Small regions as key sources of traditional knowledge: a quantitative ethnobotanical survey in the central Balkans

Abstract

Background: Starting from the idea that unexplored areas may yield new and different ethnobotanical information, we performed a survey of traditional uses of plants in two neighboring districts situated in east Serbia (Bor and Aleksinac), both lacking in previous ethnobotanical reports, but characterized by an interesting history and culture, together with some specific features. In this study, we hypothesized that such small and specific areas could be of high ethnobotanical importance.

Methods: Semi-structured interviews were used with 155 informants. Relative cultural importance (RCI) indices, such as the frequency of citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance index (RI), informant consensus factor (ICF-FIC), use value (UV), fidelity level (FL) and Jaccard index (JI), were calculated, and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was performed.

Results: In this study, 2333 use-reports and 114 plants were recorded. Of the 101 medical herbs, 33 are included in the European Pharmacopoeia Edition 8.0. The most frequently used mode of preparation was as an infusion (50.0%), while leaf (44.7%) was the most used plant part. The highest FC and RFC values were recorded for Hypericum perforatum L. (13.1 and 0.2, respectively), while the highest RI was documented for Urtica dioica L. (1.0). ICF and FL indices showed important differences among selected groups of informants. The PCoA showed three homogeneous plant groups. Plants were mostly used for the treatment of digestive (49.1%), circulatory (41.2%) and respiratory system disorders (35.1%). Thirty-seven (32.5%) herbs were used for human nutrition, 14 (12.3%) in veterinary medicine, 17 (14.9%) in rituals and ethnoculture, while 24 (21.0%) for miscellaneous purposes. The highest degree of similarity was determined with studies conducted in close proximity. Four species are new to Balkan ethnobotany. New uses for some well-known plants are highlighted.

Conclusion: The study indicated that small and specific areas in the Balkans may be an important reservoir of ethnobotanical knowledge.

Full text

Janaćkovićetal.
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-022-00566-0
RESEARCH
Small regions askey sources oftraditional
knowledge: aquantitative ethnobotanical
survey inthecentral Balkans
Pedja Janaćković1*†, Milan Gavrilović1†, Milica Miletić1, Maja Radulović1, Stefan Kolašinac2 and
Zora Dajić Stevanović2
Abstract
Background: Starting from the idea that unexplored areas may yield new and different ethnobotanical informa-
tion, we performed a survey of traditional uses of plants in two neighboring districts situated in east Serbia (Bor and
Aleksinac), both lacking in previous ethnobotanical reports, but characterized by an interesting history and culture,
together with some specific features. In this study, we hypothesized that such small and specific areas could be of
high ethnobotanical importance.
Methods: Semi-structured interviews were used with 155 informants. Relative cultural importance (RCI) indices, such
as the frequency of citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance index (RI), informant consen-
sus factor (ICF-FIC), use value (UV), fidelity level (FL) and Jaccard index (JI), were calculated, and principal coordinate
analysis (PCoA) was performed.
Results: In this study, 2333 use-reports and 114 plants were recorded. Of the 101 medical herbs, 33 are included in
the European Pharmacopoeia Edition 8.0. The most frequently used mode of preparation was as an infusion (50.0%),
while leaf (44.7%) was the most used plant part. The highest FC and RFC values were recorded for Hypericum perfo-
ratum L. (13.1 and 0.2, respectively), while the highest RI was documented for Urtica dioica L. (1.0). ICF and FL indices
showed important differences among selected groups of informants. The PCoA showed three homogeneous plant
groups. Plants were mostly used for the treatment of digestive (49.1%), circulatory (41.2%) and respiratory system
disorders (35.1%). Thirty-seven (32.5%) herbs were used for human nutrition, 14 (12.3%) in veterinary medicine, 17
(14.9%) in rituals and ethnoculture, while 24 (21.0%) for miscellaneous purposes. The highest degree of similarity was
determined with studies conducted in close proximity. Four species are new to Balkan ethnobotany. New uses for
some well-known plants are highlighted.
Conclusion: The study indicated that small and specific areas in the Balkans may be an important reservoir of ethno-
botanical knowledge.
Keywords: Serbia, Medicinal plants, Food plants, Ritual uses, Veterinary uses, Cosmetic and craft uses
© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
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Background
Medicinal plants have an important significant role in
the everyday life of rural people, particularly in devel-
oping countries. It is estimated that nearly 70 000 plant
species are used for medicinal purposes today [1]. Wild
plants are an important source of starting material for
Open Access
†Pedja Janaćković and Milan Gavrilović contributed equally to this work.
*Correspondence: pjanackovic@bio.bg.ac.rs
1 Faculty of Biology, Department of Morphology and Systematics of Plants,
University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

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Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
the synthesis of conventional drugs. About 80% of 122
plant-derived drugs are linked with their original tradi-
tional uses [2]. It was noted that 11% of the 252 essential
drugs (listed by the World Health Organization—WHO)
are exclusively of angiosperm origin [3]. Moreover, it is
well established that most natural-based remedies exhibit
fewer side effects compared to synthetic drugs. Collect-
ing knowledge about plant species and their various uses
is of great importance for the preservation of cultural
heritage and the conservation of plant diversity [4].
e Balkan Peninsula is a biogeographic region with
an exceptional floristic richness [5]. It is known that the
ca. 8000 vascular plant species recorded for the Balkans
include 2600 to 2700 endemics [6]. Serbia is located in
the north-central region of the Balkan Peninsula and,
according to recent data, has a flora of 4246 taxa [7] of
which 1000 to 1500 species are used as foodstuffs, spices,
food preservatives, medicinal plants, natural dyes or
additives [8]. About 700 medicinal plant species are listed
in Serbia [9]. People in Serbia have been relying on plants
for various purposes since ancient times, as documented
in old medieval Serbian therapy handbooks, known as
the Hodosh Codex and the Chilandar Medical Codex [10,
11]. In many Balkan countries, people still practice herbal
traditional medicine, where the purpose and way of use
depend on cultural, historical and ethnic influences.
However, depopulation, aging, migration, economic
devastation and abandonment of villages and underde-
veloped regions in Serbia and the entire Balkan region
have resulted in a dramatic loss of ethnobotanical knowl-
edge, in addition to a loss of plant genetic resource diver-
sity [8]. In recent years, ethnobotanical investigations in
Serbia were intensified [12–20]. Among the most recent
studies, the differences in the traditional use of plants
between rural and urban populations of different nation-
alities in the central Balkan region were reported [21],
highlighting the value of traditional knowledge and of old
practices which are still performed. Due to multiethnicity
and complex historical background, Serbia represents a
reservoir of cultural, linguistic, religious and other diver-
sities. We consider that there are still many unexplored
areas or regions with hitherto unrecorded ethnobotanical
information, useful species, and new medicinal uses for
known herbs.
Starting from the idea that unexplored areas may
yield new and different ethnobotanical information,
we performed a survey of traditional uses of plants in
two neighboring districts situated in east Serbia (Bor
and Aleksinac), both lacking in previous ethnobotanical
reports, but characterized by an interesting history and
culture, together with some specific features (rural, aban-
doned, economically devastated and with high migration
rate). In this study, we hypothesized that such small and
specific areas could be of high ethnobotanical impor-
tance and we set the following goals: (1) to collect data on
the traditional uses of wild plants for medicine, human
and domestic animal nutrition, veterinary medicine, folk
and religious rituals, ethnoculture and other purposes;
(2) to use relevant ethnobotanical indices and appropri-
ate statistical methods to evaluate the obtained data; (3)
to compare ethnobotanical knowledge between people
of the two districts, between usage of plants by men and
women, as well between inhabitants of cities and villages;
(4) to compare our results with other ethnobotanical
studies of neighboring regions conducted in Serbia and
Balkans; (5) to report on new species records and new
use-records not previously reported for Serbia and the
Balkans; and (6) to suggest possible ways in which valu-
able traditional botanical knowledge can be preserved as
an important part of general cultural heritage.
Methods
Research area
e research was carried out in Aleksinac and Bor dis-
tricts in Eastern Serbia. Aleksinac is located in the Alek-
sinac basin (Serbian: Aleksinačka kotlina), in the lower
stream of the South Morava river [22]. e area is known
for former coal mining and high resources of oil shale
estimated at about two billion tons in total reserves [23].
However, the mine was closed after an accident occurred
in 1989 [24], after which no mining was performed any-
more. Aleksinac is very near to Sokobanja, known among
the biggest medicinal plants collecting centers in Serbia.
Bor district is located in Timok Krajina in the eastern
Serbia [25]. Initially, Bor was a village, but over time, in
the mid-twentieth century, it developed into an urban
area. is area is known for its copper and gold depos-
its [26]. e opening of the mine in 1903 caused the
development of Bor as an industrial center in east Ser-
bia in the mid of the last century [25]. During a time,
mining started to bring more losses than benefits and
the area was gradually depopulated and marginalized.
Quite recently, mines were bought by a Chinese strate-
gic partner (Zijin Mining). Although both areas suffered
certain environmental and biodiversity damages, it is
supposed that local inhabitants still rely on traditional
herbal remedies and folk medicine. According to data
acquired by the census in 2011, both districts exhibit
a strong depopulation trend. e number of inhabit-
ants in the Aleksinac district is around 16.700 and they
are quite exclusively of Serbian nationality (91.7%). In
Bor district, there are nearly 34.200 residents of Serbian
ethnic majority (72.9%). e so-called Vlachs (“Vlah” in
Serbian) of Romanian origin represent the second big-
gest ethnic group (13.8%), whereas Roma, Macedonian
and Romanian minorities are fairly less represented [27,
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Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
28]. It is thought that Vlachs still tightly adhere to their
cultural customs, speaking both Vlach (Daco-Romanian
varieties) and Serbian language. e Vlach minority was
recognized as the ethnic group from the earliest censuses
in Serbia—since 1959, and it is strictly linked to the east-
ern Serbia in difference to Romanian minority settled
mostly in the north of the country [29]. Religion and ritu-
als resemble Serbian traditional customs. ey also cele-
brate family saints (“slava”) which are in accordance with
Serbian Orthodox Church tradition [30]. e number
of interviewed respondents corresponded with the total
number of district inhabitants.
Ethnobotanical survey
Two towns and nine surrounding villages of both regions
were included in the study. In the Aleksinac district,
the city Aleksinac and the surrounding villages Jakovlje,
Kamenica, Loznac and Ljupten were surveyed. In the Bor
district, the city Bor and the surrounding villages Bresto-
vac, Bučje, Krivelj, Oštrelj and Slatina were investigated.
e research was conducted during May–July 2019.
Groups of local inhabitants in both municipalities (155 in
total; 55 informants from Aleksinac and 100 informants
from Bor region) were interviewed using semi-structured
questionnaires. e proportion of respondents from the
two districts clearly corresponded with the total num-
ber of their inhabitants. e youngest and the oldest
respondents were at age of 23 and 86, respectively. In
total, 113 were women and 42 were men. Respondents
were chosen with no special selection criteria. Middle-
aged and older participants (which made up the majority
of respondents) had a high level of experience in the use
and application of wild plants and therefore were more
willing to take part in our research. e local recipes
for the preparation of herbal remedies were additionally
recorded.
ere is a difference between these two areas in the
ethnicity of informants reflecting the general ethnic
structure of surveyed regions. Population heterogeneity
was more pronounced in Bor city and surrounding vil-
lages; 77 informants were Serbs, 19 were Vlachs, 2 were
Macedonians, 2 were Bulgarians and 1 informant was
Montenegrin. On the other hand, there is ethical uni-
formity in Aleksinac city and the surrounding area: out of
the total of 55 interviewed inhabitants, 54 were Serbs and
1 was Montenegrin. anks to interviews, the data about
the local names of plants, methods of collecting and pri-
mary processing of plant material, as well as plant parts
in use and way of preparation of the herbal remedies,
were recorded. e information on the traditional use
of herbal drugs in folk and veterinary medicine, human
and animal nutrition, traditional customs and folk beliefs,
and uses of plants for other purposes was recorded. e
plants were authenticated by Prof. Pedja Janaćković (the
corresponding author of the current study), following the
professional literature [31–35]. Local names were har-
monized upon Simonović [36]. Each plant mentioned
by the respondent was compared with a fresh specimen
or with illustrations and photographs from referent lit-
erature sources to avoid errors related to the existence of
different local names and misleading plant descriptions.
e nomenclature of the species was compiled from con-
temporary checklists, monographs and databases, such
as EURO + MED (Plantbase, http:// ww2. bgbm. org/ EuroP
lusMed). Voucher specimens were deposited in the Her-
barium of the University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology,
Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden “Jevremovac”
(BEOU) (Table1). Standard herbarium acronym follows
iers B., 2019 + : Index herbariorum (http:// sweet gum.
nybg. org/ scien ce/ ih/) [37].
No explicit rules or regulations pertain to the prac-
tice of ethnobotanical research in Serbia. e purpose,
methodology and nature of the research were explained
before starting the interviews and oral informed consent
was obtained from all informants. Each participant in
the study agreed to participate voluntarily. Participants
were allowed to discontinue the interviews at any time.
Upon completion of the study, all data are deposited in
the phonothèque of the Department of Morphology and
Systematics of Plants, University of Belgrade—Faculty of
Biology. us, the ethnobotanical research and related
activities, including collecting of plants, compiling data-
bases, images, audio recordings, gathering information
on the uses of traditional knowledge or other elements
of biocultural heritage found in the study area, were
undertaken in compliance with the International Soci-
ety of Ethnobiology (ISE) code of ethics [38]. No harmful
consequences (biological or cultural) for the local peo-
ple and local communities arose from this research and
its related activities. During the research, all principles
of the code of ethics were adhered to including intellec-
tual property rights and support for the development of
local people’s cultures. All recommended standards for
conducting and reporting ethnobotanical studies were
considered in accordance with Weckerle and colleagues
(2018) [39].
Data analysis
Frequency of citation (FC) and relative frequency of cita-
tion (RFC).
e FC was calculated as follows:
FC = (Number of times a particular species was men-
tioned)/(total number of times that all species were
mentioned) × 100.
e RFC index [40] was evaluated by dividing the num-
ber of informants who mentioned the use of the species
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Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 1 Recorded plant species in Aleksinac and Bor districts of eastern Serbia, their scientific names, affiliation to family, voucher
numbers and vernacular names
Scientic name Family Voucher No.
A: Aleksinac;
B: Bor
Serbian folk name Vlach folk name
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Bor
Achillea clypeolata Sm. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17513) Žuti ravan, žuta
hajdučka trava
Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17514)
A: (BEOU 17597) Jalova mesečina Beli ravan, stolisnik,
sporiš, romanika, bela
hajdučka trava
Hajdučka trava,
hajdučica
Aesculus hippocasta-
num L. Sapindaceae B: (BEOU 17516) Divlji kesten
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17515)
A: (BEOU 17598) Vratika, čičke Ranjenik, kostolom Petrovac
Alcea biennis Winterl Malvaceae A: (BEOU 17599)
B: (BEOU 17518) Slez
Alchemilla vulgaris L. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17517) Virak
Allium ursinum L. Amaryllidaceae A: (BEOU 17600) Sremuš, skrembuš,
cremuš
Althaea officinalis L. Malvaceae A: (BEOU 17601) Beli slez
Anthyllis vulneraria L. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17519) Detelina kamenjarka
Arctium lappa L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17520) Čičak, čkalj
Arctium minus (Hill)
Bernh. Asteraceae A: (BEOU 17602) Repuš
Arum maculatum L. Araceae B: (BEOU 17521) Kozlac
Asarum europaeum L. Aristolochiaceae B: (BEOU 17522)
A: (BEOU 17603) Kopitnjak Popilnik
Asparagus officinalis L. Asparagaceae B: (BEOU 17523) Asparagus
Asplenium viride Huds. Aspleniaceae A: (BEOU 17604) Strašnik
Betula pendula Roth Betulaceae B: (BEOU 17524)
A: (BEOU 17605) Breza
Calendula officinalis L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17525)
A: (BEOU 17606) Neven Ogršćanje
Centaurium erythraea
Rafn Gentianaceae B: (BEOU 17526)
A: (BEOU 17607) Kičica
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae B: (BEOU 17527)
A: (BEOU 17608) Lišajevica, lišavica Rosopas, lišajevka,
rusa
Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17528)
A: (BEOU 17612) Golotrba Cikorija, vodopija,
gologuza
Clematis vitalba L. Ranunculaceae A: (BEOU 17609) Loza, pautina
Cornus mas L. Cornaceae A: (BEOU 17610)
B: (BEOU 17529) Drenjine Dren Koarnje
Corylus colurna L. Betulaceae B: (BEOU 17530) Leska, lešnik
Cotinus coggygria
Scop. Anacardiaceae B: (BEOU 17531) Ruj, rujevina Skumpina
Crataegus monogyna
Jacq. Rosaceae A: (BEOU 17611) Crveni glog, glog
Cydonia oblonga Mill. Rosaceae A: (BEOU 17613) Dunja
Cynodon dactylon (L.)
Pers. Poaceae A: (BEOU 17614)
Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae A: (BEOU 17615) Tatula
Dipsacus laciniatus L. Caprifoliaceae B: (BEOU 17532) Češljuga
Epilobium parviflorum
Schreb. Onagraceae B: (BEOU 17533) Mala mlečika
Equisetum arvense L. Equisetaceae B: (BEOU 17534)
A: (BEOU 17618) Ženski rastrg,
štukavac Preslica, poljski
rastavić, konjski rep Rastavić
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Table 1 (continued)
Scientic name Family Voucher No.
A: Aleksinac;
B: Bor
Serbian folk name Vlach folk name
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Bor
Equisetum telmateia
Ehrh. Equisetaceae A: (BEOU 17619) Rastreg
Eupatorium cannabi-
num L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17535) Resnik, konopljuša,
ustuk
Euphrasia officinalis L. Scrophulariaceae B: (BEOU 17536) Vidac, vidova trava
Filipendula hexapetala
Gilib. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17,537) Suručica
Fragaria vesca L. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17538)
A: (BEOU 17621) Divlja jagoda
Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae A: (BEOU 17622) Privaćuša
Galium odoratum (L.)
Scop. Rubiaceae B: (BEOU 17539) Lazarkinja
Galium verum L. Rubiaceae B: (BEOU 17540) Ivanjsko cveće,
ivančica Smzijana
Geranium macror-
rhizum L. Geraniaceae B: (BEOU 17541) Zdravac
Geranium robertianum
L. Geraniaceae B: (BEOU 17542) Smrdljivi zdravac, živa
trava, crveni zdravac,
devojačka trava, divlji
zdravac
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae B: (BEOU 17543)
A: (BEOU 17623) Bršljan
Helianthus tuberosus L. Asteraceae A: (BEOU 17624) Svinjski krompir
Helleborus odorus
Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. Ranunculaceae B: (BEOU 17544) Kukurek
Hieracium pilosella L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17545) Zečja loboda, lišajivica
Humulus lupulus L. Cannabaceae B: (BEOU 17546) Hmelj,divlji hmelj
Hypericum perfora-
tum L. Hypericaceae B: (BEOU 17547)
A: (BEOU 17626) Kantarion
Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae A: (BEOU 17627) Orah
Kickxia elatine (L.)
Dumort. Plantaginaceae A: (BEOU 17628) Posečotina
Laserpitium latifolium
L. Apiaceae B: (BEOU 17548) Raskovnik
Linaria vulgaris Mill. Plantaginaceae B: (BEOU 17549) Lanilist, žuta zevalica,
bogorodičin lan,
lančić
Loranthus europaeus
Jacq. Loranthaceae A: (BEOU 17629) Imela
Lotus corniculatus L. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17550) Zvezdan
Lysimachia nummu-
laria L. Primulaceae B: (BEOU 17551) Metilj trava
Lythrum salicaria L. Lythraceae B: (BEOU 17552)
A: (BEOU 17630) Potočnjak
Malus sylvestris (L.)
Mill. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17553)
A: (BEOU 17631) Divlja jabuka Korikove
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae A: (BEOU 17632) Crni slez
Melilotus albus Medik. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17554) Beli kokotac
Melilotus officinalis
(L.) Pall. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17555) Žuti kokotac
Melissa officinalis L. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17556)
A: (BEOU 17633) Matočina Matičnjak
Mentha longifolia
(L.) L. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17557)
A: (BEOU 17634) Divlja nana Konjski bosiljak
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Table 1 (continued)
Scientic name Family Voucher No.
A: Aleksinac;
B: Bor
Serbian folk name Vlach folk name
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Bor
Ononis spinosa L. Fabaceae A: (BEOU 17635) Grmotrn, zečji trn
Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17558)
A: (BEOU 17636) Divlji origano, vra-
nilovka Vranilova trava
Paliurus spina-christi
Mill. Rhamnaceae A: (BEOU 17637) Čalije
Petasites albus (L.)
Gaertn. Asteraceae A: (BEOU 17638)
Petasites hybridus (L.)
“G. Gaertn., B. Mey. &
Scherb”.
Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17559) Repuh, veliki podbel Ropanj
Peucedanum longifo-
lium Waldst. & Kit. Apiaceae B: (BEOU 17560) Devesel
Physalis alkekengi L. Solanaceae A: (BEOU 17639) Peruanska jabuka,
petlidžančići
Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold Pinaceae B: (BEOU 17561)
A: (BEOU 17640) Crni bor
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae B: (BEOU 17562)
A: (BEOU 17641) Dugačak žilovnik Muška bokvica
Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae B: (BEOU 17563)
A: (BEOU 17642) Žilovnik Širokolisna bokvica,
tegavac Ženska bokvica,
bokvica, žilovlak
Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonaceae B: (BEOU 17565)
A: (BEOU 17644) Troska, troskavac Svinjska trava Troskot
Potentilla reptans L. Rosaceae A: (BEOU 17643)
Prunella vulgaris L. Lamiaceae A: (BEOU 17645) Izdatljivka
Prunus spinosa L. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17566)
A: (BEOU 17646) Crni trn Trnjina
Pulmonaria officinalis
L. Boraginaceae B: (BEOU 17564)
A: (BEOU 17647) Plućnik Plućnjak
Pyrus pyraster (L.)
Burgsd. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17567) Divlja kruška
Quercus cerris L. Fagaceae B: (BEOU 17568) Hrast
Robinia pseudoaca-
cia L. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17569) Bagrem Floran
Rosa canina L. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17570)
A: (BEOU 17648) Šipkinje Divlja ruža, šipurak Šipak Skobikur
Rubus plicatus Weihe
& Nees Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17571) Kupina, divlja kupina Mura
Rubus ulmifolius
Schott Rosaceae A: (BEOU 17649) Zla kupina, divlja
kupina
Rubus caesius L. Rosaceae A: (BEOU 17650) Divlja kupina
Rumex acetosa L. Polygonaceae B: (BEOU 17572) Kiseljak
Rumex crispus L. Polygonaceae A: (BEOU 17651) Štavelj, divlje zelje
Rumex patientia L. Polygonaceae B: (BEOU 17573) Štavelj, divlje zelje Zelje, livadsko zelje Dragaviju
Salix alba L. Salicaceae B: (BEOU 17574) Vrba, bela vrba
Salix purpurea L. Salicaceae A: (BEOU 17652) Vrba, crvena vrba
Sambucus ebulus L. Adoxaceae A: (BEOU 17653) Burjan
Sambucus nigra L. Adoxaceae B: (BEOU 17575)
A: (BEOU 17654) Bazovka Zova
Satureja subspicata
Bartl. ex Vis. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17576) Rtanjski čaj
Sempervivum tecto-
rum L. Crassulaceae B: (BEOU 17577) Čuvarkuća
Sorbus aucuparia L. Rosaceae B: (BEOU 17578) Oskoruša
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(FC) by the total number of informants participating in
the survey (N). e RFC index ranges from “0” when
nobody refers to a plant as useful to “1” when all inform-
ants refer to a plant as useful. RFC = FC/N.
Relative importance index (RI)
According to Tardío and Pardo-De-Santayana (2008) [40],
this index was calculated with the following equation:
where RFCs(max) is the relative frequency of cita-
tion over the maximum, i.e., it is obtained by dividing
FCs by the maximum value in all species of the survey
{RFCs(max) = FCs/max(FC)}, and RNUs(max) is the
relative number of use-categories over the maximum,
RIs ={RFCs(max)+RNUs(max)}/2
obtained by dividing the number of uses of the spe-
cies by the maximum value in all species of the survey
{RNUs(max) = NUs/max(NU)}. e RI index theoretically
varies from 0, when nobody mentioned any use of the
plant, to 1, when the plant was most frequently mentioned
as useful in the maximum number of use-categories.
Informant consensus factor (ICF‑FIC)
To test the homogeneity of knowledge, the informant
consensus factor was used [41], as follows:
where nur refers to the number of use-reports for a par-
ticular use category and nt refers to the number of taxa
ICF
=
nur −nt
nur −1
Table 1 (continued)
Scientic name Family Voucher No.
A: Aleksinac;
B: Bor
Serbian folk name Vlach folk name
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Bor
Stachys officinalis (L.)
Trevis Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17579) Ranilist
Symphytum officinale
L. Boraginaceae B: (BEOU 17580)
A: (BEOU 17655) Crni koren Crni gavez, gavez
Tanacetum vulgare L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17581) Vratić, vrtika, povratić
Taraxacum sect.
Ruderalia
Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17582)
A: (BEOU 17660) Maslačak
Teucrium chamae-
drys L. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17583)
A: (BEOU 17656) Podubica
Teucrium montanum
L. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17584) Trava iva
Thymus serpyllum L. Lamiaceae B: (BEOU 17585) Majčina dušica,
majkina dušica
Tilia platyphyllos Scop. Malvaceae B: (BEOU 17586)
A: (BEOU 17658) Lipa Ćij
Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae B: (BEOU 17587)
A: (BEOU 17659) Podbel Mali podbel
Trifolium pratense L. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17588) Crvena detelina
Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17589) Bela detelina
Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae B: (BEOU 17590)
A: (BEOU 17661) Kopriva Urdzk
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
L. Ericaceae B: (BEOU 17591) Brusnica
Valeriana officinalis L. Caprifoliaceae B: (BEOU 17592) Valerijana, odoljen,
macina trava
Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae A: (BEOU 17662)
Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae B: (BEOU 17593)
A: (BEOU 17663) Verbena, vrbena
Veronica officinalis L. Plantaginaceae B: (BEOU 17594) Razgon, veronika,
čestoslavica
Vicia cracca L. Fabaceae B: (BEOU 17595) Grahorica
Viola odorata L. Violaceae A: (BEOU 17664) Divlja ljubičica
Xanthium spinosum L. Asteraceae A: (BEOU 17665) Bela boca
Xeranthemum cylin-
draceum Sm. Asteraceae A: (BEOU 17596) Divlja metla, metla
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used for a particular use category by all informants. ICF
values are low (near 0) if plants are chosen randomly or
if there is no exchange of information about their use
among informants, and approach one (1) when there is a
well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or
if the information is exchanged between informants [42].
Use value (UV)
Using the results obtained in the general interview, the
use value (UV) of the plant species was calculated follow-
ing [43–45] methods with some modification, using the
following formula:
where UV = use value of a species, U = number of quota-
tions per species, and n = number of informants.
e use values are aggregated per plant part usage
(counted as one in a certain category (a medicinal use,
human nutrition, domestic animal nutrition, veterinary
medicine, beliefs and contemplation and other purposes)
regardless of different effects or uses. In other words, we
did not aggregate statements for specific plant species per
category, due to the nature of raw data from our study. We
modified the earlier methodology in this way: if the same
person cited the same plant but a different plant part or
type of preparation in a certain category we mentioned that
as a separate statement, because in this way a better insight
into the importance of the use value of plants is gained.
e use value for each species can be calculated as the
ratio of the number of citations to the total number of
respondents.
where “U” refers to the number of uses mentioned by
the informants for a given species and “n” refers to the
total number of informants interviewed.
If a plant secures a high UV score that indicates there
are many use-reports for that plant, while a low score
indicates fewer use-reports cited by the informants.
Fidelity level (FL)
e percentage of informants claiming the use of a plant
species for the same major purpose was estimated using the
Fidelity level index as determined by the following formula:
where lp denotes the number of informants who indi-
cate the use of a species for the same major ailment and
lu refers to the total number of informants who men-
tioned the same plant for any other use [46]. High FLs
are obtained for plants which are used in the same way
according to the majority of informants. Only species
with the lp greater than or equal to 5 and FL greater than
or equal to 0.2 were considered.
UV =�U/n,
FL
=
lp
lu x 100
Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)
e principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was used to test
the relationships between objects (plants) and their uses,
i.e. health-related disorder or medical.
To conduct PCoA, the dataset was systematized using
the presence–absence matrix (1 and 0) with objects
(plant taxa) in rows and categorical variable (health dis-
order/condition) in columns. As a result, the matrix
99 × 15 (number of species x number of illness) was
obtained. is matrix is used to compute the similarity
matrix based on Sokal and Sneath association coefficient
(2) [47]:
where dij is the similarity between species i and j, a is the
number of variables where xi = presence and xj = pres-
ence, b is the number of variables where xi = absence
and xj = presence, c is the number of variables where
xi = presence and xj = absence and d is the number of
variables where xi = absence and xj = absence (Table2).
e similarity is 1 if two species share all 15 descriptors
and similarity is 0 if two species do not share any descrip-
tor. Based on the similarity matrix, PCoA is conducted.
All the above-mentioned analyses were performed
using XLSTAT 2014 software (Addinsoft, NY, USA).
Jaccard index (JI)
is index is used to compare the present study data
with the data of other ethnobotanical studies conducted
in neighboring and other regions in Serbia. e formula
used to evaluate the JI index [48] is as follows:
where “a” is the recorded number of species of the study
area “A,” “b” is the documented number of species of the
area “B” and “c” is the common number of species in both
area “A” and “B.” In the case of local communities, “a” is
the number of species reported by a local community “A,”
“b” is the number of species cited by the local community
“B” and c is the number of species reported by both “A”
and “B.”
d
ij =
2a
+
2d
2
a
+
b
+
c
+2
d
,
JI =cx100/a+b−c,
Table 2 Frequency of four possible combinations for two binary
variables
x = presence y = absence Sum
x = presence A B a + b
y = absence C D c + d
Sum a + c b + d a + b + c + d
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Results anddiscussion
Demography ofinformants
A total of 155 informants were interviewed. Out of these,
42 (27.1%) were male and 113 (72.9%) were female. e
informants were categorized into five different age
groups, as documented in Table3.
Mode ofpreparation
e most frequently used mode of preparation was
as an infusion (50.0%) followed by processed (12.9%),
fresh (direct utilization) (10.1%), tincture (4.7%), balm
(4.4%) and so on (Tables4, 5 and 6 and Additional file1:
Table 1), which was also reported by ethnobotanical
studies performed in the closest neighborhood regions
[13, 15, 18]. e most used plant part (Additional file1:
Table2) was the leaf (44.7%).
Quantitative ethnobotanical analysis
e results of the study (Tables4, 5 and 6) provide infor-
mation on the use of 114 wild and few domesticated (but
still wild growing) plant species quoted by respondents
from East Serbia. Recorded plants belong to 97 gen-
era and 47 families, of which the Asteraceae (14.0%),
Rosaceae (13.2%), Lamiaceae (7.9%) and Fabaceae (7.9%)
were the most represented, similarly to other ethnobot-
anical studies conducted in Serbia and the Balkans [12,
17, 21].
Use‑reports
Out of the total of 2333 reports on the use of plants
obtained by respondents, 1653 reports were given for
medical purposes, 496 for human nutrition, 26 for ani-
mal nutrition, 38 for veterinary purposes, 57 for folk and
religious rituals and ethnoculture and 63 for other pur-
poses. Out of a total of 155 informants, 113 women gave
1834 use-reports, while 42 men gave 499. ere were no
differences between statements provided by men and
women with exception for notes on the herbal micellar
water and herbal medicinal syrup which were stated spe-
cifically by women. ere were no differences between
men and women regarding the curative and prophylactic
use of plants for certain illnesses and disorders. In regard
to traditional knowledge on the use of the wild plants for
nutrition, religious and other traditional customs and
for other purposes, both genders gave more–less similar
information. Statements related to ethnoveterinary pur-
poses are more frequently given by men than women.
Out of 2333 use-reports, 1180 (50.6%) were provided
by inhabitants from the cities, while 1153 (49.4%) were
provided by village inhabitants. ere were no statisti-
cally significant differences between data on the tradi-
tional use of plants between inhabitants from cities and
from villages concerning plant part in use and disorders
treated by herbs. is is mainly due to the fact that inhab-
itants of these small semi-urban areas are usually tightly
stuck to surrounding rural places, still performing some
farming or horticulture for their own needs. However,
there were some differences related to the traditional
use of plants. Much more statements on animal nutri-
tion, veterinary purposes, folk and religious rituals and
ethnoculture, as well as for some less frequent uses, were
obtained from inhabitants settled in the villages. Utiliza-
tion of plant species for certain handicraft uses, as well as
the note on common chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) as
a coffee substitute, was mentioned only by respondents
settled in the villages.
Table 3 Demographic characteristics of informants
Factor Categories Aleksinac Bor Total no. of
persons Percentage (%)
City Villages City Villages
Sex Male 1 20 7 14 42 27.1
Female 9 25 43 36 113 72.9
Age ≤ 30 0 2 1 0 3 1.9
31–40 1 1 1 1 4 2.6
41–50 0 5 6 6 17 10.9
51–60 2 7 8 18 35 22.6
> 60 7 30 34 25 96 61.9
Nationality Serbs 9 45 45 32 131 84.5
Vlach – – 2 17 19 12.3
Bulgarians – – 1 – 1 0.6
Montenegrins 1 – 1 – 2 1.3
Macedonians – – 1 1 2 1.3
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Table 4 Medical uses of plant species of the Aleksinac and Bor districts of eastern Serbia
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Achillea clypeolata Flowers Infusion Maintaining
general health
condition, heart
disorders, pul-
monal diseases,
stomach ailments,
respiratory tract
problems
Achillea millefo-
lium♦Whole plant#Balm Skin diseases
Ointment Skin diseases
Aerial parts Balm Excessive bleeding,
wounds and burns
healing
Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Infusion Against inflamma-
tion and stomach
disorders, calming
effect
Headache,
rheumatism, liver,
pancreas and
gallbladder ail-
ments, respiratory
system disorders,
antibiotic
Tincture Wound healing,
massaging sore
spots, reducing
swelling after
insect’s sting
Rheumatism,
liver, pancreas,
gallbladder ail-
ments, respiratory
system disorders,
antibiotic
Flowering apical
parts
Infusion Against enuresis
nocturna, bladder
and gynecological
disorders
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Immune system
strengthening,
detoxification,
against myoma
and stomach
diseases, improves
appetite
Leaves#Balm Skin care, hemor-
rhage, wound
healing
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Juice from leaves Wound healing
Tincture Stomach disorders
Powder Hemorrhage,
healing bleeding
wounds
Tincture Varicose veins
and circulation
improvement
Flowers#Tincture Varicose veins
and circulation
improvement
Infusion Wound rinse,
bladder ailments,
ovary diseases,
antipyretic, reduc-
tion in exces-
sive urination,
anti-inflammatory
activity, general
health condition
improvement
Throat and wound
rinse, stomach
ulcer, skin disor-
ders, immune sys-
tem strengthening,
nausea, headache,
migraine, asthma,
reducing blood
sugar levels, blood
detoxification and
strengthening,
detoxification,
nervous system
diseases, blood
pressure regula-
tion, inhibition of
blood clot forma-
tion, vaginal flush-
ing, various rashes,
liver, intestine
and gallbladder
disorders, healing
bleeding wounds,
cough, medical
panacea, rash,
purulent wounds
Gastric and res-
piratory disorders,
bronchitis, menstrual
cycle regulation
Tincture Wound healing
Aesculus hip-
pocastanum
Flowers Infusion Against neuralgia,
rheumatism,
improving circula-
tion
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Oil extract Rheumatism
Fruits Tincture Varicose veins,
improving circula-
tion
Tincture Varicose veins,
rheumatism
Fruits with capsule Balm Veins disorders
Agrimonia eupa-
toria♦Aerial parts Infusion Lowering blood
pressure, against
headache, throat
inflammation and
oral cavity wounds
treatment by rins-
ing, urinary system,
liver, gallbladder
and stomach
disorders, kidney
stones
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Urinary tract infec-
tions
Detoxification Kidney disorders
Leaves#Infusion Liver, spleen and
heart ailments,
against headache
and sore throat,
kidney and blad-
der disorders
Urinary system ail-
ments
Alcea biennis * Leaves Infusion Intestinal diseases,
inhalation against
sinusitis
Alchemilla vulgaris♦Leaves#Infusion Gynecological
ailments, against
vaginal discharge
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Gynecological
ailments
Allium ursinum Leaves Tincture Blood pressure
regulation and
reduction in
elevated blood
pressure
Althaea officinalis♦Aerial parts#Infusion Bronchitis, dry
cough
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Roots Maceration Bronchitis, dry
cough
Expectoration,
throat inflam-
mation, cough,
respiratory tract
disorders
Infusion Against airways
obstruction,
against cough,
expectoration, pul-
monary diseases
Anthyllis vulneraria Aerial parts Infusion Blood cleansing
Leaves Fresh, revetment Wound healing
Arctium lappa Leaves Fresh, revetment Painful spots,
rheumatism, joint
inflammation
Infusion Against cough,
diarrhea
Roots Infusion Elimination of
heavy metals from
organism, cancer
cell inhibition,
detoxification,
reducing blood
sugar levels
Tincture Rheumatism
Arctium minus Leaves Fresh, revetment Heated on a stove
or coated with
vegetable oil for
painful joints
Arum maculatum Rhizome Fresh, mixed with
honey
Intestine ailments,
digestion improve-
ment, against
hemorrhoids
Asarum europaeum Leaves Fresh, revetment Purulent wounds
Infusion Kidney ailments
Asparagus offici-
nalis
Roots Infusion Urinary tract
ailments, kidney
stones
Asplenium viride * Leaves Infusion To cure fright
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Betula pendula♦Flowers#Infusion Male flowers are
used for urinary
tract and prostate
ailments
Male flowers are
used for detoxifica-
tion, eliminating
salt excess from
blood vessels
Buds# Infusion Kidney diseases,
eliminating kidney
sand and limescale
Leaves Infusion Urinary tract infec-
tions
Kidney diseases,
eliminating kidney
sand, limescale
and stones, urinary
ducts inflam-
mation, kidney
cleansing
Urinary tract
diseases
Calendula offici-
nalis♦Aerial parts#Infusion Intestinal mucosa
and intestine
inflammation,
calming effects,
liver and gallblad-
der inflammations,
mucosa and intes-
tine inflammation
Tincture Intestinal mucosa
and intestine
inflammation
Flowers Infusion Against cold,
detoxification,
blood strengthen-
ing, blood vessels
flexibility main-
tenance, bladder
disorders
Blood cleansing,
against ovary
and breast cysts,
cancer, kidneys dis-
eases, circulation
improvement
Tincture Tumor prevention
Balm Wounds and
burns healing, skin
problems, eczema,
hand care, knee
pain, injures
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Ointment Hemorrhoids,
wounds and burns
healing, inflamma-
tions
Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Leaves#Fresh, revetment Purulent wounds,
stings
Centaurium eryth-
raea♦Aerial parts Infusion Calming effect,
positive effect on
stomach
Liver, pancreas and
stomach diseases,
blood vessels
function regula-
tion, pulmonary
ailments, reducing
blood sugar levels,
appetite improve-
ment, gallbladder
ailments, blood
cleansing, diabe-
tes, heartburn,
irregular menstrual
cycle
Tincture Diabetes, liver
ailments
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Gastric function
regulation
Flowers#Infusion Stomach diseases,
diabetes, reducing
blood sugar levels,
blood vessels
cleansing, fever
Chelidonium
majus♦Aerial parts Maceration Wounds rinse
Apical parts Maceration Benign tumor
treatment
Flowers and
leaves#Tincture Cells regeneration
Leaves#Fresh Ovaries and uterus
cysts
Fresh, revetment Eyesight improve-
ment
Tincture Against cancer
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Bath Painful legs, circu-
lation improve-
ment
Infusion Strengthening
immune system
after tumors
Against cancer
and metastasis,
myoma, jaundice,
gastric, liver, gall-
bladder treatment,
ulcers, stomach
disorders, psoriasis,
gynecological
problems, intestine
function improve-
ment, skin redness
Latex#Fresh Corn removal Keratosis, face,
cleansing, aging,
hyperpigmenta-
tion, cataract
Against warts, skin
ailments
Cichorium intybus Whole plant Decoction Against diarrhea
and dysentery
Aerial parts Infusion Against diarrhea,
reducing blood
sugar levels,
jaundice, cirrhosis,
weight regulation,
liver cleansing,
stomach, liver, gall-
bladder ailments
Peduncle Infusion Against diarrhea
Flowers Infusion Against diarrhea,
stomach diseases
Flowers and roots Infusion Against diarrhea
Roots Infusion For better diges-
tion, weight loss,
against diarrhea
Decoction Kidneys ailments,
kidney sand,
against diarrhea
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Cornus mas Fruits Infusion Heart disorders,
digestive system
disorders, blood
strengthening,
blood pressure
regulation, com-
plete blood count
improvement,
cold, diarrhea
Tincture Positive effect on
whole organism
Nausea, gastric ail-
ments, diarrhea
Juice proveriti Regulation of free
toxic radicals in
organism
Corylus colurna Leaves Fresh Against swelling
after snakebite
Cotinus coggygria Twigs Infusion Burns, wounds on
the feet and hands,
increased concen-
tration of sugar in
the blood, gyneco-
logical problems,
cells regeneration,
prevention of
metastases, hem-
orrhoids, kidney
ailments, high
blood pressure
Tincture Against cancer
Bark Infusion Reducing gastric
acid, mouthwash,
cleansing the body
of toxins, treat-
ment of cancer,
wound rinsing,
against cancer,
eczema rinse and
intestine ailments
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Leaves Infusion Reducing gastric
acid, mouthwash,
cleansing the body
of toxins, treat-
ment of cancer
Crataegus
monogyna♦Fruits Decoction Blood pressure
lowering
Flowers Infusion Heart disorders,
cardiovascular dis-
eases treatment
Leaves Infusion Heart disorders
Bark#Decoction Heart disorders
Cydonia oblonga Leaves Decoction Against diarrhea
Cynodon dactylon Whole plant Infusion Against hemor-
rhoids
Aerial parts Infusion Varicose veins
treatment
Roots Infusion Expectoration,
kidney sand,
urinary infections,
intestine cleansing
Datura stramo-
nium♦Leaves Fresh Wounds
Epilobium parvi-
florum
Aerial parts Infusion Problems with the
bladder, enlarged
prostate, reducing
pain in the blad-
der, as a diuretic,
kidney diseases
Flowers Infusion Bladder inflam-
mation, enlarged
prostate
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Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Equisetum arvense♦Non-fertile aerial
parts
Infusion Urinary ducts ail-
ments and inflam-
mation, joints dis-
eases, maintaining
mineral balance,
osteoporosis,
urinary tract
problems, diarrhea,
detoxification,
pulmonary and
kidney cleansing,
regulating uric
acid level in blood,
bladder sand and
disorders, stopping
nose bleeding,
sclerosis, cancer
prevention
Kidney diseases
Tincture Massaging tired
legs and arms
Fertile aerial parts#Infusion Urinary tract
inflammation,
urinary tract
cleansing, kidney
ailments, kidney
sand elimination,
bladder ailments,
reduction in
frequent urination,
genital inflamma-
tion in women
Equisetum tel-
mateia
Apical parts Decoction Decoction
prepared together
with corn silk and
young ears of corn
is used against
kidney and urinary
tract ailments
Eupatorium can-
nabinum
Whole plant Infusion Metabolism regu-
lation, hormone
stabilization
Tincture Osteoporosis
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Page 20 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Aerial parts Infusion Cholesterol level
regulation
Flowers Infusion Kidney problems,
metabolism
regulation
Euphrasia officinalis Whole plant Infusion Eye treatment
Aerial parts Infusion Treatment of eye
diseases, cataracts
Filipendula hexa-
petala
Flowers Infusion Blood vessels
strengthening,
stimulation,
preventing cardiac
arrest, stomach dis-
orders treatment,
heart disorders
hypertension,
treatment of kid-
ney inflammation,
as a diuretic
Leaves Infusion Liver and kidney
disorders
Roots Infusion Respiratory tract
disorders
Fragaria vesca Flowers and leaves Infusion Immune system
strengthening
Leaves Fresh Stomach ailments
Infusion Heart disorders,
general health
condition improve-
ment
Stomach
problems, liver
cleansing, against
diarrhea, against
cough, menstrual
problems
Galium odoratum Flowers Infusion Respiratory tract
inflammation,
diuretic, blood
cleansing, against
migraine
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Page 21 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Galium verum Aerial parts Infusion Against cancer,
kidney problems,
thyroid disorders,
stomach diseases,
headache, liver
inflammation,
respiratory tract
disorders, hor-
monal stabilizer,
regulation of
female and thyroid
hormones
Balm Skin diseases
Flowers Infusion Bronchitis, pulmo-
nary diseases
Balm Skin cancer
Geranium rober-
tianum
Aerial parts Infusion Mouth and throat
inflammation
Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Leaves Infusion Hormone regula-
tion
Tincture Hormone regula-
tion
Hedera helix♦Twigs#Infusion Hemorrhoids
Fruits#Tincture Rheumatism
Leaves Infusion Bronchitis, sore
throat, against
cough
Respiratory ail-
ments, bladder
inflammation, kid-
ney and bladder
stones and sand,
hemorrhoids
Tincture Respiratory ail-
ments, rheuma-
tism
Oil extract Eczema
Helianthus tubero-
sus
Tuber Fresh, revetment Mumps
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Page 22 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Hieracium pilosella Whole plant Infusion Bladder inflamma-
tion, treatment of
urinary disorders
Humulus lupulus♦Fruits#Infusion Mental diseases,
calming effect,
insomnia
Hypericum perfo-
ratum♦Aerial parts Infusion Improve general
health condition,
stomach ailments
Calming effects,
respiratory system
disorders, depres-
sion
Stomach problems
Tincture Depression, stom-
ach ailments
Balm Wound healing,
burns, scratches,
cuts
Oil extract Wound healing
Flowering apical
parts
Infusion Stomach disorders,
gastric ailments,
gallbladder stones,
antibacterial
activity, gastric and
intestine ulcer
Oil extract Wounds, cuts,
burns, gastric ulcer
Flowers#Infusion Gastritis, gastric
disorders, cough,
general health
condition improve-
ment, hemor-
rhoids, private
areas rinse
Heartburn, gall-
bladder ailments,
mouthwash,
strengthening
immunity, calming
effect, pulmonary
diseases, depres-
sion, gallbladder
stones, detoxifica-
tion, gynecological
ailments, kidney
sand, medical
panacea, digestive
system disorders,
general health
condition improve-
ment, throat rinsing
against bed wetting,
infections, bladder
inflammation and
diseases, cold
Gastric ulcer, stom-
ach pain, urinary
tract infections,
throat inflammation
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Page 23 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Tincture Wounds, calming
effect in stressful
situations
Oil extract Wounds, burns,
skin diseases,
problematic moles,
improve general
health condition,
bruises, cuts,
against vaginal dis-
charge, inflamma-
tion, gynecological
ailments, surgery
incision healing,
scars, hemorrhoids,
muscle spasm
Balm Burns, decubitus
wounds, cuts, face
eczema, scratches,
injuries, bee and
wasp stings,
wounds healing
Flowers and
leaves#Oil extract Wounds
Balm Burns, wounds
Juglans regia Fruits Tincture Unriped fruits are
used for regulation
of thyroid gland,
source of iodine,
against gastric
inflammation
Leaves Infusion Function regula-
tion of thyroid
gland
Bath Treatment of bar-
ren, pain release,
bone diseases
Kickxia elatine * Whole plant Infusion Against enuresis
nocturna in
children
Aerial parts Fresh, revetment Skin cuts and
wounds treatment
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Page 24 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Linaria vulgaris Aerial parts Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Flowers Infusion Detoxification, liver
and spleen ail-
ments, elimination
of excess water
from organism
Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Loranthus euro-
paeus
Leaves Infusion Blood pressure
regulation, circula-
tion improvement
Lythrum salicaria♦Flowering aerial
parts
Infusion Against diarrhea in
children
Apical parts Fresh, revetment Against itch, skin
redness
Malus sylvestris Fruits Vinegar Reducing cho-
lesterol levels in
blood
Varicose veins,
fever, pain in legs
Malva sylvestris♦Flowers and leaves Infusion Against cough
Melilotus albus Aerial parts Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Melilotus officinalis♦Aerial parts Infusion As diuretic,
against migraine,
respiratory tract
disorders, regula-
tion digestion, liver
and gallbladder
disorders
Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Melissa officinalis♦Aerial parts#Infusion Against cold, calm-
ing effect
Stomach disorders,
painful and irregu-
lar menstruation,
sleep improve-
ment, positive
effect on nervous
system
Apical parts#Infusion Calming effect
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Page 25 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Flowers#Infusion Heart function
regulation
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Immune system
strengthening
Juice from leaves#Dried and irritated
skin
Leaves Infusion Against insomnia,
relaxing effect,
nausea, sleep
improvement,
mental illness,
nervousness,
tiredness, heart ail-
ments, pulmonary
ailments
Calming effect,
stomach disorders
Mentha longifolia Aerial parts Infusion Stomach ailments
Tincture Stomach ailments
Flowering apical
parts
Infusion Stomach disorders
Leaves Infusion Against insomnia,
nausea, stomach
ailments, calming
effect, pharynx
inflammation,
sinusitis
Ononis spinosa♦Roots Infusion Heart disorders
Decoction Eliminating kidney
sand and gallblad-
der stones
Origanum vulgare♦Aerial parts Infusion Calming effect,
improve appetite
Against cough,
cold, relaxing
effects, detoxifica-
tion, against bacte-
ria Escherichia coli
in urine, urinary
ducts infections,
triglycerides
levels regulation,
antifungal effect
against Candida,
regulation fat,
chest pain
Urinary tract inflam-
mation
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Page 26 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Flowering apical
parts
Calming effect
Flowers Infusion Against cold,
cough, throat
inflammation,
stomach problems,
calming effect
Flowers and leaves Infusion Relaxing effect,
detoxification,
disease prevention,
gastric problems
Leaves Infusion Lowering gastric
acid levels
Paliurus spina-
christi
Fruits Infusion Against diarrhea
Petasites albus* Whole plant Decoction Urinary tract
inflammation
Petasites hybridus Leaves Fresh, revetment Painful spots, back
and knee pain,
joint dislocation,
sprains
Roots Tincture Varicose veins,
circulation
improvement
Physalis alkekengi Fruits Fresh Ear pain
Maceration Ear pain
Pinus nigra Shoots Syrup Made from young
shoots is used for
pulmonal diseases
Pollen Mixed with honey Pneumonia, bron-
chitis, particularly
in children, expec-
toration
Leaves Infusion Respiratory tract
disorders, bron-
chitis
Bath Detoxification,
painful legs, circu-
lation improve-
ment
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Page 27 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Plantago lanceo-
lata♦Whole plant#Infusion Throat and tonsils
inflammation
Leaves Fresh Cuts, wounds, pus
removal
Infusion Gastric ulcer,
general health
condition improve-
ment
Gastritis, pulmonal
diseases, urinary
tract disorders,
prostate problems
Mixed with honey Pulmonal diseases Expectoration
Plantago major Juice from leaves Fresh, revetment Injuries, reducing
swelling after bee
sting, wounds
Leaves Fresh Heartburn, gastritis
Fresh, revetment Ingrown hairs, skin
ulcers
Burns, callus on
heel, injuries,
swollen feet, pain-
ful spots, clavus,
sting mosquitoes,
rheumatism, hem-
orrhage, animal
bites, cuts, skin
inflammation
Purulent wounds,
wound healing,
inflammation after
sting
Infusion Stomach pain,
against frequent
urination, general
health condition
improvement
Nausea, stomach
ailments, cough,
pulmonary dis-
eases, kidney and
bladder ailments,
sore throat, against
bacteria Escherichia
coli, expectoration,
gastric mucosa
regeneration,
digestion improve-
ment, asthma,
bronchitis
Gastric ulcer
Fresh mixed with
honey
Stomach prob-
lems, pulmonary
diseases, expecto-
ration, vocal cords
ailments
Balm Decubitus wounds
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Page 28 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Polygonum avicu-
lare♦Whole plant#Infusion Heart disorders,
kidney disorders,
kidney and gall-
bladder stones
Aerial parts Infusion Bladder disorders,
treatment of
polycystic ovaries,
improving brain
circulation
As diuretic, rheu-
matism, kidney
cysts, pulmonary
disorders, stomach
pain
Potentilla reptans Leaves Infusion Against diarrhea
Prunella vulgaris♦Aerial parts#Infusion Stomach diseases
Flowering apical
parts#Infusion Eyewash
Prunus spinosa Fruits Fresh Stomach problems
Infusion Asthma, anemia,
against diarrhea,
stomach diseases,
complete blood
count improve-
ment
Wine Anemia
Tincture Strengthening
immunity
Pulmonaria
officinalis
Aerial parts Infusion Pulmonary dis-
eases, pneumonia,
bronchitis
Flowers Infusion Pulmonary
diseases
Flowers and leaves Infusion Pulmonary
diseases
Leaves Infusion Pulmonary
diseases, against
cold, flu
Bronchitis
Pyrus pyraster Leaves Infusion Against bacteria
Escherichia coli in
urine, urinary ducts
infections
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Page 29 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Quercus cerris Bark Infusion Strengthen-
ing immunity,
respiratory tract
problems, urinary
ducts, stomach
ailments
Robinia pseudoa-
cacia
Flowers Infusion Expectoration,
cold, pulmonary
diseases
Balm Rheumatism
Rosa canina♦Fruits Infusion Medical panacea,
against cold,
immune system
strengthening,
kidney problems
(elimination of
sand and stone),
calming effect,
diarrhea, against
virus, vitamin
deficiency, fever,
relaxing effects
Throat ailments, flu,
cough
Maceration Source of vitamin
C
Decoction Immune system
strengthening,
cold, blood pres-
sure lowering,
fever
Tincture Immune system
strengthening, oral
cavity rinse and
disinfection
Rubus plicatus Fruits Wine Anemia, immune
system strength-
ening
Leaves Fresh, revetment Wound cleansing
and healing, rheu-
matic pain
Fresh Stomach disorders
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Page 30 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Infusion Against cough,
blood cleansing,
immune system
strengthening,
respiratory tract
disorders, stomach
ailments, urinary
tract problems,
appendicitis
Rubus ulmifolius Flowers and leaves Infusion Immune system
strengthening
Leaves Fresh, revetment Purulent wounds
Infusion Heart and blood
strengthening,
cold, cough,
throat and tonsils
ailments
Rubus caesius Leaves Infusion Menstrual cycle
regulation
Rumex acetosa Leaves Fresh Stomach problems
Rumex crispus Seeds Infusion Against diarrhea
in children and
adults
Rumex patientia Seeds Infusion Against diarrhea
in children and
adults
Salix alba Bark Infusion Lowering elevated
body tempera-
ture, liver, spleen
and gallbladder
ailments, diuretic,
against headache,
bladder diseases
Salix purpurea♦Bark Infusion It is drunk after
accidents, for
bruises and wound
healing
Decoction Fever
Sambucus ebulus Roots Decoction As revetment, for
gallbladder stone
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Page 31 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Sambucus nigra♦Twigs#Balm Burns treatment Wounds, scratches,
wrinkles, acne,
facial care, spider
bite, allergies,
hemorrhoids
Fruits#s Fresh Detoxification,
complete blood
count improve-
ment
Wine Pulmonary
diseases, immune
system strength-
ening
Flowers Infusion Asthma, flu,
calming effect,
throat ailments
and inflamma-
tion, detoxifica-
tion, respiratory
tract problems,
sweating improve-
ment, expectora-
tion, sneezing,
pneumonia,
stomach problems,
strengthening
immunity, blood
pressure problems,
relaxing effect
Against cough,
cold, pulmonary
problems, bronchitis,
fever
Syrup Against cough,
immune system
strengthening
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Bronchitis, stom-
ach diseases
Satureja subspicata Flowers and leaves Infusion Stomach prob-
lems, bronchitis
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Page 32 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Aerial parts Infusion Against cold,
gastric ailments,
strengthen-
ing immunity,
pulmonary
diseases, against
cough, stomach
discomfort
Sempervivum
tectorum ▲
Leaves Fresh Against head-
ache▲, lowering
blood sugar, heart-
burn, stomach
problems, lowering
triglyceride levels
cancer prevention
Fresh, revetment Wounds, injuries,
burns,
Fresh, mixed with
honey
Liver problems,
detoxification,
against cysts
(breast cysts) and
tumors
Juice from leaves Fresh Ear pain, injuries,
skin wounds, fat in
the ears
Stachys officinalis Aerial parts Infusion Respiratory
tract problems,
detoxification,
asthma, bronchitis,
flatulence
Aerial parts and
flowers
Infusion Stomach diseases,
Flowers Balm Decubitus wounds
Flowers and leaves Infusion Regeneration of
all cells in body,
against cysts,
stomach diseases,
cleansing intestine
Leaves Fresh, revetment Wounds healing
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Page 33 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Infusion Stomach ailments,
immune system
strengthening, pul-
monary diseases,
against cancer,
tumors, cysts on
kidneys
Symphytum
officinale
Leaves Fresh, revetment Wounds, inflam-
mation, gout,
sprains, fracture,
joint ailments
Balm Sprains, joint ail-
ments
Ointment Treatment of
closed wounds
Varicose veins
Roots Infusion Rheumatism, heel
callus removal,
general health
condition improve-
ment, bones pain
Tincture Joints inflamma-
tion, against leg
pain, treatment of
closed wounds,
varicose veins
Rheumatism,
osteoporosis,
heel callus
removal, all types
of hematomas,
meniscus injury,
capillary problems,
treatment of
digestive system
(intestine, stomach
problems)
Ointment Gout, against pain,
varicose veins
Balm Rheumatism,
ligament injury,
cartilage restora-
tion, arthrosis,
bone pain, muscle
braking, joint dislo-
cation, sprains
Fresh, revetment Painful spots
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Page 34 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Tincture Varicose veins,
regulation of
circulation
Tanacetum vulgare Flowering apical
parts of plant
Infusion Improving appetite,
stomach strength-
ening, kidney stones
and sand elimina-
tion, diuretic
Leaves Fresh, revetment Placed on eyes and
forehead for reduc-
ing headache
Taraxacum sect.
Ruderalia ♦▲
Flowers#Infusion Detoxification,
liver, gastric, pul-
monary ailments,
face washing▲,
jaundice▲
Tincture Liver cleansing
Peduncle#Fresh Diabetes
Leaves#Infusion Menstrual cycle
regulation, diuretic
Tincture Wound rinse,
endometrial pol-
yps, positive effect
on vocal cords▲
Fresh Detoxification,
heartburn, gastric
cancer
Roots Infusion Blood strengthen-
ing, against breast
cancer, stomach
and liver diseases,
throat ailments,
problems with uri-
nary ducts, appe-
tite improvement,
blood cleansing,
menstrual cycle
regulation, diuretic,
detoxification,
gynecological
ailments, inflam-
mations, immune
system strength-
ening, against
malignancies
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Page 35 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Tincture Liver cleansing and
ailments, against
malignancy
Powder Liver ailments
Teucrium chamae-
drys▲
Aerial parts Infusion Stomach, pancreas,
liver and spleen
disorders, res-
piratory diseases,
improving diges-
tion, cataract treat-
ment▲, eye ail-
ments▲, against
nausea, reducing
blood sugar levels,
weight loss, stom-
ach acid reduction,
gastric ulcer,
Gastric disorders
Flowers Infusion Heartburn, gastric
disorders, against
cough, improving
appetite
Flowers and leaves Infusion Gastric, liver and
gallbladder disor-
ders, improving
digestion, blood
pressure regula-
tion, reducing
blood sugar levels,
against asthma
Teucrium monta-
num
Whole plant Infusion Medical panacea
Aerial parts Infusion Detoxification,
immune system
strengthen-
ing, headache,
stomach ailments,
improving appe-
tite, digestive and
respiratory system
disorders
Tincture Improving appetite
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Page 36 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Flowers and leaves Infusion For better appetite,
against cold
Tincture For better appetite,
against cold
Thymus serpyllum♦Whole plant#Infusion Calming effect,
digestion regula-
tion, stomach
ailments, medical
panacea
Aerial parts Infusion Calming effect,
headache,
pneumonia,
bronchitis, relaxing
effect, pulmonary
problems, cough,
stomach ailments,
respiratory tract
disorders, vertigo,
migraine, physical
weakness, vaginal
secret elimina-
tion, disinfection,
asthma
Tincture Massaging head
against headache
Syrup Immune system
strengthening,
cough
Flowers#Infusion Calming effect,
blood ves-
sels cleans-
ing, digestion
regulation, gastric
and pulmonal
disorders, throat
inflammation,
cough, bronchitis,
detoxification
Oil extract Relaxing effect
Flowers and
leaves#Infusion Calming effect,
against cold and
cough
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Page 37 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 4 (continued)
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Tilia platyphyllos♦Flowers Infusion Improve general
health condition,
relaxing effect
Throat inflamma-
tion, sneezing, res-
piratory diseases,
against bacteria
and viruses,
immune system
strengthening,
medical panacea,
pulmonary
ailments, seda-
tive, circulation
improvement,
Against cold, cough,
flu, fever, sweating
improvement for
fever reduction,
calming effect,
insomnia
Leaves#Infusion Improving sweat-
ing
Tussilago farfara Flowers Infusion Against cough
Flowers and leaves Infusion Pulmonary prob-
lems
Leaves Fresh, revetment Nail treatment,
painful spots
Infusion Bronchitis Respiratory
problems, asthma,
cough, pulmonal
ailments, digestion
regulation,
Syrup Against cough,
immune system
strengthening
Trifolium pratense Aerial parts Infusion Hormonal
stabilizer, thyroid
gland hormones
regulation, female
hormones regula-
tion
Flowers Infusion Against cancer,
gynecological
problems, hor-
monal stabilizer,
regulation of
female and thyroid
hormones
Urtica dioica♦Whole plant#Infusion Blood cleans-
ing, nervousness
reducing
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Page 38 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Aerial parts Infusion Iron deficiency Anemia, complete
blood count
improvement
Immune system
strengthening
Apical parts Infusion Anemia, physical
weakness, iron
source
Immune system
strengthening, iron
deficiency
Apical parts and
leaves
Infusion Anemia, strength-
ening immunity
Seeds#Mixed with honey Anemia Strengthening
immunity, hemo-
globin increasing,
medical panacea
Leaves Fresh, revetment Pain relief
Powder Wounds
Infusion Iron deficiency Strengthening
immunity, circula-
tion improvement,
mood improve-
ment, calming
effects, pain in
chest, blood
strengthening,
stomach problems,
skin diseases,
detoxification,
complete blood
count improve-
ment, diuretic,
urinary ducts
ailments, kidney
diseases
Anemia
Roots#Infusion Prostate ailments,
strengthening
immunity, blood
cleansing, female
reproductive
system cancer
Anemia
Bath Circulation
improvement
Tincture Anemia
Vaccinium vitis-
idaea
Fruits Mixed with honey Immune system
strengthening
Table 4 (continued)
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Page 39 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Scientic name Part of the plant Type of preparation Medicinal purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Leaves Infusion Urinary tract and
kidney ailments,
against bacteria
and Escherichia
coli, regulation of
uric acid in blood,
kidney and urinary
ducts inflamma-
tion, urinary ducts
cleansing
Valeriana offici-
nalis♦Roots Cold maceration Calming effects,
depression, tachy-
cardia, headache,
treatment of
neuroses
Tincture Against insomnia,
calming effects
Verbascum thap-
sus♦Whole plant#Decoction Against skin warts
Verbena officinalis♦Aerial parts Infusion Headache, as anti-
biotic, hormonal
imbalance, kidney
cleansing, bronchi-
tis, liver treatment,
bladder limescale
elimination
Veronica offici-
nalis▲
Aerial parts Infusion Immune system
strengthening,
blood vessels
cleansing▲, sleep
improvement,
calming effects
Viola odorata Flowers and leaves Infusion Heart disorders
Xanthium spino-
sum*
Aerial parts Decoction Against diarrhea
Xeranthemum cylin-
draceum*
Aerial parts Soaked with warm
water and applied
as a revetment on
the back against
fever
* First time mentioned usage in Serbia; ♦ Plants are included in European Pharmacopoeia 8.0;# Plant parts are dierent from those cited in European Pharmacopoeia 8.0; ▲ New usage of well known traditional plants
Table 4 (continued)
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Page 40 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 5 Human and domestic animal nutrition and veterinary medicine use of plant species of the Aleksinac and Bor districts
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Achillea
millefo-
lium
Leaves Fresh As spice
Agrimonia
eupatoria
Whole
plant Fresh Against
udder
inflam-
mation
in cows
(mastitis)
Aerial
parts Fresh Against
udder
inflam-
mation
in cows
(mastitis)
Fruits Fresh Against
udder
inflam-
mation in
cows
Allium
ursinum
Leaves Fresh As salad
Dry As spice
Asarum
euro-
paeum
Leaves Spice for
cooked beans
Calendula
officinalis
Flowers Fresh As salad
Cichorium
intybus
Whole
plant Decoction Against
diarrhea in
pigs
Roots Decoction Against
diarrhea in
domestic
animals
Cornus
mas
Fruits Fresh As fruit
Processed Juice, jam,
Serbian delicacy
“slatko,” marma-
lade, for cookies
Pekmez
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Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Tincture Liqueur
Corylus
colurna
Fruits Fresh As food
Crataegus
monog-
yna
Fruits Fresh Used in
diet
Cydonia
oblonga
Fruits Processed Serbian
delicacy
"slatko”
Leaves Decoction Against
diarrhea in
domestic
animals
Cynodon
dactylon
Aerial
parts Fresh Food for
domestic
animals
Equisetum
arvense
Aerial
parts Infusion Against
diseases
in pigs
Shoots Infusion Diseases
in piglets
Fragaria
vesca
Fruits Fresh As fruit
Pro-
cessed Serbian delicacy
“slatko,” juice, for
ice cream, jam
Helleborus
odorus
Whole
plant Fresh,
revet-
ment
Swollen
udder in
sheep
Roots Fresh "natravu-
vanje"
Dry "natravu-
vanje"
Juglans
regia
Fruits Used in
diet
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Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Lotus
cornicula-
tus*
Aerial
parts Meadow
hay,
livestock
nutrition,
used as
food for
domestic
animals
Whole
plant For
domestic
animals
as food
Lysi-
machia
nummu-
laria
Leaves Fresh Livestock
nutrition
Lythrum
salicaria
Flowering
aerial parts Infusion Against
diarrhea in
pigs
Malus
sylvestris
Fruits Fresh Used in diet as
fruit
Processed Homemade
vinegar
Dry Used in diet as
dried fruit
Melissa
officinalis
Leaves Processed Juice
Fresh As spice for
broth
Origanum
vulgare
Aerial
parts As spice
Physalis
alkekengi
Fruits Fresh As fruit
Processed Serbian
delicacy
“slatko”
Plantago
lanceo-
lata
Leaves Fresh As salad
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Page 43 of 68
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Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Plantago
major
Leaves Fresh As salad
Fresh,
revet-
ment
Open
wounds
(dogs
and cats)
Polygo-
num
aviculare
Leaves Fresh As food
for
canary
Used in
animal diet
Prunella
vulgaris
Flower-
ing apical
parts
Infusion Cow eyes
treatment
by flushing
Prunus
spinosa
Fruits Fresh Food sup-
plement in
crystallized
honey
As fruit
Pro-
cessed Jam, juice,
compote
Pyrus
pyraster
Fruits Fresh As fruit
Dry As dried fruit
Quercus
cerris
Fruits Dry Flour, coffee
Robinia
pseudoa-
cacia▲
Flowers Fresh Fresh flowers
are nibbled
Pro-
cessed Juice, Serbian
delicacy
"slatko",
honey, as food
(breaded) ▲
Rosa
canina
Fruits Fresh As fruit
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Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Processed Juice, wine,
pekmez Jam
Petals Pro-
cessed Serbian delicacy
"slatko"
Rubus
plicatus*Fruits Fresh As fruit
Pro-
cessed Serbian
delicacy"slatko",
juice, jam, for
cookies, wine,
marmalade
Rubus
ulmifolius
Fruits Processed Juice,
Serbian
delicacy
"slatko"
Rumex
acetosa
Leaves Fresh As salad, fresh
leaves are nib-
bled
Pro-
cessed Broth, salt pie,
cooked dish
Rumex
crispus
Whole
plant Decoction Against
diarrhea in
domestic
animals
Rumex
patientia
Seeds Infusion Against
diarrhea
(pigs and
cows)
Leaves Pro-
cessed Salt pie, broth,
fried dish
Fresh Used in
animal
diet
Sambucus
nigra
Fruits Fresh Used in
diet
Processed Compot Jam Serbian
delicacy
"slatko"
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Page 45 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Flowers Processed Juice
Satureja
subspi-
cata
Aerial
parts As spice
Semper-
vivum
tectorum
Leaves Fresh Fresh leaves are
nibbled
Sorbus
aucuparia
Fruits Fresh As food
Pro-
cessed Wine, marma-
lade, rakija
Dry As dried fruit
Taraxa-
cum sect.
Ruderalia
Flowers Processed Serbian delicacy
"slatko", breaded
as food
Dandelion
"honey"
Peduncle Fresh Used in diet
Pedun-
cle and
leaves
Fresh As salad
Leaves Fresh As salad
Thymus
serpyllum
Whole
plant Dry As spice
Aerial
parts Fresh As spice for
chicken and
turkey meat
Flowers As spice
Tilia platy-
phyllos
Trunk Infusion Against
diarrhea
in live-
stock
Flowers Pro-
cessed Juice
Leaves Fresh Fresh leaves are
used for tradi-
tional Serbian
food sarma
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Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Trifolium
pratense
Flowers Fresh Fresh flowers
are nibbled
Trifolium
repens
Flowers Fresh Fresh flowers
are nibbled
Whole
plant As food
for
domestic
animals
Aerial
parts Fresh Animal
diet
Dried Animal
diet
Urtica
dioica
Aerial parts Fresh Food for
turkeys Food for
pigs
Pro-
cessed Juice, broth,
salt pie
Apical parts Fresh Salad,
rolled
in small
balls and
swallowed,
fresh
leaves are
added to
home-
made
juices to
enrich
them with
iron
Processed Fried dish,
salt pie, broth,
cooked dish
Juice
Apical
parts and
leaves
Pro-
cessed Fried dish
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Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 5 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Human nutrition Veterinary purposes Animal nutritionSS
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor
Leaves Processed Fried dish,
cooked dish,
salt pie, juice, for
bread
Broth
As spice
Vaccinium
vitis-idaea
Fruits Fresh Used in diet as
fruit
Pro-
cessed Liqueur
Verbas-
cum
thapsus
Whole
plant Decoction Against
warts
on cows’
udder
Verbena
offici-
nalis▲
Aerial
parts Fresh Udder
inflam-
mation in
cows▲
Vicia
cracca*Whole
plant Fresh Used in
animal
diet
Aerial
parts Dry Used as
food for
domestic
animals,
meadow
hay
Xanthium
spino-
sum*
Aerial
parts Decoction Against
diarrhea
(pigs)
* First time mentioned usage in Serbia; ▲ New usage of well known traditional plants
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Page 48 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Frequency ofcitation (FC), relative frequency ofcitation
(RFC) andrelative importance index (RI)
In the present study, FC values ranged from 0.05 to 13.1
(Additional file1: Tables3 and 4). e highest FC values
are recorded for Hypericum perforatum (13.1), followed
by Urtica dioica (9.0) and Plantago major (5.1). RFC val-
ues ranged from 0.001 to 0.2 (Additional file1: Tables3
and 4). e highest RFC was recorded for Hypericum
perforatum (0.2) and Urtica dioica (0.2) followed by
Plantago major (0.1). As can be seen, the ethnomedicinal
plants having high RFC values indicated their abundant
use and widespread knowledge among the local commu-
nities. RI values ranged from 0.1 to 1 (Additional file1:
Tables3 and 4). e highest RI values were calculated for
Urtica dioica (1.0), followed by Hypericum perforatum
(0.7) and Rosa canina (0.7).
All these plants are among the most frequently
reported in several neighboring regions, i.e., studied sites
from southeast and south Serbia and from Kosovo [12,
17–19, 21].
Informant consensus factor
e documented uses of plants in folk medicine refer to
the treatment of 15 different groups of disorders. e
ICF values ranged from 0.0 to 100.0% and 36.4% to 88.5%
for Aleksinac and Bor districts, respectively. e highest
ICF value found for the Aleksinac district was related to
endocrine system disorders followed by skin-related dis-
orders (79.7%) and circulatory system disorders (69.4%),
while the lowest ICF value was found for antiseptic activ-
ity and metabolic disorders (0.0%). On the other hand,
the highest ICF value for the Bor district was determined
for skin disorders (88.5%), followed by digestive sys-
tem disorders (83.5%) and respiratory system disorders
(81.4%), while the lowest ICF value was 36.4% for anti-
septic activity (Additional file1: Table5). A large number
of species described by respondents of Bor district are
used for the prevention and healing of digestive and res-
piratory system disorders. Such a fact might be related to
very expressed air and soil pollution, as a consequence of
mining and severe dust emission [49]. For the two stud-
ied regions considered together, the ICF values ranged
from 33.3% to 88.9%. e highest ICF value was deter-
mined for skin disorders, followed by respiratory system
disorders (82.1%) and digestive system disorders (82.1%),
while the lowest ICF value was found for reproductive
system disorders (51.4%) and antiseptic activity (33.3%)
(Additional file1: Table6).
e ICF values ranged from 0.0% to 100.0% and 0.0%
to 100.0% for men and women in the Aleksinac dis-
trict, respectively. e highest ICF value found for men
was related to endocrine system disorders followed by
skin-related disorders (71.4%) and circulatory system
disorders (50.0%), while the lowest was found for meta-
bolic disorders, musculoskeletal system disorders, sen-
sory system disorders, tumor ailments and urinary
system disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the high-
est ICF value for women was determined for endocrine
system disorders and tumor ailments, followed by skin-
related disorders (78.4%), while the lowest was recorded
for musculoskeletal and sensory system disorders (0.0%)
(Additional file1: Table7). When it comes to Bor dis-
trict, the ICF values ranged from 0.0 to 85.7% and 30.0%
to 86.9% for men and women, respectively. e highest
ICF value found for men was related to sensory system
disorders followed by skin (77.8%) and immune sys-
tem disorders (63.0%), while the lowest was recorded
for metabolic disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the
highest ICF value for women was determined for skin
system disorders and digestive system disorders (82.8%)
followed by immune system disorders (81.5%), while the
lowest was recorded for antiseptic activity (Additional
file1: Table8). In both districts together, the ICF values
ranged from 0.0 to 100.0% and 27.3 to 88.0% for men
and women, respectively. e highest ICF value found
for men was related to endocrine system disorders fol-
lowed by skin system disorders (79.6%) and immune sys-
tem disorders (69.4%), while the lowest was recorded for
metabolic disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the high-
est ICF value for women was determined for skin-related
disorders, followed by immune system disorders (82.8%)
and respiratory system disorders (80.1%), while the low-
est was recorded for antiseptic activity (27.3%) (Addi-
tional file1: Table9).
Regarding differences recorded in the city and sur-
rounding villages, it was shown that the ICF values
ranged from 0.0 to 100.0% in Aleksinac district. e
highest ICF value found for both, citizens from the
town and citizens from surrounding villages, was
related to endocrine system disorders followed by skin
system disorders (66.7% and 80.4%, respectively), while
the lowest was recorded for musculoskeletal, reproduc-
tive, respiratory, sensory, urinary system disorders and
musculoskeletal system disorders, respectively (Addi-
tional file1: Table10). When it comes to Bor district
the ICF values ranged from 29.2 to 80.0% and 0.0 to
87.5% for citizens from the town and citizens from sur-
rounding villages, respectively. e highest ICF value
found for citizens from town was related to skin sys-
tem disorders followed by digestive system disorders
(74.4%), while the lowest was recorded for general
health (29.2%). On the other hand, the highest ICF
value for citizens from surrounding villages was deter-
mined for sensory system disorders, followed by skin
(82.4%) and respiratory system disorders (77.3%), while
the lowest was recorded for metabolic disorders (0.0%)
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Page 49 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
Table 6 Folk and religious rituals and ethnoculture, and other purposes of plant species of the Aleksinac and Bor districts
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Achillea mille-
folium
Stem Used for I
Ching
Flowers Used for mak-
ing garlands
on the Fest
day dedicate
to St. John
(celebrated on
July 7)
Asarum euro-
paeum
Leaves Protection
against evil
forces. Leaves
are used as
home and chil-
dren protector
Roots Maceration Fragrant bath
Asparagus
officinalis
Aerial parts Ornamental,
used for mak-
ing bouquets
Calendula
officinalis
Aerial parts Oil extract Tanning oil
Flowers Infusion Skin complex-
ion improve-
ment
Chelidonium
majus
Whole plant Decoction Egg dyeing
Cichorium
intybus
Aerial parts Guardian of
travelers
Roots Powder Substitute for
coffee
Clematis
vitalba
Branches Handmade
beehive
(“trmka")
Cornus mas Twigs Gate decora-
tion for St.
George’s Day
(celebrated on
May 6)
Gate
decoration
for Sfințișori
(celebrated on
March 22)
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Table 6 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Flowers Fresh flowers
are used for
custom for
Easter
Corylus colurna Branches The stick is
used as pro-
tection against
snakebite, gate
decoration
with hand-
made cross
made with
branches
Fruits Fresh fruits are
talismans
Dipsacus
laciniatus
Aerial parts Home protec-
tion against
evil forces
Galium aparine Whole plant Used for
custom for St.
George’s Day
(celebrated on
May 6)
Galium verum Aerial parts Against spells,
used for mak-
ing garlands
on the Fest
day dedicate
to St. John
(celebrated on
July 7)
Geranium mac-
rorrhizum
Whole plant Ornamental
plant
Flowers Used on
the Fest day
dedicate to
St. George
(celebrated on
May 6)
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Table 6 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Flowers and
leaves Used for mak-
ing garlands
on the Fest
day dedicate
to St. George
(celebrated on
May 6)
Helleborus
odorus
Aerial parts Protection
against evil
forces used
fresh on the
Fest day
dedicate to
St. George
(celebrated on
May 6)
Flowers Gate decora-
tion for St.
George’s Day
(celebrated on
May 6)
Leaves Gate decora-
tion for St.
George’s Day
(celebrated on
May 6)
Humulus
lupulus
Fruits Stuffing pil-
lows for better
sleep
Hypericum
perforatum
Aerial parts Used for mak-
ing garlands
on the Fest
day dedicate
to St. John
(celebrated on
July 7)
Flowers Infusion Tea made
of flowers is
drunk against
evil spirits
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Table 6 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Oil extract As a cosmetic
aid, face mask
Laserpitium
latifolium*Roots Dry roots are
used for pro-
tection from
evil forces and
spells (home
and personal-
ity protection)
Whole plant Whole fresh
plant is used as
home protec-
tor against evil
forces
Melilotus
officinalis
Aerial parts Protection
against evil
forces
Melissa offici-
nalis
Leaves Fresh Fresh leaves are
used for bee
swarming
Peucedanum
longifolium
Whole plant Ornamental
plant
Pinus nigra J. F Trunk Resin source
Quercus cerris Branches Branches with
leaves is used
for orthodox
Christmas as
ceremonial
tree
Trunk Firewood
Rosa canina Seeds Balm Cosmetic
product for
face care
routine
Petals Micellar water Cosmetic
product for
face care
routine
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Table 6 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Salix alba Twigs Young twig is
placed around
the waist to
prevent back
pain for whole
year at St.
George’s Day,
twigs with
leaves are
used to make
garlands for St.
George’s Day
(celebrated
on May 6).
Fresh twigs are
used for gate
decoration
for Lazarus
Saturday
Homemade
baskets from
twigs without
leaves
Salix purpurea Twigs Gate decora-
tion for St.
George’s Day
(celebrated on
May 6)
Sambucus
ebulus
Fruits Fruits were
recalled for ink
making
Sempervivum
tectorum
Whole plant Grown in the
garden as
home protec-
tion
Tanacetum
vulgare
Aerial parts For bouquets,
ornamental
plant
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Table 6 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Flowers Fresh flowers
are used for
making gar-
lands on the
Fest day dedi-
cate to St. John
(celebrated on
July 7), decora-
tive
Decoction Protection
against evil
forces by
sprinkling
Taraxacum
sect. Ruderalia
Flowers Decoction Egg dyeing
Teucrium
chamaedrys
Flowers and
leaves Infusion Hair washing
Tilia platyphyl-
los▲
Flowers Decoction Egg dyeing▲
Trifolium
pratense
Leaves Fresh leaf is
used for mak-
ing patterns
when eggs
are dyed for
Orthodox
Easter
Urtica dioica▲Whole plant Cold macera-
tion Vegetable
plants and
flowers water-
ing
Spraying
vegetables,
insecticide
Decoction Strengthening
hair root Egg dyeing
Aerial parts Decoction Egg dyeing,
strengthening
hair root
Infusion Spraying
peppers and
tomatoes
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Table 6 (continued)
Scientic
name Part of the plant Type of preparation Beliefs and contemplation Other purposes
Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/
Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac Bor Aleksinac/Bor
Maceration Mixed with
garlic is used
as a pesticide
Spraying
vegetables,
insecticide
Leaves Fresh, revet-
ment Rubbing ear
before pierc-
ing▲
Decoction Strengthening
hair root
Roots Decoction Against hair
loss, hair wash-
ing, head rinse
Strengthening
hair roots
Xeranthemum
cylindraceum*Aerial parts Homemade
broom
*First time mentioned usage in Serbia; ▲ New usage of well known traditional plants
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(Additional file1: Table11). In both districts, the ICF
values ranged from 28.0 to 82.5% and 0.0 to 100.0% for
citizens from the town and citizens from surrounding
villages, respectively. e highest ICF value found for
citizens from town was related to skin system disorders
followed by digestive (75.1%) and respiratory system
disorders (74.8%), while the lowest was recorded for
general health (28.0%). On the other hand, the highest
ICF value for citizens from surrounding villages was
determined for endocrine system disorders followed
by skin (86.8%) and immune system disorders (79.2%),
while the lowest was recorded for antiseptic activity
(0.0%) (Additional file1: Table12).
Use value (UV)
In the present study, the UV (Additional file1: Table13)
in Aleksinac district ranged between 0.02 and 0.8. Based
on UV data, the five most commonly used ethnomedici-
nal plant species were Hypericum perforatum (0.8), Urtica
dioica (0.6), Plantago major (0.3), Sambucus nigra (0.3)
and Achillea millefolium (0.3). e UV (Additional file1:
Table14) in Bor district ranged between 0.01 and 1.4. e
five most commonly used ethnomedicinal plant species
in Bor district were Urtica dioica (1.4), Hypericum perfo-
ratum (1.3), Sambucus nigra (1.1), Rosa canina (0.9) and
Rubus plicatus (0.7). ese species were used for diverse
purposes which are indicated in Tables4, 5 and 6.
Fig. 1 Principal coordinate analysis of plants used in traditional human medicine in surveyed area in East Serbia
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Table 7 Ethnobotanical comparison between our results and ethnobotanical data conducted in other investigated areas of Serbia
Area Year(s) when
the studies
conducted
No. of
plant
taxa
No. of
medicinal
taxa
No. of taxa
used in
human
nutrition
No. of taxa
used in
veterinary
medicine
No. of
taxa used
in animal
nutrition
No. of taxa
used in
beliefs and
contemplation
No. of taxa
used in other
purposes
Plants that
overlap from
this study
with plants
from previous
studies
Jaccard Index References
Central Serbia 2002–2005 91 91 25 11 / / 7 43 27.33 Jarić et al. 12
Southwestern
Serbia 2010 62 62 5 3 / / 8 22 15.79 Pieroni et al. 13
Southwestern
Serbia 2011 69 69 3 / / / / 30 22.00 Šavikin et al. 14
Eastern Serbia 2011–2012 45 45 / / / / / 24 20.45 Zlatković et al.
15
Southeastern
Serbia 2012–2014 137 128 43 5 / / 16 30 28.72 Jarić et al. 16
Eastern Serbia 2016 37 37 19 3 8 1 17 20 14.39 Janaćković et al.
17
Eastern and
southeastern
Serbia
2015–2017 195 190 / / / 21 4 53 24.10 Matejić et al.18
Southeastern
Serbia 2015 85 / / / / / / 28 17.75 Živković et al. 19
Eastern Serbia 2017 192 / / 46 / / / 14 19.55 Marković et al.20
Eastern Serbia 2019 114 100 37 14 6 17 24 114 100.00 Present study
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Fidelity level
Fidelity level (FL) value in Aleksinac district ranged from
21 to 100%. e highest FL of 100% was recorded for
Allium ursinum and Crataegus monogyna (circulatory
system disorders), Althaea officinalis and Hedera helix
(respiratory system disorders) and Betula pendula (uri-
nary system disorders) (Additional file1: Table15). Fur-
ther results showed that FL value in Bor district ranged
from 22 to 100%. e highest FL of 100% was recorded
for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders),
Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and Rumex
patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file1:
Table16). In addition, the results for the entire studied
area showed that FL values range from 25 to 100%. e
highest FL of 100% was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris
(reproductive system disorders), Crataegus monogyna
and Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and
Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional
file1: Table17). FL values indicate that respondents from
Aleksinac district mostly use plants for skin system dis-
orders (five species), while respondents from Bor district
mostly use plants typical for the treatment of digestive
system disorders (13 species).
Based on use-records given by men and women, FL
values, in Aleksinac district, ranged from 75 to 100%
and 33.3 to 100.0%, respectively. e highest FL of 100%
according to men uses was recorded for Juglans regia
(endocrine system disorders) (Additional file1: Table18),
while for women was recorded for Betula pendula (uri-
nary system disorders), Crataegus monogyna (circula-
tory system disorders) and Hedera helix (respiratory
system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table19). On the
other hand, FL values in Bor district ranged from 30.8
to 88.9% (based on man uses) and 20.0 to 100.0% (based
on women uses). e highest FL according to men uses
was recorded for Melissa officinalis (nervous system dis-
orders) (Additional file 1: Table20), while for women
was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive sys-
tem disorders), Epilobium parviflorum (urinary system
disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system disor-
ders), Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and
Mentha longifolia and Rumex patientia (digestive system
Fig. 2 Novel information for Balkan region regarding usage of four species in the folk medicine. A Xeranthemum cylindraceum Sm. (Photograph by
Miletić, M.); B Asplenium viride Huds. (Photograph by Janaćković, P.); C Kickxia elatine (L.) Dumort (Public domain); D Alcea biennis Winterl (Photograph
by Miletić, M.)
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disorders) (Additional file1: Table21). In addition, the
results for the entire studied area showed that FL value
ranged from 27.8% to 100% (man uses) and 20.0% to
100% (women uses). e highest FL based on men use-
records was recorded for Juglans regia (endocrine system
disorders), Pulmonaria officinalis (respiratory system
disorders) and Sambucus nigra (immune system disor-
ders) (Additional file1: Table22). e highest FL based
on women use-records was recorded for Alchemilla vul-
garis (reproductive system disorders), Betula pendula
and Epilobium parviflorum (urinary system disorders),
Crataegus monogyna and Melilotus albus (circulatory
system disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system
disorders) and Mentha longifolia and Rumex patientia
(digestive system disorders) (Additional file1: Table23).
FL values indicate that men from Aleksinac district
mostly use plants for skin system disorders (two species),
while men from Bor district mostly use plants typical for
the treatment of digestive system disorders (five species).
FL values indicate that women from Aleksinac district
mostly use plants for skin system disorders (five spe-
cies), while women from Bor district mostly use plants
typical for the treatment of digestive system disorders (12
species).
In addition, based on use-records given by citizens
from the town and citizens from surrounding villages
FL values in Aleksinac district ranged from 55.6 to 100%
and 42.9 to 100.0%, respectively. e highest FL (citi-
zens from town) was recorded for Paliurus spina-christi
(digestive system disorders) (Additional file1: Table24),
while the highest FL (citizens from surrounding villages)
was recorded for Althaea officinalis (respiratory system
disorders), Betula pendula (urinary system disorders),
Crataegus monogyna (circulatory system disorders),
Hedera helix and Pinus nigra (respiratory system disor-
ders) (Additional file1: Table25). On the other hand, FL
values in Bor district ranged from 50.0% to 100.0% (citi-
zens from town) and 18.2 to 100.0% (citizens from sur-
rounding villages). e highest FL (citizens from town)
was recorded for Cichorium intybus (digestive system
disorders) and Sambucus nigra (respiratory system dis-
orders) (Additional file 1: Table26), while the highest
FL (citizens from surrounding villages) was recorded
for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disor-
ders), Epilobium parviflorum (urinary system disorders),
Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system disorders), Humu-
lus lupulus (nervous system disorders), Melilotus albus
(circulatory system disorders) and Mentha longifolia and
Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional
file 1: Table27). In addition, the results for the entire
studied area showed that FL values ranged from 23.1%
to 100% (citizens from town) and 25.0% to 100% (citizens
from surrounding villages). e highest FL (citizens from
town) was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive
system disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system
disorders), Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders),
Paliurus spina-christi and Rumex patientia (digestive sys-
tem disorders) and Valeriana officinalis (nervous system
disorders) (Additional file1: Table28), while the highest
FL (citizens from surrounding villages) was recorded for
Althaea officinalis (respiratory system disorders), Betula
pendula (urinary system disorders), Crataegus monog-
yna (circulatory system disorders), Pinus nigra and Pul-
monaria officinalis (respiratory system disorders) and
Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional
file1: Supplementary Table29).
FL values indicate that citizens from Aleksinac town
mostly use plants for skin system disorders (two species),
while citizens from Bor town mostly use plants typical
for the treatment of immune system disorders (three spe-
cies). FL values indicate that citizens from surrounding
villages in Aleksinac district mostly use plants for skin
system disorders (four species) and respiratory system
disorders (four species), while citizens from surrounding
villages in Bor district mostly use plants typical for the
treatment of digestive system disorders (14 species).
Obtained results point to the fact that although citizens
from these districts rely on the official health care system,
still medicinal plants have significant value in everyday
life for these people.
Multivariate analysis
A scatter plot from principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)
showed the formation of three distinct homogeneous
groups (Fig.1). e first group consisted of seven spe-
cies (Rumex acetosa, Xanthium spinosum, Sambucus
ebulus, Rumex patientia, Potentilla reptans, Paliurus
spina-christi and Cydonia oblonga). All these species are
grouped in relation to one variable, i.e., the effects on
digestive system disorders. e second group was formed
from five species (Melilotus albus, Loranthus europaeus,
Allium ursinum, Crataegus monogyna and Viola odo-
rata) acting mainly for circulatory system disorders,
according to information from respondents. e third
group consisted of five species (Petasites albus, Aspara-
gus officinalis, Equisetum telmateia, Hieracium pilosella
and Pyrus pyraster) which were mentioned for urinary
system disorders application.
Traditional preparations andremedies
Out of 114 reported species, 101 (88.6%) are used for
medical purposes (Table 4). Plants are the most com-
monly used to treat digestive system disorders (49.1%),
circulatory system disorders (41.2%) and respiratory sys-
tem disorders (35.1%). ese findings on a wide use of
plants for digestive and respiratory system conditions are
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in accordance with other ethnobotanical studies in Serbia
[17, 18, 21]. Concerning plants used for medicinal pur-
poses, 33 species are included in the European Pharma-
copoeia 8.0. [50] (marked with ♦ in Table4). Plant parts,
i.e., plant drugs which differ from citations provided in
European Pharmacopoeia 8.0. [50], aremarked with hash
(#) Table4. Some interesting traditional remedies were
recorded, which haven’t been so far indicated in previous
ethnopharmacological studies in the Balkans.
H. perforatum is reported as an herbal remedy effec-
tive against every disorder (medical panacea) which is in
agreement with some earlier investigation. Although spa-
tially distant, in the Arribes del Duero (Spain), the cul-
tural importance of H. perforatum oil is unquestionable.
It is also cited, literally translated, that “What Hypericum
doesn’t cure the doctor certainly won’t” [51]. Many previ-
ous studies on the Balkans documented its usage against
diseases of different organ systems [52–55].
It is claimed that the best herbal medicines, with the
most healing properties, are made if this plant is col-
lected on July 7 (St. John’s Day). It is even stated that
flowers smell different on that day. Flowers are collected,
basted with sunflower or olive oil, and left in the sunlight
for 40days. On the 40th day, oil extract is brought into
the home. Similar methods for preparation are noted in
earlier studies both on Serbian territory [12] and in the
region [21, 56–58]. Oil extract is used externally for skin
ailments, hemorrhoids and gynecological problems.
Živković and colleagues (2020) reported the same type
of preparation against skin complaints and hemorrhoids
[19], while Varga and collaborators (2019) reported the
usage of infusion against gynecological diseases [59].
Internally, it is applied for digestive ailments and improv-
ing general health conditions.
Informants are also knowledgeable on the toxicity
of certain medicinal plants, as well as their side effects
when combined with medicinal drugs. For example, they
stated that H. perforatum tea should not be used together
with drugs used in the treatment of malignant diseases
because it can “completely reverse the effect of the drug.”
Also, tea should not be drunk for more than seven days
in a row.
When it comes to medicinal herbs, the so-called Ciklus
svetojovanskog bilja (lit. Cycle of St. John’s herbs) is also
mentioned. It encompasses the period from June 28 (Vid-
ovdan; lit. St. Vitus day) to July 7 (Ivanjdan; St. John’s
Day) when it is most desirable to collect certain medici-
nal herbs (Achillea millefolium, Melissa officinalis and
Hypericum perforatum).
It is not unusual for some traditional receipts in Serbia
to be prepared during the 40days. It is possible that roots
of the method of preparation lie down in the Christian
religion where the number 40 has a particular meaning.
Christians believe souls need 40days after death to leave
the Earth, in the Bible it is mentioned that the great
flood lasted 40days and nights [60], Moses spent 40days
and nights in Mount Sinai, the same number of days
Jesus fasted and was tempted in the wilderness [61]. We
assume that it is easier for people to remember and pass
on the knowledge related to the preparation if there is
some universally known fact.
Traditional tinctures
Homemade tinctures are usually prepared with the fruit
spirit (`rakija` in Serbian). Among the most used, there
are the tinctures made of a single herb, such as wild
thyme, nettle or marigold, or those prepared of mixture
herbs.
Tincture for a massage, circulation improvement and
thrombosis prevention is made of hundreds of marigold
flowers (Calendula officinalis) put in a liter of “rakija”.
e usage of this herb as a tincture also was noted in
the research conducted in southwestern Serbia [14]. e
comfrey (Symphytum officinale) tincture is made in a
similar way (one mature root is put in one liter of rakija),
or the drug is mixed with five wild chestnut fruits and one
rosemary branch in half a liter of spirit for healing of leg
pains and varicose veins. One ethnobotanical investiga-
tion previously published, conducted in the northeastern
part of Croatia, reported the traditional use of comfrey’s
roots as tincture against cardiovascular disorders [62].
Syrups andhoney
Few informants mentioned preparation of homemade
syrup for strengthening immunity, which was especially
recommended to children. e syrup is made from Pinus
nigra shoots, Plantago lanceolata leaves, Sambucus nigra
flowers, ymus serpyllum aerial parts and Tussilago far-
fara leaves. e preparation is made by boiling of sugar
(3 kg) for 10 min and thereafter adding 300 g of each
plant drug to cook for an additional 9min exactly. In the
final step, 15g of commercial citric acid is added, and the
mixture is cooked for one more minute.
Nettle (Urtica dioica) syrup is considered as the best
medicine for strengthening the immune system in
patients with anemia. Firstly, red wine is cooked with
yellow sugar. When it comes to boiling, 50 young apical
parts of nettle are added, and it is cooked for 2–3min.
Every morning before breakfast, a small glass of prepara-
tion should be consumed.
To the best of our knowledge, these receipts are men-
tioned for the first time on the Balkan Peninsula.
e honey is often mixed with herbs for different treat-
ments. For example, there is a recipe quoting that two
tablespoons of the black pine (Pinus nigra) pollen, locally
known as “flower powder” (in Serbian, “cvetni prah”) are
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mixed with 200–300g of meadow honey. It is believed
that this remedy improves respiratory ailments. ese
results are similar to those obtained from the Kopaonik
mountain where buds and needles of P. sylvestris are
also mixed with honey in the final part of the prepara-
tion of medicine against chronic bronchitis [12] Mustafa
and colleagues (2012b, 2020) reported mixing cones of
Pinus spp. with honey to treat respiratory system ail-
ments, which is partially in agreement with the results of
the current study [56, 63]. e arum is also mixed with
honey: one kilogram of Arum maculatum rhizome is
combined with a kilogram of honey. e mixture is con-
sumed 2–3 times a day before a meal for digestion and
hemorrhoids treatment. A particular product is made
of dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale). It is called
“dandelion honey.” Dandelion flowers are collected and
cooked together with water and sugar until the flowers
are completely cooked in the mixture. is product is fre-
quently prepared and consumed in the Balkans, accord-
ing to some previous ethnobotanical studies [56, 64].
Ointment forskin diseases
Ointment is prepared with a hundred of marigold pet-
als fried with a tablespoon of homemade grease and it is
used cold for the treatment of urticaria. Our results are
congruent with some previous studies [16], which men-
tioned the similar use of these flowers against different
skin injuries [12–14, 19]. Twigs of elder (Sambucus nigra)
are used for preparing balm for burns therapy and insect
and spider bites treatment. Twigs are grated and mixed
with plant wax, honey, the incense and chopped yarrow
(Achillea millefolium) leaves. e mixture is filtered and
stored in a cold place.
Decoction forurinary diseases
Aerial parts of Equisetum telmateia are mixed with
young corn cobs and corn silk (elongated stigmas) and
cooked in water. e mixture is cooked until the volume
of water drops to a third of the initial volume, and the
color becomes red. e decoction is used against urinary
problems.
Wild herbs forhuman nutrition
ere were 37 (32.5%) plant species recorded for human
nutrition (Table5). Out of 37 species used for nourish-
ment, 35 species are simultaneously used for medical
treatments. e plant drugs are used fresh, dry and pro-
cessed. Homemade food and beverage products made
from or with the addition of wild plants include juices,
jams, compotes, wine and Serbian traditional sweet dish
“slatko” [65]. Fresh and dried herbs are often used for
seasoning, i.e., as spices, either single or in mixtures (e.g.,
Achillea millefolium, Allium ursinum, Melissa officinalis,
Origanum vulgare, Satureja subspicata, ymus serpyl-
lum, and Urtica dioica). Salad used for nutrition, addi-
tionally providing health benefits, especially for stomach
ailments regulation is prepared as a mixture of leaves of
five species: Fragaria vesca, Plantago major, Rubus plica-
tus, Rumex acetosa and Urtica dioica.
For the preparation of the sweet delicacy “slatko” the
petals of the dog rose (Rosa canina) are used. Firstly, the
petals are mixed with water and sugar and the mixture
is boiled for at least half an hour. In the next step, a few
drops of lemon juice are added to restore a petal color
(should remain as gently reddish).
Traditional and beloved herbal beverages in Balkans
mainly refer to those made of elder flowers, which has
been already reported in some former studies [16]. e
new information obtained in our research is related to
the note about potential negative effects on men’s fertility
if it is overused. Elder fruits are used either fresh or pro-
cessed, mostly for preparing a fruit wine. Fruits of elder
are cooked for 15min at 80°C with water and sugar (half
of the quantity of used fruits), and left for fermentation.
Similar use of elder is already known in Europe [66].
Replacement for traditional coffee drink is made of
dried and grinded chicory (Cichorium intybus) roots
mixed with Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) acorn for nicer
flavor.
Overlap ofmedicinal andfood plants
In our study, nearly 100% plant species overlap as food
and medicine. is finding is in agreement with another
study conducted in Negotin, the very near region [17].
In that study, all plants mentioned as food plants are
also used in herbal medicine. An identical situation is
observed in the southeastern Serbia (Suva Planina) [16].
On the contrary, on the Kopaonik Mountain (Central
Serbia), out of 24 plant species mentioned for nutrition,
slightly more than a half are used for both nutrition and
medicine [12]. However, in the neighboring country
(Croatia) results are different. In a study conducted in
Dalmatia, 41 plant taxa are mentioned to be used exclu-
sively for treating a variety of ailments, 43 exclusively as
food and 42 for both purposes [59]. Also, in Istria, out of
121 species, 31 species are used exclusively as food, 50 as
medicine, and 40 species overlap [67]. On the other hand,
a study conducted in the areas of the towns of Našice and
Djakovo showed that 37 species are used exclusively as
medicine, and 7 species overlap, but there are no plants
that are used only as food [62].
Veterinary medicine
e 14 of 114 recorded plant taxa (12.3%) are used in
veterinary medicine (Table 5). Plants are mostly used
fresh, especially as revetment, and as extracts in form
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of infusion or decoction. A certain similarity in species
used in human and veterinary folk medicine was noticed:
of 14 species used in veterinary medicine, only two—the
Helleborus odorus and Rumex crispus—are not used in
humans.
Traditional practices for the treatment of domestic ani-
mals are preserved mostly in rural areas. e hellebore
was indicated as an herbal remedy efficient in terminal
illness in livestock and pigs. It is known that such prac-
tices were often used in the past, especially for horses
[68]. Technique that relies on the usage of hellebore roots
for this purpose is called in Serbian “natravuvanje stoke”
(there is no suitable translation for the term specified).
e cleansed fresh or dried part of the root is directly
inserted in a certain part of the animal body: into the ears
in the case of pigs or in loose skin below the neck in the
case of cows. e function of drying is to prevent root
bending for easier insertion. Ear of the sick pig is pierced
by an awl and a cleansed root is inserted. e root is not
removed until the surrounding area becomes purulent
and swollen. Part of the ear falls off but a life-threatened
animal survives. When cows are treated, a cleansed root
is inserted in a dewlap and the tip of the root is left to jut.
Root is left in a loose skin on the neck for 24h. After the
defined period has elapsed, root is removed and accumu-
lated pus leaks out. e method is not approved by vet-
erinarians today. However, the informants asserted that
sometimes it is necessary—as an extreme way to save
the sick animal. e utilization of hellebore for ethnovet-
erinary purposes is known from earlier ethnobotanical
studies conducted in Serbia [12, 13, 17], but details are
for the first time provided here.
Mastitis in cattle is caused by various factors, mainly
infections, but also by some other physical and chemical
traumas [69]. Two plant species are mentioned for mas-
titis treatment, the agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) and
the vervain. Ethnoveterinarian study from Italy provides
information on the usage of vervain against mastitis in
cows although the methods of application differ [70].
Folk andreligious rituals andethnoculture
e usage of a total of 17 (14.9%) plant species is linked
to traditional customs and rites (Table6). Many plant
species are utilized for religious purposes and various
stories and legends are related to their role in ethnocul-
ture. ere were some differences in the use of herbs in
traditional customs between two investigated districts.
Performing rituals for the Fest Days is more developed
and practiced in the Bor District. Most of the respond-
ents stressed that wild plants are gladly used in celebra-
tion of some holy and festive days, especially the St.
George’s Day (“Đurđevdan” in Serbian; May 6) and the St.
John’s Day (“Ivanjdan” in Serbian; July 7). In Bor district,
more data were obtained on folk customs and tradition,
possibly because of the need to protect the national iden-
tity in a multicultural community. In the Bor District,
four plant species are used for St. George’s Day celebra-
tion. Early in the morning, H. odorus aerial parts are tied
and left to hang in the part of the yard where cattle reside
as protection against spells and impure forces. On the
Eve of St. George’s Day, geranium (Geranium macror-
rhizum) flowers and leaves and willow (Salix alba) twigs
with leaves are combined to make garlands. Garlands are
placed around buckets used for sheep milk collection to
increase milk yield. e willow is also placed around the
waist to avoid back pain throughout the year. Hazelnut
(Corylus colurna) is also used for this Fest Day. It is also
used in rural areas as a defense against snakes. Hazelnut
is put on the fence around the house, especially in front
of the front door because it is believed that snakes do not
approach this area. Also, informants carry sticks made
of hazelnut branches in the wild to protect them against
snakes. Hazelnut fruit is an amulet. Usage of these spe-
cies has been confirmed and found in the literature. It is
also known that other species of the genera Corylus are
used in the same way as mentioned hazelnut [68].
For Easter, local people make a mixture of Cornus mas
flowers and Urtica dioica leaves. Red wine and an Easter
egg (exclusively red color) with bread crumbs are added
to the mixture. Early in the morning, in front of the front
door, family members cross themself, turn in the direc-
tion of sunrise three times and after every turn, they
drink a teaspoon of this beverage. e order is from the
oldest to the youngest member of the family.
Garlands are made for St. John’s Day too. Different
plant species are included but the most abundant one
is yellow bedstraw (Galium verum). Other plant species
that can be inserted are A. millefolium, H. perforatum,
Tanacetum vulgare. Garlands are hung on the front door
of home and kept until the next year on the same day.
On that day, last year’s garlands are thrown away and the
new ones are made. Custom is repeated every year. It is
believed that this custom secures home protection from
negative influence, evil thoughts and glances. It is shown
that yellow bedstraw is a favorite flower among peo-
ple and that this custom is used a lot. ere is also evi-
dence that garlic can be inserted into the garlands [68].
Tea made of H. perforatum is drunk as a part of religious
beliefs. is plant is considered as one with an extremely
magical effect for evil spirits expelling. Because of that, it
is consumed only in the evening. e magical power of
H. perforatum was also confirmed in the literature [71].
In the Aleksinac, customs for St. George’s Day are also
performed. e customs differ from the ones in the Bor
District. One of the symbolic acts for celebration is home
gate decorating. Plant species used are Cornus mas, Salix
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Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
purpurea and Helleborus odorus. Earlier, children were
bathed with these plants and red eggs that have been kept
since Easter to ensure their health. Young couples were
collecting aerial parts of Galium aparine and binding
themself around the waist because it is believed that done
deed will secure their love forever. Beliefs related to uses
of this plant are known from the literature. If the young
woman takes part of the plant and inserts it into her left
sock, she will be appealing to others and liked by them
[68].
Oak (Quercus cerris) is used as a ritual tree. It is
brought into the house and also left in front of the door
on Christmas Eve.
People use Asarum europaeum in their diet as a spice
and for religious purposes. It should be kept especially if
there are small children. It is believed that they will not
cry or be afraid in the presence of this plant. Occasion-
ally, it is used to incense houses. Sempervivum tectorum
is planted in the front of the house as a protection from
evil forces.
Laserpitium siler is a species that is connected to vari-
ous stories and beliefs, primarily “as a key for all locks,”
the key to success, and as a protector of home and a per-
son [8]. anks to such beliefs it is good to carry a part of
this plant in a wallet or at home. Some informants men-
tioned that they have this plant in their car as a protec-
tion from accidents. Usually, root is used, but any other
part of the plant can be used. Since the species is rare in
nature, the broad-leaved laserwort (L. latifolium) is used
as a replacement according to the results of the current
study. Some informants mentioned that crumbled parts
are burnt and used as smoked incense to protect home
from spells and witchcraft. It is believed that hedgehogs
can find the plant to protect their cubs. is story is char-
acteristic of east Serbia [68].
According to respondents, the chicory is used as a
guardian for travelers. It is believed that it always brings
people back to the place where they came from. e plant
is a good protector from diseases, accidents and other
bad things.
Other uses
ere are few plant species listed for face and body care
use. Herbal cosmetic products varied in their complexity.
ere were simple products that include material from
the single species, with a simple method of preparation
(e.g., St. John’s Wort oil extract). Some informants indi-
cated that asarabacca (Asarum europaeum) was applied
in fragrant baths in the past. Squashed roots are left in
a bowl of water and poured into a bath. Today, it is not
practiced anymore due to the awareness of respondents
on the toxicity of the plant.
Homecrafts are pretty rare in the study area, but there
are still some rural households using plants in some prac-
tices. For example, Clematis vitalba branches are used
for making simple beehives, and Melissa officinalis for
gathering bees together due to its pleasant scent. e
nettle was recorded as a pest repellent which is in accord-
ance with data provided by Mullalija and collaborators
(2021) [21].
Ethnobotanical richness andthesimilarities withother
ethnobotanical investigations inSerbia (Jaccard index)
Results of this research were compared with data
obtained from earlier studies conducted on the terri-
tory of Central Serbia [12], southwestern Serbia [13, 14],
and especially of those performed in the closest areas,
i.e., parts of the eastern and southeastern Serbia [15–
20] (Table7). According to the JI (Table7), the highest
degree of similarity was recorded with studies conducted
on Suva Planina mountain (southeastern Serbia) with a
JI of 28.7, Kopaonik (Central Serbia) with a JI of 27.3, as
well as River Timok region and Mountain Svrljig region
(eastern and southeastern Serbia) with a JI of 24.1. It was
shown that small and isolated areas provide more specific
information on the traditional uses of wild plants [72].
Novel ethnobotanical records
e results of our study highlighted the new usage of
some well-known traditional plants in Serbia and Bal-
kans. ese plant species are: Robinia pseudoacacia,
Sempervivum tectorum, Taraxacum officinale, Teucrium
chamaedrys, Tilia platyphyllos, Urtica dioica, Verbena
officinalis and Veronica officinalis. ey are used for dif-
ferent purposes: four for medicinal uses (Sempervivum
tectorum against headache; Taraxacum officinale for face
washing, positive effect on vocal cord, against jaundice;
Teucrium chamaedrys for eye ailments, cataract treat-
ment; Veronica officinalis for blood vessels cleansing),
one for veterinary use (Verbena officinalis against udder
inflammation in cows), one for nutrition (Robinia pseu-
doacacia breaded as food) and two for other purposes
(Tilia platyphyllos for egg dyeing; Urtica dioica for rub-
bing ear before piercing) (Tables4, 5 and 6▲).
Interesting information was obtained for the field
horsetail, the Equisetum arvense. Although the use of
this plant in Serbia and in the Balkans is well known from
before, the usage of fertile parts was not mentioned in
any of the other ethnobotanical studies. Herbal remedies
made from fertile parts are applied in the same way as the
sterile parts. e interesting note was on people’s percep-
tion of the herb. Usage of the fertile parts was recorded
in the village Jakovlje, where women call the plant
“štukavac,” because it occurs around St. George’s Day,
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Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
after which it disappears (Serb. local folk dialect “štukne “
in Eng. fade away) until the next spring. According to the
respondent, the fertile part (the spike) of the field horse-
tail was in fact considered as a different species.
After comparison with studies conducted in Serbia, in
addition to the review of available textbooks on medici-
nal plants, we assumed that 11 species were noted for the
first time (marked with asterisk (*) in Tables4, 5 and 6).
Of these 11 species, the application of 4 species—Alcea
biennis, Asplenium viride, Kickxia elatine and Xeranthe-
mum cylindraceum, in the folk medicine is novel infor-
mation for the Balkan region (according comprehensive
review of the most relevant ethnobotanical and ethnop-
harmacological surveys performed in the Balkan region
[52,-54,56,57,59,62,63,73–88].
In addition to use in some traditional handicrafts, the
Xeranthemum cylindraceum (Fig. 2A) is also used for
medicinal purposes. Brooms (aerial parts) are soaked
with warm water and applied on the back against fever.
ere are several studies implying antipyretic activity
of members of Asteraceae family [89–91]. e effect on
health could also be attributed to the specialized metabo-
lites of this species. e essential oil obtained from the
aerial parts of the plant represents a terpenoid-rich mix-
ture, with 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, hexadecanoic acid and
caryophyllene oxide as predominant compounds. e
guaianolide-type sesquiterpene lactones xerantholide and
11,13-dihydroxerantholide were the major compounds
found in the extracts, along with 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde.
e sesquiterpene lactone of an eudesmanolide type
11,13-dihydroisoalantolactone and pseudoguaianolide
confertin were present in extracts as well [92]. Sesquiter-
pene lactones, as well as essential oil compounds, exhibit
an antipyretic activity [93, 94]. erefore, the use in folk
medicine as mentioned by respondents in our study
sounds reasonable.
Asplenium viride (Fig.2B) leaves are collected and pre-
pared as an infusion. e purpose of the infusion admin-
istration is to cure fright. Potential medicinal properties
of A. viride, as an antihypertensive drug, were noted in
the research on cardiovascular diseases in the Iberian
Peninsula and the Balearic Islands [95]. e phytochemi-
cal constituents of this plant species have not been suffi-
ciently investigated. Plant with the same name in Serbian,
the “strašnik” is Ceterach officinarum Willd. (syn. Asp-
lenium ceterach L.). e etymology of the local name
is linked to the “fear” (in Serbian “strah”), which could
explain its use as an anxiolytic drug. C. officinarum is
known from Serbian textbooks of medicinal plants [9, 96]
and from ethnobotanical research [18].
According to our investigation, the Kickxia elatine
(Fig. 2C) is used as a herbal remedy for wound heal-
ing, mainly for farmers being hurt during their work on
the fields. In case of an injury, the plant is applied at the
wounded place. ere is a similarity in the use of the
plant comparing our results with two studies conducted
on spatially distant regions. Uses of Kickxia elatine are
known from the Italian and Indian ethnobotanical stud-
ies. In Italy, it is directly applied to prevent and decrease
the feet sweating [97]. e local tribes of the Western
Ghats in India use this plant as a hemostatic agent and
for wound treatments [98]. ere are only a few studies
focusing on the phytochemistry of this species. e main
identified compounds are the iridoids, namely iridoid
glycosides, kickxioside, antirrinoside, antirride, mussae-
nosidic acid, 5-O-menthiafoloylkickxioside and kickxin
[99].
Alcea biennis (Fig. 2D) infusion is made of leaves.
According to records obtained in our study, it is utilized
for respiratory and digestive system disorders, i.e., for
cough treatment, against sinusitis and against intestine
diseases. e traditional uses of this species are recorded
for Turkey and Iran [100–102]. ere is much similarity
in traditional use of the plant in folk medicine in our and
these studies. To the best of our knowledge, Alcea biennis
has not been studied from the phytochemical aspect.
Concluding remarks
Both qualitative and quantitative methods are quite valid
in ethnobotanical studies. While qualitative data collec-
tion allows in-depth exploration of traditional knowl-
edge regarding wild plants, quantitative methods can be
useful in the comparison of the efficacy of different data
collection methodologies [103]. Quantitative analyses
represent a tool for obtaining data comparable to other
studies as well as deriving reasonable conclusions based
on the data collected. Increasing quantification of ethno-
botanical studies has been continuously highlighted by
some ethnobotanists [104, 105]. Some authors evaluated
the use of Ellenberg values to establish whether there
are differences between the environmental preferences
of wild medicinal and food plants. Similar quantitative
analysis would strengthen the discipline and provide rig-
orous testing methods [67]. However, some limitations
of our work may refer to revealing the group of plants
most important to a culture of this area, since we used
the quantitative methods to measure individual tradi-
tional botanical knowledge, but on the other hand, this
is important for comparison, in the future, with ethno-
botanical heritage in similar small regions. Also, we per-
formed a multivariate analysis with a clearly defined goal
in the first place, to find a connection between plants and
their usage, keeping in mind Pieroni’s (2002) observation
that, in some cases, it is easier to be impressed with this
method, but without motivation for its usage in the right
way.
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Page 65 of 68
Janaćkovićetal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2022) 18:70
High migration rates, depopulation and aging are typi-
cal features for rural Balkan areas causing accelerated loss
of ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional practices in
agriculture. Local inhabitants typically acquire ethnobo-
tanical knowledge from their ancestors (parents, grand-
parents) and older neighbors in direct contact, which is
a medium- and long-term risk for permanent knowledge
loss. In addition, informants were concerned about the
threatening of ethnobotanical information through its
oral transmission and general weak interest of the young.
Some authors implemented a participatory approach
in ethnobotanical research [106] where involvement and
active participation of the local inhabitants should be
included in the decision-making process and sustainable
management of plant resources. e necessary actions
for the preservation of both ethnobotanical knowledge
and resources of medicinal plants in the studied area
could be summarized as: a) raising of public awareness
on ethnobotanical knowledge and related culture herit-
age, b) promotion of ethnotourism and traditional herbal
remedies, food and beverage products, c) organization of
herbal tours and d) creation of a sustainable management
plan for economically important plants.
Our study indicated that small and specific areas in the
Balkans (rural, abandoned, economically devastated and
with high migration rate) may be an important reservoir
of ethnobotanical knowledge, providing new informa-
tion on the traditional use of plants. Results emphasized
the great importance of wild plants in the daily life of
the natives. Indigenous plants are still significant in tra-
ditional medicine. erefore, there is a necessity to pre-
serve the traditional knowledge of plant use, especially in
regard to potential relevance for further pharmacological
surveys. New records on use of the wild plants, as well
as the way of their processing and combination in tra-
ditional remedies and products, confirmed our starting
hypothesis on unique features of the study area.
Abbreviations
BEOU: Herbarium of the University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Institute of
Botany and Botanical Garden “Jevremovac”; FL: Fidelity level; FC: Frequency of
citation; ICF-FIC: Informant consensus factor; ISE: The International Society of
Ethnobiology; JI: Jaccard index; PCoA: Principal coordinate analysis; RCI: Rela-
tive cultural importance indices; RFC: Relative frequency of citation; RI: Relative
importance index; UV: Use value; WHO: World Health Organization.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi.
org/ 10. 1186/ s13002- 022- 00566-0.
Additional l1. Supplementary material.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Techno-
logical Development of the Republic of Serbia for financial support (No.
451-03-68/2022-14/200178 and 451-03-9/2021-14/200116) for the Ethno-
HERBS-H2020-MSCA-RISE-2018 project.
Author contributions
PJ, MG and ZDS initiated the research concept. PJ, MG, MM and MR wrote the
manuscript, organized plant material collection and identified the plant spe-
cies. MM and MR collected plant material and interviewed the local popula-
tion. SK statistically analyzed the data. ZDS revised the manuscript. All authors
read and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors kindly
thanks to Prof. Dr. Ben-Erik van Wyk for his useful suggestions and comments.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Availability of data and materials
All the needed data collected for this study were analyzed and incorporated
into this manuscript.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
All the participants have been explained the process and nature of this project
and asked to provide oral informed consent.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1 Faculty of Biology, Department of Morphology and Systematics of Plants,
University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia. 2 Faculty
of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Botany, University of Belgrade,
Nemanjina 6, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia.
Received: 14 October 2022 Accepted: 14 November 2022
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