad Blumau spa hotel, Hundertwasser (Bad Blumau website). (b) Arena sculpture by John Maine,
authors photo and (c) pavement in Hague, Netherlands, authors photo.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 291
stimulation (see closer flowers and sculptures, be elevated above ground and water), and hence
the behaviour is likely to follow the intention.
The nature of the experiments reveals the self-reported behaviour intentions, which can devi-
ate from actual behaviour. However, digitally created images have been successfully used for
decades in urban and landscape research (Daniel et al., 1976; Needham et al., 2004; van der Ham
et al., 2015) and industry to study the reaction to yet-to-be-built environments (Bateson & Hui,
1992). Dichotomous choice analysis was also used to quantify the effect of various social factors
on the choice of routes in parks and overcrowding on walking, cycling, and jogging (Arnberger
& Eder, 2011; Muhar, Reichhart, & Arnberger, 2007). The theory of planned behaviour suggests
that an individuals decision to engage in a specific behaviour can to a reasonable extent be pre-
dicated by their intention to engage in that behaviour (Jones, Pykett, & Whithead, 2013;
Marteau, 2018). Applying our findings to test sites or in natural experiments would enable the
results to be checked in terms of showing if people choose the same routes as they chose on
calibrated images, if they keep choosing them consistently and to what extent it will improve
their health.
Figure 6. Continued.
292 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
Scenarios that look exciting at the first glance might become less appealing after some time
resulting in reduced use. On the other hand, people might make it a habit to use the more excit-
ing routes, thereby constantly improving their fitness. Being nudgedinto using active routes,
and through positive feedback people might be inclined to continue their routines frequently
and automatically, thus changing their habits over time (Neal et al., 2016; Verplanken &
Wood, 2006).
There are many ways to encourage people to be more active and some of them might be
more effective than the ones explored in this paper. However, Active Landscapes, if implemented
more widely, provides an additional opportunity that could be promoted through school educa-
tion, health systems, or mass media.
The experiments were performed with UK residents as participants and might therefore not
replicate in other countries. Additional/comparative studies in other cultural/legal/climatic condi-
tions could be beneficial.
Conclusion
We discovered that up to 78% of walkers would be prepared to take a moderately more chal-
lenging route and that the majority of participants (76%) were approving of the concept of
Active Landscape, once familiarised with it. Based on the research, we identified key design prin-
ciples that increased a routes attractiveness, which in turn nudged increased active usage
Applying the above principles in the design of public space might improve the overall phys-
ical and mental health of a population. This study provides a framework of research evidence to
support and guide policy makers, urban designers, and communities in improving health and
promoting wellbeing.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the students of the University of Cambridge for participation in questionnaire testing and dis-
cussions. Special credit to Boldins, Mitenko, Watermans, Rihab Khalid, Jack Wiliams, Arthur Daves, Jonathan Sutcliffe
and Masha Dianova for their useful comments from various areas of expertise.
Ethical approval
Research was approved by the University of Cambridge Faculty of Architecture and History of Art
Ethical Committee.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
Anna Boldinas doctoral research was sponsored by EPSRC DTP. Prolific data collection was sponsored by Christs
College and Land Association.
Notes on contributors
Anna Boldina (BA(Hons), Diploma), after working for 15 years as an architect/urban designer and developer in
London and internationally, Anna Boldina is now applying her collected experience to her PhD research in Urban
Design/Sociopsychology/Biokinetics. They are developing a toolbox to provide attractive opportunities to exercise
more effectively during daily pedestrian experiences, whether commutes or walks for pleasure. Anna is keen to
apply her research in practice through policies and design.
LANDSCAPE RESEARCH 293
Paul H. P. Hanel (BSc, BA, MSc, PhD) research interests include social, personality, political, and cross-cultural psych-
ology as well as science communication and research methods. A significant part of his empirical work includes
human values (e.g. freedom, loyalty, security). Among other things he is interested in how people perceive the val-
ues of other people, and whether living in cities or countries in which other people share ones values has positive
effects on ones well-being. Currently, he is especially interested in similarities between groups of people, for
example, women and men, younger and older people, or people from different countries.
Koen Steemers (BSc, BArch, MPhil, PhD, LLD, RIBA ARB) is Professor of Sustainable Design and has been Head of
Department and Director of Research at the University of Cambridge Department of Architecture. His current
research addresses the architectural and urban implications of environmental issues ranging from energy use to
human wellbeing. He has over 200 academic publications, including ten books, and worked on numerous large
internationally funded research projects related to his area of interest.
ORCID
Anna Boldina http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2601-4438
Paul H. P. Hanel http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3225-1395
Koen Steemers http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7378-7033
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296 A. BOLDINA ET AL.
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... Our previous socio-psychological study showed that up to 63% of 200 participants would pick a steppingstone route if it was shorter than conventional pavement, and up to 78% for other challenging routes, such as log over a stream (Boldina et al. 2022). This area of research will allow an estimate of the potential effects of using steppingstones in city landscape design on population health. ...
... Previous studies showed that shortcuts are the most effective way to encourage people to take a challenging route, followed by health information posters and 'fun effect' -adding the intrinsic motivation to the exercise (Boldina et al. 2022). Making the exercise environment stimulating and exciting is a quickly developing way to encourage exercise (Peeters et al. 2013, Lima et al. 2022. ...
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... We surveyed steps throughout the parks and found that the step height was sometimes uneven and not standardized, which could lead to serious injury (Sansakorn et al., 2022). Also, the absence of handrails negatively affects perceived safety, and makes users unsure if a pathway is for walking or only to be seen as an art display (Boldina et al., 2023). Likewise, hard and slippery materials such as marble and concrete can be risky and dangerous, especially when the pathways are wet. ...
... Fourth, obstacles that prevent spatial access to water features, such as adding hedge-rows between land and water, are a fundamental measure to enhance perceived safety. Fifth, adding handrails for high steps at a standard height is highly recommended to provide support while walking, and reassure visitors that they are encouraged to use these stairways (Boldina et al., 2023). Sixth, trails provided for walking should be separate from pathways dedicated to other transport modes. ...
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Exposing children to green environments has multiple benefits. However, safety concerns may discourage parents from allowing their children to participate in physical leisure activities. This study employed a public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) questionnaire to explore whether and how park characteristics influence safety perceptions of 241 parents regarding their chil-dren's active, unstructured play and independent mobility. The survey was distributed to parents who were accompanying their children in Cairo's Al-Azhar and Al-Dawliya parks. Respondents identified places they considered safe and unsafe and reported their overall perceived level of safety based on photographs taken in the two parks. The results showed that parents were more afraid of the threat of crime compared to other potential risks. Moreover, secluded and densely vegetated places with inadequate lighting were perceived as unsafe. The study contributes to the ongoing discussion on creating safe environments for children and proposes ways to reduce parents' safety concerns.
... Several variables can influence walking at the urban level. For instance, street features are found to shape pedestrians' leisure walks in cities [80], and green space has an effect on walking as well [81]; people can also be nudged into physical activities through minor changes to the urban landscape [82]. This is a non-exhaustive list of potential variables that we argue in this paper to be a necessary agent for increasing walking as necessary for releasing BDNF in the human brain. ...
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The aim of the study is to measure the effectiveness of steppingstones as an element of landscape design, to make walking a more effective exercise. Increased oxygen consumption and heart rate are important markers to estimate intensity of physical activity. To bridge the gap between physiological theory and the application in urban design, a combined experiment including 26 participants walked on a plain treadmill and then steppingstone imitations at the same speed. Physiological data were collected and compared using a heart rate monitor and a breath-by-breath metabolic system and supplemented with a questionnaire about body reactions and likelihood to perform a similar exercise in a life situation. The average increase in heart rate due to steppingstones was 17.22%. Results further showed that the exercise was more effective for the 30–60-year-old age group. Questionnaire data found that 69% of participants picked ‘maybe’ or ‘definitely’ for using similar steppingstones on their way to work and 100% walking in a park. In conclusion, we estimate that steppingstones can significantly increase people’s metabolic and physiological parameters, and can help the wider population to achieve the recommended government and health guidelines of ‘moderate exercise’ of 150 min/week, improving population health. This new evidence can help designers to implement Active Urbanism strategies.
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The purpose of the study was to test the role of the personal desire for excitement and its links to autonomy support, harmonious and obsessive passion, and longitudinal intrinsic motivation, and effort in students’ favorite outdoor activity. 675 students at Norwegian folk high schools [folkehøgskole] attending a one-year study of their favorite outdoor activity (for instance, hunting, fishing, mountain climbing, kiting, and sailing) completed a questionnaire package. The desire for excitement positively predicted perceived autonomy support and the two types of passion. Autonomy support positively predicted harmonious passion, which in turn was positively linked to change in intrinsic motivation, which again positively predicted change in effort. Length of experience moderated the link between desire for excitement and obsessive passion. Furthermore, participants with short experience in the activity, relative to those with long experience and males, reported a higher desire for excitement and a higher obsessive passion. Autonomy support from teachers is important for young adults pursuing activities giving experiences of excitement, speed, and risk. Teachers can be autonomy supportive by acknowledging students’ feelings and perspectives, encouraging self-initiation and exploration of new experiences, avoiding communicating pressuring expectations, and instead offering choice among different types of exercises and training methods that may help the participants to attain their personal goals. In such a social context, it is important that teachers encourage them to further explore and to improve their skills, as they understand their excitement-seeking personality. Autonomy support might help the students choose activities providing excitement arousal in a good way, instead of high-risk activities with negative consequences.
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Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic has reduced physical activity (PA) levels. This is important as physical inactivity is linked to poor COVID-19 outcomes. This study aimed to assess the impact of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on greenspace and residence mobility, walking levels and in turn how these translated to trends in (UK) PA levels. Methods Google Mobility Reports, the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker and Apple Mobility geospatial datasets were interrogated for international data. Residence mobility represents home mobility, greenspace mobility includes parks, walking direction requests is proportion of walking directions; stringency index measures lockdown intensity. The Sports England Active Lives Survey dataset was assessed for complementary changes in English PA levels. Results Using mobility data of 10 countries we observed that during lockdown there were reductions in greenspace mobility and walking directions alongside increased residence mobility; more pronounced changes were seen in countries with higher stringency indices. From a UK perspective, complementary English PA survey data demonstrated the impact of these mobility changes on the proportion and demographic characteristics of PA levels. The most vulnerable in society, the elderly (ages 75+) and Black and Asian minority ethnicity (BAME) individuals were more likely to become physically inactive. Conclusions The COVID-19 pandemic reduced greenspace mobility and walking direction requests globally. Complementary assessment of English PA levels demonstrated a greater proportion of the population became inactive. Demographics (75+ and BAME) prone to worse COVID-19 outcomes became disproportionately inactive. UK Urban planning should prioritize greenspace development. This could improve city walkability and PA levels.
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Health is becoming an increasingly important aspect of built environment design. We aim to bridge the gap between existing knowledge in medicine and its potential applications. This paper tests the extent to which Active Urbanism can facilitate gaining and maintaining bone mass widely across the population through encouraging serendipitous high impact exercise. Based on a review of successful high impact exercise programs, we run a biokinetics experiment in a laboratory measuring ground reaction forces to match field sociological studies in the urban environment. Considering data collected, Active Urbanism can increase the average bone density of an average child not previously involved in sport by 12% in 10 years, and that of an average adult by 2.8% in 10 years. Such a modest increase in bone mass density, if sustained over a lifetime, has the potential to delay the risk of fracture and of osteoporosis by 10 years or more. This new parameter has the potential to support infrastructure and landscape designers to optimize their plans and will need further examination by communities of these practices.
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The aim of this study was to evaluate an urban forest intervention program effect on physical activity, healthy eating habits, self-efficacy and life satisfaction (LS) among Israeli at-risk youth. The quasi-experimental study ran from September 2016 to June 2017; participants were randomly selected. There were 76 total study participants: 53 in the intervention and 23 in the control group. Participants ranged in age from 15 to 18 years. Questionnaires were administered to intervention and control groups before and after the intervention. Univariate and multivariable analyses evaluated the intervention effect. Repeated measures analyses of covariance were calculated to assess change in group differences. An increase was found in measures of physical activity in the intervention group (p < 0.001), while no change was noted in the control group. Healthy eating increased in both groups (p = 0.007), with no significant difference between them (p = 0.165). Unhealthy eating decreased significantly in the intervention group (p = 0.002) and increased in the control group (p = 0.007). Self-efficacy increased in the intervention group (p < 0.001), while no change was noted in the control group (p = 0.353). Likewise, LS increased in the intervention group (p < 0.001), while no change was found in the control group (p = 0.657). Findings indicate that the intervention was efficacious in increasing physical activity, healthy eating habits, self-efficacy, and LS. The effectiveness of this intervention among larger samples is warranted in future prospective studies.
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