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International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE)
Vol. 11, No. 4, December 2022, pp. 2095~2105
ISSN: 2252-8822, DOI: 10.11591/ijere.v11i4.21861 2095
Journal homepage: http://ijere.iaescore.com
Conceptions of Moroccan secondary school students in relation
to the “Integrative Concept” of plate tectonics
Radouan Chakour1,2, Anouar Alami1, Sabah Selmaoui2, Aâtika Eddif3, Hanaa Chalak4
1Engineering Laboratory of Organo-metallic Materials, Molecular and Environment, Faculty of Science Dhar El Marhaz, Sidi Mohamed
Ben Abdellah University, Fes, Morocco
2The Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory in Didactic, Education and Training, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
3Laboratory of Scientific Research and Pedagogical Development, Regional Center for Education and Training, Annex Meknes,
Morocco
4National Higher Institute of Teaching and Education, Nantes Education Research Center (CREN), Nantes University, Nantes, France
Article Info
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Mar 6, 2021
Revised Aug 15, 2022
Accepted Sep 14, 2022
The study of learners’ conceptions of geological concepts has been the
subject of several studies in the field of earth science didactics. The majority
of these studies show that learners have misconceptions that can be an
obstacle to learning Earth sciences. The present work aimed to identify the
views of second year undergraduate students on plate tectonics to identify
some of the barriers to teaching this unifying scientific theory across the
different disciplines of the Earth sciences. The data was gathered with
questionnaire administered to students in the second year of the
Baccalaureate before teaching about plate tectonics. The results of our study
confirmed that student learners do indeed have conceptions of plate tectonics
and associated phenomena but have great difficulty in mobilizing their
knowledge to explain geological phenomena related to plate tectonics. These
difficulties may have several origins: the nature of the geological knowledge
transposed, and the very limited knowledge of teachers with a bachelor’s
degree in Biology.
Keywords:
Conceptions
Geological phenomena
Integrating concept
Learners
Plate tectonics
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Anouar Alami
Engineering Laboratory of Organometallic, Molecular Materials and Environment (LIMOME), Faculty of
Sciences Dhar Mahraz, Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University
P.B. 2626, Fes 30000, Morocco
Email: anouar.alami@usmba.ac.ma
1. INTRODUCTION
Geology is a diachronic science, relating to phenomena that occur over time [1]. It aims to define
both the present functioning of the planet and the reconstitution of its history. Geology is both a historical
and functionalist science: functionalist geology studies current geological phenomena, both external (erosion
and sedimentation) and internal (volcanoes and earthquakes), which are explained by the model of plate
tectonics; whereas historical geology reconstructs the Earth’s past; this past is interpreted based on field
evidence of geological phenomena in geological formations [2], [3].
The earth sciences (ES) have experienced the emergence of the well-known and major theory called
‘plate tectonics’ which was accepted by the scientific community in 1968, and introduced for the first time
into the Moroccan curriculum in 1994. The theory of plate tectonics has not only contributed to the
comprehension of the dynamics, functioning and history of the Earth, but has also unified several fields of
study in the Earth sciences (petrography, volcanology, sedimentology, paleontology, stratigraphy, and
tectonics) and has given rise to new sciences such as geodesy, geostatic, geophysics, and geochemistry [2].
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The acquisition of information and knowledge is not a simple passive process, but is a very complex process
through which the learner learns and acquires new knowledge. A simple mechanical repetition of knowledge
could not ensure its acquisition by the learner; it requires mental operations that take place spontaneously [4].
Explaining how the learning process occurs and evolves in the learner has been the subject of several
research studies in science didactics [5]–[8].
the previous state of the learner’s structure as the primary factor influencing new learning [9]. Good
learning is a dynamic process that associates any new knowledge with cognitive structure. The learner’s
cognitive structure already holds an initial conception of the concept, and through the contribution of new
knowledge undergoes modifications and specific changes, responsible for meaningful learning. Research in
science didactics has focused on the learners’ conceptions from a constructivist perspective [7], [10]. Many
studies have shown the importance of considering the individual’s conceptions of a given subject in the
context of his or her training [7], [11] because they often constitute real obstacles to the improvement of
teaching-learning processes and the professional development of teachers.
Understanding these conceptions, their origins and their analyses is an indispensable step towards the
effective designing of both teacher training program and curricula. The didactic approach underlines that
effective teaching must take into account the identified conceptions, analyze how they hinder the acquisition of
a scientific concept, and invent teaching strategies focused on these obstacles to overcome them. Indeed,
learners’ conceptions guide us in giving answers (finding solutions) to the problems posed by learners, and we
cannot neglect them when learning any subject [7]. It should be noted that 12th grade students have been
introduced to the theory of plate tectonics in the eighth grade.
Plate tectonics is a major theory that is central to the Earth sciences and, therefore, constitutes an
important part of teaching and learning at the secondary and university levels. Like other geological concepts,
the theory of plate tectonics seems problematic for teachers and learners alike for a variety of reasons. However,
the issue of science teaching and learning in general, is not new; it has been the subject of much debate over the
past several decades. Difficulties in the teaching and learning of Earth sciences are related to its interdisciplinary
nature. This is supported by its interaction with physics, chemistry and mathematics, which provide a pathway
to the understanding of geological phenomena. Moreover Earth sciences are broadly related to both space,
where learners have difficulty moving between a 2D plane to volume (3D), and also the notion of time, which is
measured in millions of years [12], [13]. Furthermore, such difficulties are related, among other things, to the
academic career path and teaching practices [14]. Some of these characteristics specific to science teachers have
contributed to the devaluation of this discipline among learners and teachers, as the works of several researchers
confirms [2], [15]–[17].
For us, being interested in learners’ means being particularly interested in knowing their conceptions
in order to adapt teaching and learning. Conceptions correspond to an individual’s organized and structured
knowledge, which will be mobilized in a given situation; this is also a way of conceiving reality by
mobilizing previous knowledge [8], [9]. In recent decades, there has been a proliferation of work in Earth
science didactics that focuses on the study of learners’ conceptions and their didactic consideration in
teaching and learning [18]–[25]. In Morocco, little research has been published on learners’ conceptions of
geological concepts and phenomena [18], [23]. This work focused on the study of earthquake-related
conceptions among students in the 7th grade, and those related to volcanoes among both Moroccan students
in the 2nd year of high school (11th grade) and future teachers of life and earth sciences (SVT). Students,
teachers and future teachers may have the same conceptions of earthquakes and volcanoes. Consistent with
the previous work and aware of the importance of taking into account learners’ conceptions when
considering learning, we have chosen this topic through which we seek to identify the conceptions of learners
in the 12th grade (2nd year Bac) about plate tectonics and concepts linked to it as shown in Table 1, by
looking for their underlying sources. Therefore, two main questions guided our study: i) What are the views
of twelfth grade students (second year Baccalaureate) on the ‘integrative concept’ of plate tectonics?; ii) How
do these learners explain geological phenomena related to plate tectonics?
Table 1. Contents of internal geodynamics in the SVT-middle school program (Edition 2009)
Unit title
Contents to be taught
Hourly volume
Internal geological
phenomena.
Theory of plate tectonics: Proofs of continental drift; Plate concept
4h (4/28)
The relationship between plate tectonics and internal geological phenomena:
Earthquakes, volcanism, tectonic deformations
4h (4/28)
Formation of magmatic rocks, and contact metamorphism
6h (6/28)
Formation of mountain ranges: General tectonics
4h (4/28)
Structure of the globe
2h (2/28)
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2. RESEARCH METHOD
To identify learners’ conceptions of plate tectonics, we chose an anonymous questionnaire
(Appendix) as an investigative tool as presented in Table 2. It should be noted that some items (items 2, 5,
and 7) in our questionnaire are based on validated questionnaires [12], [21]. The other items (items 1, 3, 4, 6,
8, 9) were developed by us based on the objectives of the SVT program on the unit of internal geodynamics
(Table 2). The proposed items are varied (open-ended questions and multiple-choice questions). Some items
correspond or intersect with each other, which will allow us to cross-check the information collected. The
items are formulated in Arabic and at a scientific and linguistic level that is accessible to the learners. Our
questionnaire was validated by didactic specialists, educational inspectors, trainers from the Ecoles Normales
Supérieures (ENS), Regional Centers for Education and Training Trades (CRMEF), and secondary school
teachers from the SVT Department.
We tested this questionnaire among 11 learners by asking them to answer the questions and to let us
know if they did not understand certain questions so that they could be reworded or removed. The sample is
composed of 165 participants (male and female students) in the second year of the Baccalaureate, aged
between 17 and 18. These students are spread over five classes in four public high schools in the directorate
of Chtouka Ait Baha Academy in Sous Massa-Agadir, Morocco. The choice of establishments was related to
ease of access. The questionnaire was administered during the practical sessions (reduced number of
students), under the supervision of the SVT teachers of the chosen classes, and the students answered as soon
as the copies of the questionnaire were distributed by the teacher. The statistical analysis of the responses was
performed using IBM statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) 22. The percentages that appear in the
tables are expressed according to the number of people questioned.
Table 2. Objectives of the questionnaire questions
Questions
Objectives of the questions
Q1: Open question
To gain an idea of what learners think about plate tectonics.
Q2: Multiple choice closed-ended question
To know the drivers of plate tectonics.
Q3: Open question
To distinguish between a continent and a lithospheric plate.
Q4: Multiple choice closed-ended question
To know the sources of heat inside the Earth.
Q5: Open question
To have an idea about the volume variation of the globe.
Q6: Open question
To know the causes of earthquakes.
Q7: Multiple choice closed-ended question
To establish the relationship between magma formation and plate tectonics.
Q8: Multiple choice closed-ended question
To master the conditions of mountain range formation.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Learner’s conception of plate tectonics
The first question, which asked the students ‘What words do you think of when you hear the term
Plate Tectonics?’, focuses on concepts and phenomena that learners can mobilize and enunciate
spontaneously. After reading all the students’ answers, we tried to group them into categories, some answers
were assigned into one or more categories. The categorization of learners’ responses was carried out
according to the main themes and axes of the teaching unit. Table 3 summarizes all the categories under
which we classified learners’ responses, and the frequencies of the different words generated by the learners.
Analysis of the students’ responses (Table 3) reveals that 65% of them associated plate tectonics
with earthquakes, and 62% to volcanism. This is normal, since these concepts represent major parts of the
curriculum taught at secondary college level (8h/28h), in addition to the fact that these concepts are more
widely covered by the various media. 22% of learners mentioned continental drift, while 16% of learners
thought of mountain range formation and plate subduction (15%), these concepts represent (8h/28h) the
middle school curriculum.
On the other hand, some learners thought about tectonic deformations (10%) and concepts related to
the structure of the Earth (16%), continents (15%), and lithosphere (9%). From this quantitative analysis of
the first open-ended question, we deduced, in general, that the learners were able to mobilize and think about
the essential geological concepts, notions and phenomena related to the integrative concept of plate tectonics.
These concepts and notions mobilized by the learners in our sample represent the key elements of the
remaining items in our questionnaire.
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Table 3. Learners’ conceptions of the concept of plate tectonics
Category
Words
Word frequency (%)
Category 1: Geological
phenomena
Earthquakes (earthquake, earthquake focus, tsunami)
65
Magmatism (volcano/magma)
62
Mountain ranges
16
Tectonic deformations (Fault, Fold)
10
Category 2: Plates/Platter
Boundaries
Plate Subduction
15
Collision
5
Oceanic and continental plate
4
Category 3: Structure of the earth
Earth globe/Earth
16
Continents
15
Lithosphere
9
Oceans/Sea/Ocean floor
4
Oceanic crust
2
Earth core
2
Hills
1
Islands
1
Category 4: Movement and
causes of movement
Continental drift
22
Removal of the plates
11
Mobility
8
link of the plates
5
Ebb and flow
2
Convection currents
2
Category 5: Rocks
Rocks
10
Magmatic rocks (Basalt, Granite)
4
Geological layers
3
Sedimentary rocks (Clay, Silt)
2
Category 6: Climatic phenomena
Thunderstorms
1
Greenhouse effect
1
Category 7: Names of persons
and countries/General words
Geology
9
Africa/America
1
Wegener
1
3.2. Theory of plate tectonics
3.2.1. Plate tectonic engines
Most of the learners mobilized tectonic causes responsible for plate tectonics that were incorrect,
such as seismic activity (67%) and volcanic activity (33%). Almost 40% of the learners surveyed identified
incorrect non-tectonic causes, such as the ebb and flow of the oceans and seas. While, 27% of the learners
consider convection currents to be the driving force behind the mobility of lithospheric plates as presented in
Table 4. This was the driving force adopted by the scientific community in 1970, and one still found in life
and Earth science curricula and textbooks.
We also noted that none of the learners mentioned subduction as a factor responsible for plate
tectonics. Learners’ responses to this question were truly surprising. Most misconceptions can be linked to
several reasons, on the one hand to geological knowledge transposed at the textbook level, and on the other
hand to the very limited knowledge and the misconceptions of life and Earth science teachers.
Table 4. Learners’ conceptions of the drivers of plate tectonics
Factors responsible for TPQ (Responsible factors)
Percentages (%)
Other factors
6
Convection currents
27
Volcanoes
33
Earthquakes
67
The ebb and flow of the oceans (The tide)
16
3.2.2. Difference between a continent and a lithospheric plate
Three-quarters of the learners identified that there is a difference between the continent and the
lithospheric plate, while one quarter of respondent learners think that it is the same as can be seen in
Figure 1. From this it can be deduced that the latter have associations between continental drift and plate
tectonics. Subsequently, we asked learners in the first category to clarify this difference between the
continent and the plate. We classified their answers as displayed in Table 5. Even though they identified that
there is a difference between the continent and the plate, 60% of these learners were unable to clarify this
difference; while 29% of the responding learners mentioned misconceptions about the two concepts. Only
11% were able to distinguish and describe the differences between these two notions.
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Figure 1. Conceptions of the difference between lithospheric plate and continent
Table 5. Learners’ conceptions of the difference between continent and lithospheric plate
Effectives
Percentages (%)
Non-respondent
74
60
Confusion between continent and plate
36
29
Distinction between continent and plate
13
11
3.2.3. Sources of temperature increase with depth
In question 4, we asked the responding learners to write down the sources and origins of the increase
in temperature in the Earth’s interior. Learners’ responses were very diverse. Table 6 summarizes the
different categories obtained. Where an answer contained more than one or two conceptions, they were
classified under several categories.
Table 6. Categorization of learners’ responses regarding sources of temperature
Categories
Percentages (%)
Category 1: Magma (Magma/volcano/lava)
27
Category 3: Core of the earth, center of the earth
7
Category 4: Climate change/greenhouse gases/pollution/ sunlight/ozone hole/atmospheric pressure
7
Category 5: Plate tectonics/Plate collision/Convection currents/Subduction
5
Category 6: Depth/pressure
5
Category9: Disintegration of radioactive elements
1
There were 27% of the responding learners say that the origin of the temperature increase is related
to magmatism (volcanoes and magmas located in the interior of the Earth). While, 7% of them link the rise in
temperature to the thermal energy released by the Earth’s core. A minority of learners (5%) make use of the
contact zones of lithospheric plates (collision, subduction) and the variation in depth (lithostatic pressure).
However, 7% of the responding learners link this increase in temperature to external factors such as climate
change, the greenhouse effect, the sun.
On the other hand, only 1% of learners reported the decay of radioactive elements within the Earth’s
interior, which is considered by the scientific community to be the primary source of heat within the globe.
These conceptions are purely of media origin or knowledge learned in ecology and environmental sciences.
These representations call into question the relationship that the teaching of geological phenomena has with
time and space.
3.2.4. Variation in the volume of the globe
It is well known that there are geological phenomena that reduce the surface of the Earth, such as
subduction, and other geological phenomena that compensate for this reduction, the extension at the level of
the oceanic ridges, which causes the stability of the volume of the terrestrial globe as a function of time.
According to the results in Figure 2, the majority of learners (88%) identify that the volume of the Earth
remains stable, and few (4%-5%) think that the volume of the Earth increases or decreases with time. No
learner checked off all three choices at the same time.
No
75%
Yes
25%
Diference bitween lithospheric plate and continent
No Yes
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Figure 2. Learners’ conceptions of the variation in the volume of the globe
3.3. Geological phenomena associated with plate tectonics
3.3.1. Origin of earthquakes
This question deals with the factors that trigger earthquakes; the results are presented in the Table 7.
More than 80% of the learners surveyed were able to explain how earthquakes occur within the framework of
plate tectonic theory. However, 19% linked earthquakes to volcanic flows. And a minority of learners
thought that earthquakes are due to the rotation of the Earth (3%), military bombs (1%), and convection
currents. Around 11% of learners linked the functioning of earthquakes to other factors without specifying
them. We also found that the learners did not mention tectonic deformations (faults, overlapping, folding) as
factors triggering earthquakes.
Table 7. Learners' conceptions of the origin of earthquakes
What are the factors that trigger an earthquake?
Effectives
Percentages
Other factors
18
11
Plate Tectonics
140
85
Bombs used in war
02
1
The rotation of the globe
05
3
Volcanic flows
31
19
3.3.2. Magmatism and plate tectonics
Regarding item (a) on the distribution of volcanism on a global scale, the majority of responding
learners (96%) identified that volcanoes are not distributed all over the globe as seen in Figure 3, i.e., there is
a distribution in specific locations of the Earth, which is consistent with the interpretive theories adopted by
scientists. Table 8 summarizes their very diverse responses, which we have classified into several categories.
Figure 3. Learners’ conceptions of the distribution of volcanoes
88%
4%3% 5%
Variation in the volume of the globe
Fixed Increases Descreases No reply
No
96%
Yes
4%
No
Yes
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Table 8. Categorization of learner responses from the explanation distribution of volcanoes
Categories
Staff
Percentages
Category1: Mountain areas/mountain peaks/Himalayas
46
27%
Category 2: Names of geographical areas (continents, countries)
27
16%
Category 3: Extension Zone (mid-oceanic ridge)
20
12%
Category 5: Coastal areas/Equatorial areas/Warmer areas.
10
6%
Category 6: Subduction Zone
7
4%
Category 7: earthquake zone
1
1%
Category 8: No reply
The rest
38%
3.3.3. The process of mountain range formation
The aim of this question is to identify the learners’ conceptions of mountain range formation. The
Table 9 summarizes the different explanations given by the learners about orogeny. There were 30% of the
students started with plate tectonics as the main factor in the formation of mountain ranges (orogenesis), with
a few geological phenomena contributing to its formation, mentioning, for example, the coming together of
plates, collision between them, subduction, yet the majority failed to produce scientific interpretations and
explanations of the processes causing the formation of mountain ranges. The other 12% of the learners
mentioned volcanic activity as the cause of orogenesis and 8% of the learners linked the formation of
mountain ranges to external geological phenomena (sedimentation, wind erosion). Another two learners
considered the areas of divergence between plates (oceanic ridges) as areas characterized by the formation of
mountain ranges. Most of the learners tried to mobilize their knowledge and skills to explain the genesis of
mountain ranges, but the content of their answers shows that they were unable to explain the mechanisms of
this geological phenomenon.
Table 9. Explanation of the formation of mountain ranges (Orogenesis)
Categories
Learners’ conceptions of mountain range Formation
Effectives
Percentages
Category 1
Plate Rapprochement/Lithospheric Plate Collision, Compressive Stresses, Subduction of
one lithospheric plate under another
50
30%
Category 2
Volcanic activity, accumulation of volcanic lava
20
12%
Category 3
Accumulation of soils and rocks on top of each other, over millions of years,
Accumulation of sedimentary layers, Erosion (wind), sedimentation, compaction,
13
8%
Category 4
Earthquakes (Earthquakes)
12
7%
Category 5
The ebb and flow of the oceans and seas.
9
5%
Category 6
Distension/Removal of lithospheric plates.
2
1%
Category 7
Answer difficult to classify
20
12%
Category 8
No answer
61
36%
3.4. Discussion
Several research studies have examined learners’ conceptions of notions related to plate tectonics; we
will discuss the results obtained in our study in the light of these studies. Our survey showed that the learners
did not report subduction as the main driving force of plate tectonics, especially since a great deal of geological
research shows that the lithosphere is the proper driving force of its mobility and tectonics. And it is especially
the density of older lithospheres plunging into the asthenosphere that is the cause of the movement of
lithospheric plates. The 1970 version of the plate tectonic model tended to overestimate the role of oceanic
ridges in relation to subduction. But currently ridges are considered to be mostly passive, and only compensate
for subduction [26], [27]. During the first years of the construction of the theory of plate tectonics, geologists
believed that the plunging lithosphere did not exceed 670 km in depth, either by disappearing by acquiring a
temperature equal to that of the surrounding asthenosphere, or by sliding horizontally on the surface of the
discontinuity at 670 km. Seismic tomography, which was absent prior to 1970, has shown that submerging
oceanic lithospheres often cross the 670 km limit and can reach the mantle-core boundary [26].
Of course, these elements of interpretation have not been introduced into life and Earth science
curricula and textbooks to date. Indeed, the early version of the plate tectonic model overestimated the role of
magmatism in the action of ocean ridges. Magmatism, which results from the partial melting of the mantle
that rises beneath an oceanic ridge, is the consequence of the functioning of ridges, not its cause. This finding
is reinforced by the discovery of ridges functioning without magmatism and ocean bottoms without the crust
[26]. The same is true for earthquakes, which are one of the consequences of plate tectonics and not its cause.
As for the origin of earthquakes, a study by Chalak and El Hage in Lebanon [21] also showed that a
significant number of students (77% of first and Terminal years) referred to the theory of plate tectonics to
explain the functioning of earthquakes. And that the earlier model of Fixism, considered as an
epistemological obstacle, appears to have influenced the majority of learners.
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The same research stressed the need to be cautious in interpreting these results, and the value of
properly measuring the level at which learners use this theory to explain earthquakes. For our part, we
confirm this observation, especially since these same learners (67%) considered seismic activity as a factor
responsible for plate tectonics (analysis of the sixth question); hence, the need to deepen these results to
clearly identify the conditions under which learners use plate tectonics theory to explain the geological
phenomena associated with them.
Several research studies have been carried out on learners’ conceptions of the origin of lava [18],
[20], [21], [28]–[30] which have also shown the inability of learners to relate volcanic activity to plate
tectonics. Boughanmi’s study, which focused on the learners’ conceptions of the formation of subduction
chains, showed that each learner mobilized part of the knowledge acquired concerning the formation of
subduction mountain ranges, the explanation of the phenomenon was never globalizing, and that the learners
encountered enormous difficulties in understanding this geological phenomenon that is not perceptible to
human apprehension. Only 10/58 were able to mobilize notions that go back to the mechanisms of mountain
chain formation. The diversity of explanations for mountain range formation poses problems in
understanding the processes of mountain range formation [12].
4. CONCLUSION
Conceptions correspond to the organized and structured knowledge of an individual, which are
mobilized in a given situation. It is also a way of conceiving reality by mobilizing previous knowledge.
Scientific research in the fields of teaching-learning agrees on the importance of teachers taking into
consideration the learner’s conceptions, on the one hand, because the learner has become the center of
teaching-learning processes and the main actor in the construction of his or her own knowledge. And on the
other hand, these conceptions offer the teacher a multitude of procedures that would facilitate learning.
However, the use and exploitation of learners’ conceptions has become complex and difficult because they
are influenced by other factors, in addition to classroom instruction, such as the media and all the tools that
enrich their own cultures and contribute to changes on the level of their cognitive structures.
The results of our study confirm that high school students, who already have previously acquired
knowledge related to plate tectonics (content already started in a unit in the second year of secondary school:
the theory of plate tectonics, its relationship with internal geological phenomena, the formation of magmatic
rocks, and the formation of mountain ranges), do indeed have misconceptions about plate tectonics and the
phenomena associated with them. They also find it very difficult to mobilize their knowledge to explain
geological phenomena related to plate tectonics. These difficulties could be related to several reasons, namely
to the nature of the geological knowledge taught especially in relation to problems of time and space, to the
methods and approaches adopted in the teaching of chapters and units related to internal geodynamics which
are often analytical and non-systemic, and also to the very limited knowledge of the teachers, especially those
specialized in life sciences. Furthermore, the curriculum has been slow to adopt the modifications already
validated by the scientific community on the theory of plate tectonics, especially as the evolution of
technology has made it possible to overcome and evolve the analogical theories of the 1960s (1960-1970).
Based on the results obtained from our research, we were able to identify several benchmarks that can help
teachers to overcome difficulties in the construction of knowledge: i) Diversifying the didactic situations and
pedagogical approaches adopted by teachers which allows to change their frames of reference and correct
any misconceptions about the scientific concepts and phenomena taught; ii) Adopting a systematic approach
that allows the relationships between the different elements of the internal geological phenomena that are
related to plate tectonics to be identified and the reactions between them to be recognized. This approach
emphasizes the global perspective when studying these phenomena and makes it possible to study several
variants at the same time, with theories that are simple to use even though they are not often precise. The
adoption of this type of approach is made easier by the presence of a unifying and integrating concept, which
is “plate tectonics”; iii) Exploiting various didactic situations concerning/explaining the causal relationship
between plate tectonics and earthquakes/volcanoes; iv) Using theories about the relationship of Earth
sciences to time and space; v) Using ICT in the teaching-learning of complex geological phenomena; vi)
Taking into consideration the abstraction capacity of the learners (psychogenetic obstacles), although the
popularization of science sometimes omits the scientific basis for the geological concepts and phenomena
taught.
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ISSN: 2252-8822
Int J Eval & Res Educ, Vol. 11, No. 4, December 2022: 2095-2105
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Radouan Chakour obtained his license in earth and universe sciences at the
Faculty of Science, Moulay Ismail University in Meknes. Subsequently, he continued his
graduate studies at the Faculty of Science Agdal, Mohamed V University, in Rabat, which
were capped by obtaining a master's degree in earth, sea and environmental sciences in 2008.
In April 2020, He obtained his PHD in Didactics of Life and Earth Sciences with first class
honors and unanimous congratulations of the jury. Interested in understanding problems in the
teaching-learning of Life and Earth sciences. The research carried out has been the subject of
several publications (books and chapters, indexed journals, conferences). He can be contacted
by email: radouan.chakour@usmba.ac.ma.
Anouar Alami is a member of Engineering Laboratory of Organometallic,
Molecular Materials and Environment (LIMOME), Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Marhaz, Sidi
Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Morocco. He studied Chemistry at Montpellier II
University, France. He received his Ph.D. in 1991. He then joined in 1992 at the Department
of Chemistry at the FSDM, USMBA, Fez, Morocco. He prepared his state doctorate thesis
degree in Organic Chemistry in 1997 at USMBA. His research is focused in various fields:
Heterocyclic chemistry, molecular biology, science education, applied research in pedagogy,
Educational Technology. He can be contacted via email: anouar.alami@usmba.ac.ma.
Sabah Selmaoui is a member of Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory in
Didactic, Education and Training (LIRDEF), Normal Superior school (ENS), Cadi Ayyad
University, Marrakech, Morocco. is Associate professor of the Center for Research and
Development in Education (CRDE), Moncton university, Canada. A research professor in
Didactics of sciences (Life and Earth Sciences) at Ecole Normale Superieure (ENS), Cadi
Ayyad University, Marrakech since 1994. Interested in the description and understanding
problems in the teaching-learning of Life and Earth sciences. The research conducted focused
on a variety of actors in the education system (curricula, learners and teachers). The research
has been the subject of several publications (books and chapters, indexed journals,
conferences). she can be contacted via email sselmaoui@gmail.com.
Aâtika Eddif is professor in geology and didactics of geology since 2016 at
Regional Center for Education and Training Trade Meknès (RCETT); (2011-2016) assistant
professor at (RCETT) Meknès; Secondary education teacher qualifying Life and Earth
Sciences at the Imame EL Boukhari Youssefia High School Morocco (2007-2011); National
doctorate in geology at Mohammed V University, Faculty of Sciences Rabat (2002); Graduate
Studies Diploma (DES) at Chouaib Doukkali University Faculty of Sciences El Jadida,
Morocco (1998); Certificate of Advanced Studies (CEA) in geology at Faculty of Sciences
Rabat, Morocco (1993) License in Geology, Faculty of Sciences El Jadida (1992);
baccalaureate in experimental sciences, High school El Farabi, Boujaad (1987). She can be
contacted via email eddifaatika057@gmail.com.
Hanaà Chalak is assistant professor in science education (didactics of life and
earth sciences) at the university of Nantes since 2014. Her research interests include the
difficulties and didactic conditions of access to problematized knowledge by students, the
practices of beginning and experienced teachers, and socially acute questions (SAQ) in
education. she can be contacted via email Hanaa.Chalak@univ-nantes.fr.
Int J Eval & Res Educ ISSN: 2252-8822
Conceptions of Moroccan secondary school students in relation to the … (Radouan Chakour)
2105
APPENDIX
Questionnaire
Establishment: …………………………………….
City or town:
……………
Age:
Gender: Male
Female
1. What words do you think of when you hear the phrase ‘Plate Tectonics’?
...............................................................................................................................
2. What drives the mobility of lithospheric plates?
- Ebb and flow movement
- Earthquakes
- Convection currents
- Volcanoes
- Other factors
3. a. Are there differences between the continent and the lithospheric plate?
Yes No
b. If so, please specify these differences:
..............................................................
4. What is (or are) the source(s) of the temperature increase inside the Earth.
.................................................................................................................................
5. The volume of the globe
Increases Decreases Is fixed
6. Earthquakes are caused by:
- Volcanic flows
- Rotation of the globe
- Military bombs
- Movement of lithospheric plates
Other sources: ……
7. a. Do volcanoes exist all over the globe?
Yes No
b. If the answer is ‘No’, specify the geological zones characterized by volcanic activity:
............................................................................................................................................
8. Cite the processes of mountain range formation (orogenesis)
..........................................................................................................
