Theoretical foundation for word classes

Abstract

The word is a significative unit of a language system. As such, it fulfills functions of cognition and communication, but is also subject to structural constraints. Criteria for the classification of words are based on both of these spheres.
In the hierarchy of grammatical complexity, the word occupies a position between the phrase and the morpheme. It may consist of significative elements, but its composition is more subject to potentially arbitrary rules of grammar than the composition of higher-level units.
The principal operations of cognition and communication constituting complex significative units are the propositional operations of reference, predication and modification. A higher-level operation is eased to the extent that the lower-level units which provide the operands are categorized. In this perspective, word classes are prior categorizations preparing or incorporating propositional operations.
Propositional operations are executed at all complexity levels. A given operation may be executed at one level in some languages, but at another level in other languages. Given the position of the word in the grammatical complexity hierarchy, relevant alternatives include the classification of roots, stems and phrases.
Given the theoretical position of propositional operations, they provide a basis on which to conceive word classes as interlingual categories, i.e. categories that may show up in individual languages. This is, at the same time, the basis on which word-class systems of different languages may be compared.
While major word classes have a relatively straightforward foundation in the universal propositional operations and therefore tend to be similar across languages, minor word classes are specified inside a language system with respect to major ones and are increasingly subject to language-specific structural constraints. Accordingly, languages differ more in their conformation.

Full text

CLIPP
Christiani Lehmanni inedita, publicanda, publicata
titulus
Theoretical foundation for word classes
huius textus situs retis mundialis
christianlehmann.eu/publ/lehmann_word_classes.pdf
dies manuscripti postremum modificati
31.10.2023
occasio orationis habitae
-
volumen publicationem continens
De Cesare, Anna-Maria & Salvi, Giampaolo (eds.), Manual of
Romance word classes. (Manuals of Romance linguistics, 36)
Berlin: W. de Gruyter
annus publicationis
2024
paginae
ignotae

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1The account is largely based on publications by Lehmann listed in the references, especially on
Lehmann 2013. References to the sizable literature are found there.

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
 
 ' 
 "#(
)(*

      #  '               
!"&)'#!"
+
,
-  $.                  !  $  
&$!
                          
+
"+
  -.$-.
-.
"
!+

,

              

                  
              
/!(             0   1  2
/##34)56(#7#5
(
(
 

╲8 
8-.-$. -.-.
-.-$. -.-.)
2Facete is not actually related to the other forms based on the root fac-.

 9
2
"9
+                    

                        
&            
 :  
.4
-.;#/%)<#9=>?)(
@      @                      
  "          &    !    $  

  
   
+            /=>)#(            
       
44
  

   
      '   
&
:                    !  +    
         %$ 
,
+-.
A-.
  -.              '    $
-.$
!-.-.
3For the ancient grammarians, adjectives were (common) nouns; cf. ch. 3 of this vol.
word
major holophrastic
noun verb interjection ideophone
adaptive
+-
referential deictic
++
--

 ?
                   
!/*#(&-.
/*)(
*#  "#-.
,BC  #"-.
*) #-.
        :    +  !    &    
-.
'
                     D        

$ %
$ %
%     &              
  !        ,$  /  (      
 
      '    "  E            


+*9

*9 '
,BC -.

                          
                      
 $ -.
             

1


                
            
  -.        % -.  

$
          E              

 F
&         +           
E
 &
+
%
$$
         ,$          

                          
                +        
                      C
  $                 
/G#HH?(
               
                        
$
/6)<#5=>??(
$ & 
+&$
  +  '         :

IJI!JIJ

  A                     
,

    +                     
 
*?  *!KL
,BC -.
 %!KL
M/(M
+*?
                  
/=>F)#("*?
N    
&$  $
*?!
&'/BO6)<#5=>#(
+$

 3
                          
/=>?9(+
D
:
 !     
$
 /% )<#P  =>??9#(  +            
   +  Q       
/*F(/*F(

*F  B$$
QD0*C CD1 ;*%
-.
  $
0 
-.
B             

     "'            $  

 1   
            -.    -.  :      
      $Q 
Q &"-.& -.
'(-.

!
               B  C  G   C
    /R  C & B
)<<9(&
   
      B  "   

*3  KL   S   
BD0 ;*::,G  "B,9,G +C;:1,G  %D";*:1,G BD,,9,G1
-.
*3)-.
$
+
    !              !  /%
)<<F(            /%  )<#P  =9#)(      

 5
       $     
  /  ,  #H5F( *H                 
0
      '                      
         &     
T', 
!'A
                &  '  
                      
C/
($) 

              
                , 
                      

/6)<#5(&


   
&
+$
3.3 Relationality
:          
                      
    +                    
  
    & 

 &                   
        +                
$
G        0               /=>F)#(&    0
            
               0    
 I0J (&        0  
+0+
0                    
    0!+ 
0!+0
        0    A 

 P
                              
1    !              '      .
0

!
+     I0J 
                            
:
!$,-.$-.
$!
-.
G00&0
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$$B-.$)-.
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&
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                          :
                     
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
 : * -.           
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        $             
U
                        

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

&
 
*
4    4    
44,
                  '      
    :      +  -'.     (   
 ( /B%(
$:
!
(

6         
  
:
! #(

!$
   %

G
/(
?
* !
-.
*5 1  
%+C /:("CD1,G /:(",G/B0,("9,G
-D.
+*5!
-.'(+
  *5+
$

G$$VWXYZ [\X ]\^/L _ L (
0       
-``.
4In the ideal isolating language, this level would seem to be absent since there would be no
difference between a word and a morpheme. However, all isolating languages have compounding.

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B
,
     '  
-.
+   -.     *H    
*H

 ##
*H  a+,0bc'M,
0d
-D a  ,0e 
,0.
/"``````<<9`<<9##5F(
 a+,0bM,
0d
+*H$

$

+
         +     
44     
                   

     $     /
(/
(,$/B6)<##=>F?(
Q/1(
 
   
/A#HH)(+*   

%              /% )<<PI0J( +
%  /       
,-.I%)<<)J($(-.
!&,
        ((     / ((
!    (      /(      ((  
!/((/
(/($$$(-'.(-.
&

,$         
 - .  -.  " -.     
%( ( ( 
 ((!
  (   ( ' (  , 
(!
,%/#HFF= )9)%)<<PI0J=>9?(

 #)
. 
    
          +            

/A)<#)=H(+
                $    

+                         
                       
                ,        
                    *
                 
 $
B
        B              
$
+


. %
5.1.1 Distributional analysis
%                      $.
/=#(&
      /  (        
   :   *9       
  $  -.       " -.        
                 
D
    $  -.                  
            
 %$*9
 $       
$    
%$   $      B    
$            4     
+
  $&       $



 #9
                  $  
$/
ae(&
  $                    $


!
,
          :     *5    
6
          
     $         ,  

            !        %$      



+          
:
:
+
                            0


          :
    +  !              /*#<(  
/*#<(/*#<(
!: *#<
      ! ;*:,G:   *#<      ! 
-.*#<!-.
*#<  #--.
+%  #- -.
 $#-.-.
A          !
                      +
!  
 $  -G.    

+                      

       /=>?)(                     
,

 #?
  +*'0   +
     

      :                    
                /    
   G   / /"(-.(
/!(*
G
                    
          
A!
                   +      

    $ %
0

                  

5.1.2 Limits of distributional definitions
;.
:        


&
'                    
;                

,

:-.0-.-.
4
 A 
&
  /)<<F( D      
$
                      
/*OD)<<F(
       &   
                    :    
                            
$R

 #F
R
 $           
      $.             
$

D
'
'                /=>9)(   
'D

%$
                  
  C                  


. %
.  
+44$
$+
             +   
/ 
&$
1                    
                      
/  =>99(F              
/= ?9(
                    
            !        /  #HH#
A#HH)( B         
6)<##=>))
:           "  
  -.  -.    -.              
,
+$
          A  -.  -.    -.      
'
+         
   $   
   
5The pair ‘predication vs. modification’ has a structural counterpart in Jespersen’s (1924, ch. VIII)
‘nexus vs. junction’, although Jespersen (p. 114) does not consider junction a “degraded predication”.

 #3
                 +  
''
/#HH#$-$.(G 
                 /A #HH)
%)<#P=>)9(
   !0

*##  % c  c  
+% ;*:":,G /:(DB9,G ":,G
-.
  c 
;*:":,G /:( ":,G
-.
 '        *##  
N+         
A*##'N'
!'N
+$!

" '
        '
!
'
   '           
D   '     
             ' 
a'e

'a-.e

. 0
        $    
'+$
,G
              $ 1 /"(  
!  1              $  
/=>))("C
      %$                
 !     


 #5
                     
                    
C
           $ B )
-. /*3(   -.    ) - .    ) T 
 -.! T,

   
&+
!
$            

G
 '   $     
                      
      
/=>99(+
44+ 
C
'        


+                          
D
                    '  
        C          
'                      

6
'                          
              C    
          '        
!

CA
                        

,


+

+

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!$2-.$
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1   
      ;   
       
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6
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      :   
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             !
'+*#)
+   !            ' 
,
!
U
!


!1/GL  #H5HP(+

 #H
   
!                     
"!
+

,
A'
          
.f 
2 01 
6.1 Major and minor classes
!/%#H3P
5#9(#

+
!+
!          !            
D
                    B  
!$+IJ/IJ(-.
# /(-.$IJ/"IJ(-.
 0 /"(-. ,         
!
                    
/6
)<##=>?(
+
/%)<#F(1
        0    /Q  )<<<(  D
  /% )<<PIJ(" + +0    
  -. + '    -  I  J.  
      !       ,'
          B    -
.33-$. 
/-.)(
-IJ.
+            
)

 )<
 4
 
   
 -.  -.
! 4-. ! -.
 4-.  -/(.
 -.  -.
 0-.  -.
! $-. ! $-.
! 45-g. ! -.
  )                      

+
 )!
!#!
$+635 -$Gg. 75 -Gg.
                      $  
  !       !  6
! !
/=>3)( A/( :
/)(,
       , 
$$.
G
   )     +        
            A      
D
D!

+

1!

        )   
/#9($
$, -.
/=>9)(B-d.

0 C$
             
0

 )#
   )     
+
                  
          % 
-.B0
B-+.((/+C:
#,G(-+.*)
    

G                
                      +  
    $    
         G   
$%/6)<##=>F9(
                      
                    .  $  

6.2 Adverbs and particles
 "   !           
  $  +  /";20(  -.        
$$-.
  D             
D
          


A$/($
!  !
+/(
!!
*#9
*#9 $Lh hLh L ih   $jL
6*0 ` +B:2 B0DGi;E0 9*0G 
-  $    $     .    "  -    
.
D
                 $ 
+,
   /";*:1,G (  -.          &      


 ))
   /% - .(
!
$      $ 
1
  #      
  !,! 
0!
/R#H)?"PH(
                         
!
*#?  R!
,BC -R$.
 R!'L 
-R$.
+*#?-.&N
         $          
!
+!
 
&         +! 
=>3#
           
        
         D     
$+
-.$3-.
%
                  

D
 $ ,   -.  8 -.  $   -.   -.
     2 -. /  #5(


   !    
)
B+$#-.
-.9-.A
G$ -.
-$/(.


 )9
&
        

3 %& &&
;   
                    
                '     
    
                D        
         ==>F)#        
D
      => F#    

D
!$-.-.-.$-.
-.-.-.$-.-.-.+
'+
A
          ,             

     /     ( 
'!

+         
  +                        

                 
                      
!+

/(!
  A                  
  1              /  =>F#(

+
$
D
+    

              


 )?
,
D!

D 
                 :  
$
          
!
+

;+


4 
R
 
              ,                
/($-../(-.$..-.
-.
%$R$
'
+$


    ,                

                  %$ 
                  
      &              
$!D
 ! "'$
!  1                  /(
0
D           D  

/=>)#(
"&
#)9 #)9
 
;20 
0 

 )F
DB 
;*% 
;*: 
;E0 
*0G 
:
+C;: 
+C: 
+B:2 
%D 
1
CD1 
B% 
BD,, 
B0DG 
B0, 
B, 
,G 
/
6  )<##  b b ,  R R /(  :4 '   
  D"DEB&)P<9<)
6 )<#5b4
bBO6/()<#5"#HH)9<
  *  #HFF  b,        /b      L b(b  ;#  
<"  + #<"5)F  0"    *  #H5P 6=  =
#>  1    <"    1"  G  /6  0L 
AL ++`)P<(&F<5H
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/( #>
     BBC>    O  B"  R  6!  /B
O6C,)9(&)HFF
Jespersen, Otto 1924, The philosophy of grammar. London: G. Allen & Unwin.
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/(6D'11E#F>Gj " &?F59
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