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International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences (IJAAS)
Vol. 11, No. 4, December 2022, pp. 360~366
ISSN: 2252-8814, DOI: 10.11591/ijaas.v11.i4.pp360-366 360
Journal homepage: http://ijaas.iaescore.com
An overview of the potential of Citrus hystrix (kaffir lime)
essential oil as mosquito repellent
Nurul Asyikin Md Zaki1,2, Junaidah Jai1, Izzat Syahmi Kamal Shahrizan1, Dewi Selvia Fardhyanti3,
Megawati3, Nadya Alfa Cahaya Imani3
1School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
2Food Process Engineering Research Group, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
3Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Semarang, Indonesia
Article Info
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Aug 27, 2021
Revised Sep 12, 2022
Accepted Nov 3, 2022
A chemical-based insect repellent such as N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide
(DEET) is commonly used against all insects despite its toxicity in humans.
Hence, a repellent agent from natural sources of plant essential oil was
introduced. Some of the plants which have the repellent potential are catnip,
hairy basil, citronella, vetiver, clove, and citrus. Citronellal, citronellol,
geraniol, eugenol, eugenol-acetate, and beta-caryophyllene are among the
repellent active components in these plants. Citrus hystrix (kaffir lime) was
known for several applications in food, health, and skincare, but its potential
as mosquito repellent is still new. This overview paper highlights the
potential of kaffir lime essential oil as a mosquito repellent and the
encapsulation of essential oil related to mosquito repellent. Several studies
on kaffir lime essential oil as mosquito repellent was conducted and revealed
that the major repellent active components are citronellol and limonene. Pure
kaffir lime essential oil provides one-hour repellent protection against the
mosquito. However, an addition of 5% vanillin prolongs the protection time
to three hours. Essential oil is easily vaporized at room temperature which
shortens its effectiveness time. Encapsulation of the essential oil would
control the vaporization process and hence prolong its efficiency.
Nonetheless, almost no research work reported on the encapsulation of kaffir
lime essential oil and the release mechanism of the encapsulated kaffir lime.
Keywords:
Encapsulation
Essential oil
Kaffir lime
Mosquito repellent
Volatile
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Junaidah Jai
School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Email: junejai@uitm.edu.my
1. INTRODUCTION
Mosquitoes like Aedes aegypti spread diseases such as chikungunya, dengue, and yellow fever.
World Health Organization (WHO) reports that dengue remains an as big threat in many countries such as
Southeast Asia region and Western Pacific region [1]. A chemical-based insect repellent such as N, N-
diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET) is commonly used against all insects although the effectiveness time is
short, has an unpleasant odor, and may irritate the skin. Hence, research on green and safe natural-based
mosquito repellent made from plant essential oil was introduced.
Some effective mosquito-repellent plants are catnip, hairy basil, citronella, vetiver, and clove [2].
Furthermore, essential oils from Citrus aurantifolia, Citrus aurantium, Citrus hystrix, Citrus maxima, Citrus
medica, Citrus reticulate, Citrus sinensis, and Citrus microcarpa have the repellent potential against Aedes
aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus [3]. Citrus hystrix (kaffir lime) is mostly found abundant in tropical
Int J Adv Appl Sci ISSN: 2252-8814
An overview on the potential of Citrus hystrix (kaffir lime) essential oil as … (Nurul Asyikin Md Zaki)
361
South-Eastern Asia countries [4]. Citronellol, a major component of kaffir lime leaf, and limonene, a major
component of kaffir lime peel oil, show strong repellent activity against mosquitoes [5].
Essential oils can be extracted from plants that contain valuable compounds with various biological
activities such as phenols, aldehydes, ketones, mono, and sesquiterpenes [6]. Essential oil is volatile and very
sensitive to temperature change. Encapsulation of essential oil facilitates controlled release to reduce
volatilization and degradation of its efficiency [7]. Several papers reported on mosquito repellent from the
encapsulated essential oil of various plants [8], [9], but almost no work was found on the encapsulation of
kaffir lime essential oil as a mosquito repellent. This paper highlights the potential of kaffir lime essential oil
as a mosquito repellent and the encapsulation of essential oil related to mosquito repellent.
2. SPECIALTY FUNCTION OF CITRUS HYSTRIX
Kaffir lime is a tropical fruit that originated from South-Eastern Asia countries. The special
characteristic of kaffir lime is determined by its precious compound, which can be extracted using various
extraction methods. Extraction methods gave an important effect on the yield and composition of the extract
[10]. Conventional methods such as hydro-distillation, steam distillation, organic solvent extraction, and cold
pressing techniques are cost-effective and simple to implement. Then again, high costs and technical
expertise are required for innovative techniques such as supercritical fluid extraction, subcritical extraction,
ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, microwave hydro-diffusion, and gravity
extraction methods [11]. These modern methods have been carried out on an industrial scale [12]. However,
conventional methods are usually used since they are less expensive and easy to handle.
McNeil et al. [13] found that the main composition of hydro-distillation extracted kaffir lime leaf
were monoterpenes with terpinen-4-ol (13.0%), b-pinene (10.9%), a-terpineol (7.6%), 1,8-cineole (6.4%),
citronellol (6.0%), and p-cimene (5.6%). Meanwhile, Srifuengfung et al. [14] reported that the composition
of steam distillation extracted kaffir lime fruit peel was mainly of monoterpene hydrocarbons (65.98%)
followed by oxygenated monoterpenes (20.68%) and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (3.32%). D-limonene
(25.28%), b-pinene (21.10%), and sabinene (14.99%) were the major components of monoterpene
hydrocarbons, while citronellal (7.63%) and terpinen-4-ol (5.06%) were the major components of oxygenated
monoterpenes. The specialty function of kaffir lime extract is very much designed by their composition.
Several scientific research reports on the potential of kaffir lime in different fields are shown in
Table 1. The strong kaffir lime flavor from fruits and leaves is popular in Asian cuisines. Besides, the
antioxidant property of kaffir lime juices shows that they can be a natural source of daily supplements [15].
On the other hand, the interaction effect of limonene and other minor components in the extract was found as
an antibacterial agent towards a wide range of bacterial organisms [14], [16]. In the medical field, work on a
mixed extract of kaffir lime leaves, rhizomes of lemon grass, and galangal discovered that the mixed extract
which consists of citronella, linalool, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), and acetophenone, has valuable effects on
blood cholesterol [17]. Furthermore, the kaffir lime extract was identified to reduce the viability of cervical
and neuroblastoma cells which reveals its potential as an anticancer [18], however, the respective active
compounds were yet to be investigated.
Several research reported that kaffir lime can act as a natural insect repellent [1]–[3], [19].
Moreover, it was reviewed that b-pinene, d-limonene, and terpinene-4-ol in kaffir lime peel essential oil were
the active repellent compounds against Aedes aegypti [1]. The specialty functions of kaffir lime in different
fields are investigated; however, for certain applications, extensive research work including artificial (in
vitro) and field trials (in vivo) should be conducted before commercialization.
Table 1. Specialty function of Citrus hystrix
Application
Functions
References
Food & supplement
Antioxidant drink
[15]
Antibacterial
Antibacterial oral spray
[14]
Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria
[16]
Medical field
Antioxidative and immunomodulatory
[17]
Anticancer
[18]
Insect repellent
Mosquito repellent
[1], [2], [3], [19]
3. CITRUS HYSTRIX AND MOSQUITO REPELLENT TEST METHOD
Table 2 shows the test methods which measure the efficiency of kaffir lime as a mosquito repellent.
The potential of turmeric, citronella, hairy basil and kaffir lime as mosquito repellent was reported [20]. The
four volatile oils and DEET were subjected to the human-bait test method (mosquito cage) with and without
vanillin against Aedes aegypti, An. dirus and C. quinaquefasciatus. Turmeric and kaffir lime provided one-
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hour protection against the mosquito. However, with the addition of vanillin, the repellency against Aedes
aegypti was greatly improved to 4.5 and 3 hours, respectively. Although kaffir lime alone shows less
repellency against Aedes aegypti, it still can be used as a potential mosquito repellent due to its abundant
availability, especially in Southeastern Asia countries.
A similar finding was reported on the repellent activity of 8 citrus plants including Citrus hystrix
DC, Citrus aurantium L., Citrus maxima (Burm. f.) Merr., Citrus medica L. var sarcodaclylis Swingle, Citrus
reticulate Blanco, Citrus sinensis Osbeck, and Citrofortunella microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands against female
adult of Aedes aegypti (Linn.) and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say) by human-bait technique (mosquito cage)
[3]. The essential oils were dissolved in ethyl alcohol and kept at room temperature before the test. They
found that the mean protection of Citrus hystrix DC against female adults of Aedes aegypti (Linn.) and Culex
quinquefasciatus (Say) was 20.95 ± 8.67 and 45.0 ± 8.7 minutes with the protection of 98.3% and 98.3%,
respectively. Besides, the repellency of 38 essential oils including kaffir lime against mosquito bites was
investigated. The essential oils were diluted in 70% alcohol. Three different concentrations (10%, 50%, and
undiluted) of essential oils were applied against Aedes aegypti by the human-bite technique (mosquito cage).
The result revealed that the repellency of kaffir lime with different concentrations of 10%, 50%, and
undiluted was 10 min, 30 min, and 60 min, respectively [19].
Other than the human-bait technique, the excito-repellency (ER) test system is another technique
that can be used to understand the behavioral responses of the mosquito population towards the contact and
non-contact exposure to the mosquito repellent compound [21]. For contact exposure, pretreated paper
(impregnated with the mosquito repellent agent) is placed inside the test chamber, while for non-contact
exposure, the pretreated paper is located outside the chamber. The test reveals the repellent behavior of the
mosquito towards the repellent compound, which acts as either contact excitation (contact) and/or spatial
repellent (non-contact). Earlier, the use of the ER test system in investigating the repellent behavior of
Aedesaegypti L. and Anophelesminimus against different concentrations of kaffir lime oil in absolute ethanol
was reported [21]. Both mosquitoes demonstrated excellent spatial repellency behavior and non-contact
excitation against the kaffir lime essential oils. They stated that the repellent active compounds in the leaf oil
are mainly citronellal, citronellene acetate, isopulegenol, and geranyl acetate; while the peel oil is
predominately citronellal, limonene, and b-pinene.
The human-bait technique (mosquito cage) test reveals that pure kaffir lime essential oil can protect
the human skin within 60 min. However, dilution of the essential oil in alcohol reduces the protection
duration. On the other hand, an addition of other essential oils such as vanillin oil enhances the protection
duration significantly. Combining several essential oils with repellent properties produces a better natural
mosquito repellent [2]. The ER test reveals the spatial repellency behavior of the mosquito towards the kaffir
lime essential oil. Based on the behavior, a suitable repellent product can be developed which considers the
release of kaffir lime volatile compound into the air.
Table 2. Citrus hystrix essential oil and mosquito repellent test methods
Test method
Ingredients
Repellent protection/ behavior
References
Human-bait
Kaffir lime
Kaffir lime + vanillin
60 min
180 min
[20]
Kaffir lime in ethyl alcohol
20.95 min
98.3% protection
[3]
Kaffir lime in alcohol with different concentrations
10%, 50%, 100%
10 min
30 min
60 min
[19]
Excito-repellency
Kaffir lime leaf oil in ethanol–
1-5% concentration
Spatial repellency
78-87%
[21]
Kaffir lime peel oil in ethanol –
2.5% and 5% concentration
Spatial repellency
78%
Essential oil is volatile and very sensitive to heat, light, and oxygen [22]. Hence, the appropriate
handling method of the essential oil after extraction and product formulation is very important. Degradation
of essential oil through oxidation can be reduced by proper storage in dark bottles, away from direct sunlight
and sources of heat. Encapsulation of essential oil is one of the current techniques that can be used to control
vaporization and prolong its effectiveness.
Int J Adv Appl Sci ISSN: 2252-8814
An overview on the potential of Citrus hystrix (kaffir lime) essential oil as … (Nurul Asyikin Md Zaki)
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4. ENCAPSULATION OF ESSENTIAL OIL FOR MOSQUITO REPELLENT
Encapsulation of essential oil produces micro or nano-size sphere capsule with a uniform wall
around it. The material inside the capsule is referred to as the core, internal phase, or fill, whereas the wall is
sometimes called a shell, coating, or membrane. The most commonly used encapsulation processes include
coacervation, spray drying, centrifugal extrusion, fluidized bed coating, freeze drying, emulsion, liposome
entrapment, spray cooling, solvent evaporation, and in situ polymerization [7]. Emulsion and coacervation
are among the popular encapsulation techniques in mosquito repellent studies.
Table 3 shows a list of the previous study on the encapsulation of essential oil for mosquito
repellent. Sakulku et al. [23] worked on the encapsulation of citronella oil by nanoemulsion technique.
Citronella oil, glycerol, and surfactant (Montanov®82) were dispersed under the stirring condition at 200
rpm, 50 C for 5 min. The mixture was emulsified by a high-speed homogenizer at 16500 rpm for 3 min.
Subsequently, this pre-emulsion was passed through the high-pressure homogenizer for five cycles at a
pressure of 1500 bars before cooling down to room temperature and stored at 25 C. Nanoemulsion is
recommended for stability during storage and ability to control the release of essential oil. On the other hand,
encapsulated Apiaceae oil by microemulsion technique was also investigated [24]. In the emulsion
preparation, distilled water was added to a mixture of essential oil, polysorbate 80, glycerol, and ethanol.
They claimed that the microencapsulated essential oil was able to exert toxicity against mosquito larvae.
Furthermore, the investigation was conducted on the repellent efficiency of complex coacervation
encapsulated citronella essential oil on cotton fabric [25]. Gelatin and citronella oil were homogenized at
40 °C, 18500 rpm for 5 minutes. Coacervation was accomplished by dilution with distilled water. The
temperature was then reduced to below 10 °C and the pH was adjusted to pH 8 with sodium hydroxide.
Glutardialdehyde aqueous solution was slowly added upon mechanical stirring. The suspension was kept
overnight with continuous stirring at room temperature before spray drying.
Moreover, the microencapsulation of citronella oil by simple coacervation technique was studied
[26]. Gelatin aqueous solution and essential oil were stirred and emulsified at 50 °C. Coacervation was done
with an addition of sodium sulfate solution. The temperature of the suspension was reduced to 5 °C and
formaldehyde solution was added. Eventually, the microcapsules were harvested and washed with ethanol
and water before freeze-drying. Microencapsulation offers a promising alternative to prolong the repellent
action duration of citronella oil. Similarly, [27] reported on the encapsulation of Zanthoxylum limonella oil
by simple coacervation technique. Gelatin and the essential oil were emulsified under high agitation.
Coacervation was done by the addition of sodium sulfate solution at 40 °C before the temperature was
brought down to about 5 °C and glutaraldehyde solution was added as a crosslinking agent. The suspension
was then heated up to 40 °C and stirred for about 3–4 h. The suspension was cooled to room temperature and
the microcapsules were filtered, washed with Tween 80 solution, dried, and stored in a glass bottle.
Table 3. Encapsulation of essential oil for mosquito repellent
Encapsulation methods
Essential oil
References
Nanoemulsion
Citronella oil
[23]
Microemulsion
Apiaceae oil
[24]
Complex coacervation
Citronella oil
[25]
Simple coacervation
Citronella oil
[26]
Simple coacervation
Zanthoxylum limonella
[27]
The micro and nanoemulsion techniques produce stable emulsion that can be stored in the form of
emulsion itself at 25 °C. In contrast, the coacervation techniques require secondary processes such as capsule
collection, filtration, washing, spray drying or freeze drying, and finally, the capsules are stored in powder
form.
5. RELEASE RATE AND MECHANISM OF ENCAPSULATED ESSENTIAL OIL
The release rate, mechanism, and kinetic of encapsulated essential oil in the respective media are
other important factors to be explored to study the behavior of the final product formulation. The release
mechanism of encapsulated essential oil through controlled, continuous, or focused release is very much
affected by its final application. The encapsulated essential oils are released from the wall of the
microcapsule through rupture, dissolution, and diffusion.
The release behavior of encapsulated citronella essential oil which was produced by simple and
complex coacervation techniques using Arabic gum and gelatin as wall material was studied [28]. The
citronella essential oil released from the fresh wet microcapsule by diffusion following the Fickian diffusion
mechanism and the release of the core material is significant with time. On the other hand, the release of
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complex coacervation encapsulated citronella essential oil in Tween 80 solution was found to follow the
Korsmeyer-Peppas controlled release model of super case II prediction and the release is by wall erosion
[29]. An earlier study also reported that microencapsulation using the complex conservation method on
citronella essential oil using cotton and polyester also followed the Korsmeyer-Peppas release model for
these two matrices [30]. As for the release mechanism, it can follow Fickian and anomalous diffusion
depending on the hydrophobicity properties of the materials used.
The release kinetics of Azadirachtin from microencapsulated Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae)
bioinsecticide was reported [31]. Several factors such as the physical properties and differences due to
particle factors were found to affect the active compounds' release kinetics. Stability during storage and
release mechanism of encapsulated kaffir lime essential oil in the targeted environment are important factors
to be comprehended as the efficiency of mosquito repellent can be determined.
6. CONCLUSION
Kaffir lime leaf extract consists of monoterpenes with terpinen-4-ol, b-pinene, a-terpineol,
1.8-cineole, citronellol, and p-cimene as principal compounds. Kaffir lime fruit peel extract consists mainly
of monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. Meanwhile,
D-limonene, beta-pinene, and sabinene were the major components of monoterpene hydrocarbons, while
citronellal and terpinen-4-ol were the major components of oxygenated monoterpenes. They are rich in
functional components which support their application as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-cancer, anti-
inflammatory, and mosquito repellent. The compounds in kaffir lime such as limonene and citronellal are
unappealing to most insects and mosquitoes.
Pure kaffir lime essential oil is capable to protect the human skin within 60 min. However, dilution
of the essential oil in alcohol reduces the protection duration. On the other hand, the addition of other
essential oils such as vanillin oil to the kaffir lime essential oil enhances the protection duration significantly.
Essential oil is volatile and very sensitive to heat, light, and oxygen; hence, reducing its efficiency.
Consequently, encapsulation of essential oil can be used to control vaporization and prolong its effectiveness.
Emulsion and coacervation are among the popular encapsulation techniques for mosquito repellent study.
The wet encapsulated essential oil releases the core material by wall diffusion and wall rapture following the
Fickian diffusion mechanism and the Korsmeyer-Peppas controlled release model of super case II prediction,
respectively. Almost no work reported on the encapsulation of kaffir lime for mosquito repellent, hence the
potential should be explored and established.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for providing financial
support under 600-IRMI/FRGS 5/3 (186/2019).
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Nurul Asyikin Md Zaki is a senior lecturer at the School of Chemical
Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam. She received
her master’s degrees in Bioprocess Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2009.
Her research interest are separation technology and food processing. She can be contacted at
email: asyikin6760@uitm.edu.my.
ISSN: 2252-8814
Int J Adv Appl Sci, Vol. 11, No. 4, December 2022: 360-366
366
Junaidah Jai is an associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering,
College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam. She received her PhD in
Chemical Engineering from Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia in 2010, Her research
interest and expertise include corrosion inhibitor, surface coating and encapsulation process.
She can be contacted at email: junejai@uitm.edu.my.
Izzat Syahmi Kamal Shahrizan is a graduate engineer that completed his
Bachelor Degree in Chemical Engineering (Honours) at the Faculty of Chemical Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi MARA. He received his degree in chemical engineering from Universiti
Teknologi MARA (UiTM) in 2022. His research interest is in active ingredients for natural
product. He can be contacted at email: izzatsyahmi9677@gmail.com.
Dewi Selvia Fardhyanti is a professor of Chemical Engineering at the
Universitas Negara Semarang, Indonesia. She received her PhD in 2014. Her research interest
are separation technology and extraction. She can be contacted at email:
dewiselvia@mail.unnes.ac.id.
Megawati is a professor of Chemical Engineering at the Universitas Negara
Semarang, Indonesia. She received her PhD in 2011. Her research interest are biomass
technology, separation and extraction processes. She can be contacted at email:
megawati@mail.unnes.ac.id.
Nadya Alfa Cahaya Imani is a lecturer at the Universitas Negara Semarang,
Indonesia. She received her master’s degree in 2018. Her research interest are separation
technology and extraction. She can be contacted at email: nadya.alfa@mail.unnes.ac.id.
