Software-defined constellation of small LEO satellites of the W-band wireless network: reality and future prospects

Abstract

Distributed satellite systems are used to achieve improved temporal and spatial resolution of observations, as well as higher response speed and reliability. Satellite networks with global coverage, which are not limited by geographical restrictions, have attracted the interest of the scientific community and industry. Next-generation satellite networks differ from previous satellite networks in that they have built-in processing, low-cost tracking antennas, and inter-satellite communications. This article describes a mission concept, featuring intersatellite communication link based on software-defined radio employing W-band frequencies. The increase in the frequency band to the W-band, E-band is due to the fact that frequency allocations in S, X, Ka, Ku bands get increasingly crowded and difficult to obtain. This study presents an approach to miniaturization of the electronics and antenna technology to ensure W-band communication. The theoretical limits of network throughput with limited size and available energy were explored and described. Several methods have been proposed to increase the payload and expand the network for inter-satellite and subscriber communications, digital signal processing and protocol stack, as well as the satellite subsystem. The current state of and prospects for the development of this technology are described. The purpose of the designed constellation is to provide higher data return, autonomous airborne navigation with less dependence on ground tracking data and significantly reduce the total operating costs of future research missions.

Full text

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IAC-22-B2, 8-GTS.3, 8, x73216
Software-defined constellation of small LEO satellites of the W-band wireless network:
reality and future prospects.
K. Kosmynina*a, A. Ivanov, A. Kosmynin, A. Chesnitskiyd, A. Mikheenkoс, A. Glazkob, M. Basaka
a Space Center, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Bolshoy Boulevard 30, bld. 1, Moscow, Russia
121205, inbox@skoltech.ru
b Faculty of Infocommunication Technologies, ITMO University, Kronverksky Pr. 49, bldg. A, St. Petersburg, Russia
197101, international@itmo.ru
c Higher School of Engineering and Technology, ITMO University, Kronverksky Pr. 49, bldg. A, St. Petersburg,
Russia 197101, international@itmo.ru
d The Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrent'ev Ave. 13, Novosibirsk, Russia 630090,
achesnitskiy@gmail.com
* Corresponding Author
Abstract
Distributed satellite systems are used to achieve improved temporal and spatial resolution of observations, as
well as higher response speed and reliability. Satellite networks with global coverage, which are not limited by
geographical restrictions, have attracted the interest of the scientific community and industry. Next-generation satellite
networks differ from previous satellite networks in that they have built-in processing, low-cost tracking antennas, and
inter-satellite communications. This article describes a mission concept, featuring intersatellite communication link
based on software-defined radio employing W-band frequencies. The increase in the frequency band to the W-band,
E-band is due to the fact that frequency allocations in S, X, Ka, Ku bands get increasingly crowded and difficult to
obtain. This study presents an approach to miniaturization of the electronics and antenna technology to ensure W-band
communication. The theoretical limits of network throughput with limited size and available energy were explored and
described. Several methods have been proposed to increase the payload and expand the network for inter-satellite and
subscriber communications, digital signal processing and protocol stack, as well as the satellite subsystem. The current
state of and prospects for the development of this technology are described. The purpose of the designed constellation
is to provide higher data return, autonomous airborne navigation with less dependence on ground tracking data and
significantly reduce the total operating costs of future research missions.
Keywords: LEO satellite, SDN, W-band, satellite constellation, metasurface antenna.
Acronyms/Abbreviations
DSP – Digital Signal Processing
IoT – Internet of Things
ISL – Inter-Satellite Link
LEO – Low-Earth Orbit
MSA – Metasurface Antenna
NFV – Network Function Virtualisation
SDN – Software-Defined Network
SDR – Software-Defined Radio
SDSN – Software-Defined Satellite Network
1. Introduction
1.1 Motivation: global network coverage with LEO
satellite constellations
The constellation described in this work consists of
small spacecraft – CubeSats/NanoSats. In recent years a
trend towards an increase in the number of low-Earth
orbit (LEO) satellite constellations has been observed.
These constellations are characterized by a decrease in
the size of satellites and an increase in the depth of digital
processing (routing and transport layer). Satellites with
weight below 20kg are typically less expensive and can
be built in series. To address issues with space debris,
small sat constellations are flown below roughly 550km
altitude (to ensure natural descent) or have an active
removal system onboard.
Over the last few decades, there has been a growing
interest worldwide in small LEO satellites. This was
caused and motivated by several reasons: the

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miniaturization of satellites leads to a lower costs for
their production and launch, the space exploration and
the testing of new technologies becomes available to
many research institutions around the world, and not just
to large commercial or governmental enterprises, LEO
satellites operating in orbits at altitudes from 500 to 2000
km relatively reduce signal latency, path loss, increase
reliability and provide real-time communication [1].
The need for ubiquitous Internet coverage has
prompted the development of LEO high-speed
communication systems, which have made it possible to
see their potential to provide continuous coverage of the
global network without geographical restrictions and
without delay. Although the Internet has become
widespread and has changed beyond recognition of the
daily lives of people in most developed countries, in
many hard-to-reach regions, remote villages, and
developing countries, providing network connections is
expensive and time-consuming, as it requires the
construction of a huge terrestrial infrastructure; thus,
more than half of the world's population remains without
stable access to the Internet [2]. This is particularly
noticeable in underdeveloped countries with large
populations. However, in most advanced countries, there
has been significant progress in the development of
technologies that provide broadband Internet access,
such as 5G and 6G. To provide sufficient traffic for future
generations of communications, LEO global
constellations of small satellites are being developed [3].
The future generation of equipment for satellite
communications differs from the past in a number of
technological complications and functional advantages:
the presence of inter-satellite links (ISL), signal
processing on board, flexible network configuration due
to Software-Defined Network (SDN) and Software-
defined radio (SDR) technologies, miniaturization of the
component base, and cheaper design and production.
Advances in electronics and antenna systems
miniaturization have led to possibility to employ higher
frequency ranges for relatively small satellites. Recent
trends indicate the development of millimeter-wave
frequencies. For example, in [4] it is shown that the E, Q,
V, and W bands are promising for satellite-to-Earth
communications. Because the absorption of radio waves
in the atmosphere becomes increasingly significant with
increasing frequency, the authors of this article focused
their attention on the 78 – 86 GHz range, where a
transparency window is observed in the atmosphere. We
note here, that for applications in inter-satellite link, this
constrain is lifted and we can consider a wide number of
bands available.
1.2 Problem formulation
The main goal of this study is to propose a new
approach to the construction of LEO constellations for
Internet of Things (IoT) and communication systems that
satisfy the requirements of the system in terms of
estimating the transmission rate, spacecraft consumption,
flexible configuration of the communication system and
inter-satellite communication link [5]. In this work, we
do not consider the distribution and reception of ground
stations, but focus on the architecture of the constellation:
ISL architecture, SDN and SDR-based architectures, and
antenna system design.
To ensure real-time communication without delays, it
is necessary to integrate an ISL into satellite network
architecture. The classic solution is an optical ISL [6].
However, the optical link has the following
disadvantages: the bulkiness of the system owing to the
increased requirements for the satellite stabilization
system, narrow beam and alignment difficulties, glare
and broadcast interruption, and high cost of equipment.
We propose an innovative solution, the W-band
metasurface antenna (MSA), for designing an ISL [7].
This is a cost-effective and structurally simple solution
that provides a sufficient network capacity. In addition,
several beam-steering methods are proposed in this
study, which are much simpler than optical control
systems.
1.3 Aim and goals of research
One of the most urgent problems for telecom
operators today is the limited frequency resource. This
has motivated the exploration of new bands, and in recent
years we have seen a growing interest of researchers and
developers of communication systems in the W-band [8].
The most significant practical contribution of this
study is that it proposes an alternative approach for
building an inter-satellite communication link in the W-
band. This approach may be interesting for some of its
features: a wide bandwidth provides sufficient, but not
excessive, channel capacity and the possibility of
implementing electronic beam steering, which facilitates
the requirements for spacecraft stabilization, small
weight and dimensions, and low cost.
It is important to note that the authors of the work do
not consider the approach using optical inter-satellite
communication channels unsuitable, because it has
proven its practical significance, as it aims to provide an
alternative solution that can be widely used for certain
tasks in building broadband LEO constellations.
1.4 Technical requirements
One of the factors for which we can observe a
growing interest in LEO satellite communications over
the past decades is less stringent technical requirements
such as power consumption, miniaturized design, and
low transmission delay [9]. Nevertheless, several
parameters must be considered when designing a

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constellation of small LEO satellites: the power
consumption of a spacecraft and each subsystem on it,
the number of satellites in a constellation, latitudes of
operational orbits, maximum distances between satellites,
data rate, and signal delay.
This paper is organized in the following way: in the
second section, the main architecture, principles, and
advantages of the architecture of a flexible SDN-based
satellite configuration are described. The third section is
devoted to ISL communications: the W-band MSA
antenna design and modelling will be given, and several
perspective methods of beam steering and results of the
author’s technique will be provided. In Section four, the
results of link budget calculations are presented and
discussed. In conclusion, the authors’ vision of further
trends in LEO communication constellations and
prospects for the development of their own
corresponding technologies will be described.
2. Network architecture for LEO satellite SDSN-
based constellation
2.1 General architecture
The satellite network architecture is typically
composed of a space segment, ground segment, control
centre and user terminal. The ground segment consisted
of gateways interconnected by optical and satellite
terminals. This study focuses on a space segment which
comprises the constellation, routing, and spot-beam
management.
In each satellite network construction, utilization, and
delivery to end users, there are one or several actors
playing concrete roles. The majority were satellite
operators, with a slightly lower percentage of satellite
network operators, network access, and service
providers.
Several crucial factors must be considered to
construct a sufficient LEO satellite communication
system. First, a general constellation architecture is
designed. To design a satellite constellation that has good
prospects for commercial implementation, a business
case must be solved. First of all, 3 following main
questions should be answered:
1) What are the priority application scenarios?
2) Can we provide a global coverage and real-time
connection?
3) How much will a single satellite and construction
of the whole constellation cast? How does this compare
to existing solutions?
To construct a real-time network connection and
provide sufficient traffic for a constellation, we will
choose an architecture with ISLs between the satellites,
and where a small number of gateways are required.
In [1], two popular LEO satellite constellations were
described: the Walker Delta (Fig. 1(a)) and Walker Star
(Fig. 1(b)) The Walker Star configuration provides the
possibility of building an ISL and therefore implements
a scenario suitable for us: all satellites move linearly from
one pole of the Earth to the opposite pole. This allows
each satellite to easily communicate with its neighbours
on its own or with two neighbouring planes.
Fig. 1. Walker constellation diagram for LEO satellite
system: a) Delta constellation; b) Star constellation [1].
2.3 SDSN-based constellation architecture
In the presence of network processing on-board the
spacecraft, developers are faced with the problem of
limited computing power of the payload if there is a need
to minimize the data transfer time between the user and
the operator's hub and dynamically allocate wireless
network resources. To solve these problems, the concepts
of SDR and SDN have been proposed.
Software-defined radio:
The concept of software-defined radio allows the
placement of the entire signal processing starting from
the intermediate frequency path within a single crystal. It
also allows the elements of Digital signal processing
(DSP) and signal-code structures without changing the
hardware platform, making it theoretically possible to
update the channel stack of the platform after
commissioning, which simplifies its support and allows
constant improvement of the quality of communication
and its efficiency. SDR has been widely used in the
telecommunications and satellite communications
industries for many years.
Software-defined network:
The main difference between SDN and traditional
networks is the first separate levels of data flow and
control. If separation as such could be present in
traditional networks, then the next step, Network
function virtualisation (NFV), is a feature of SDN
architectures only. NFV allows shifting services and top-
level network policies to the network controller,
significantly offloading the "field" equipment and
centralizing control over the entire network. If the first

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versions of physically centralized controllers would have
faced many difficulties in orchestrating a satellite
Internet, then the next generation developed by network
providers - controllers physically distributed with logical
centralization – should cope with the task in all respects.
Network architecture, in which all network functions and
high-level policies are implemented only on servers
(hubs) on the ground, can significantly reduce the
computational load on the payload, which can be
simplified and cheaper in the future. In addition, with a
proper configuration, it is possible to obtain significant
flexibility and the possibility of dynamic channel
resources allocation and the possibility of placing virtual
operators on the network.
One of the distinguishing features of the networks
deployed in LEO is the rapidly changing constellation,
and network topology. However, in contrast to the
unpredictable dynamic topology [10], the configuration
of a satellite constellation is predictable at every. This
makes it possible to optimize the SDN controller in such
a way as to minimize the delay associated with changing
the network topology. This makes it possible to increase
the overall bandwidth of the network. In addition, a
predictable dynamic network topology reduced the load
on the controller by compiling preliminary network maps
based on pre-calculated satellite trajectories.
The architecture of the SDN network proposed by the
authors is shown below:
Fig. 2. Software-defined network architecture.
2.3 Hardware & Software platforms
Hardware Platform
To implement these approaches, a hardware platform
with the appropriate capabilities is required. The authors’
vision of such a platform is given below.
Fig. 3. The proposed hardware platform without
transceiver.
The use of Field programmable gate arrays (FPGA)
and System on chip (SoC) allows SDR and SDN
concepts to be implemented within a single chip, while
the presence of a digitally programmable transceiver
provides additional flexibility and opportunities to
further increase the efficiency of the used frequency
spectrum.
In addition, the current stage in the development of
semiconductor technologies provides an opportunity to
obtain all of the above properties within a single crystal.
This concept is called RF-SoC [11, 12].
Software platform
The authors suggest using open-source solutions from
the Open network foundation (ONF) for
telecommunications as a software platform. Their
Stratum Switch SDN switch platform is designed for use
in telecommunications systems, is optimized for SoC and
FPGA implementation, and provides a user-friendly
interface, high bandwidth, reliability, and low latency. As
a solution for a physically distributed, logically
centralized controller, it is proposed to use μOnos, a
modern solution with high stability and throughput
(approximately 30 switches and 20,000 subscribers per 1
controller) and specializing in the implementation of
technologies such as RAN and Software enabled
broadband access, which also implies the possibility of
orchestrating a heterogeneous network, which leaves
room for integration with terrestrial cellular networks.
3. Inter-satellite Link architecture in W-band
3.1 Proposed solution for ISL in W-band
To reduce dependence of constellations on ground
stations and significantly increase latency an inter-
satellite link solution is required.

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In this paper, we propose a solution based on MSA
operating in the W-band. Previously, the complexity of
building an ISL in radio bands was due to phased antenna
array complexity; this widespread solution is
cumbersome and expensive. Simultaneously, by solving
the problem of component base and production, we can
greatly simplify the design of a spacecraft. MSA may
become an attractive alternative due to its simplicity and
production cost. Previously, the authors have proposed a
detailed description of their method [13].
Moreover, we believe that the construction of an ISL
using MSA in LEO constellations with a high number of
terminals may lead to a commercial breakthrough. This
is motivated by the fact that the production cost of MSA
is very low, but the efficiency of the method is sufficient.
3.2 W-band metasurface antenna design
In this study, we propose an MSA with modulated
impedance as an antenna component. Previously, we
proposed an MSA for satellite-to-ground communication
in the X-band [14]. By scaling, it is easy to transform an
antenna to almost any achievable frequency, and the
limiting factor is the production possibilities.
This paper presents the results of modelling an MSA
at a centre frequency of 82 GHz and a bandwidth of 100
MHz. The geometric dimensions of the product are as
follows: diameter of 58 mm and height 1,5 mm. The
antenna was powered through the central core connected
to the Southwest 1,0 mm (W) connector operating on a
W-band, which excites the surface wave. The antenna
model is illustrated in fig. 4.
Fig. 4. MSA at 82 GHz. The inset shows the feeder
geometry in detail.
The radiation pattern and parameters of the proposed
MSA were calculated using Finite element method
(FEM) numerical simulations. Fig. 5 shows the results of
the calculation of the 3D far-field radiation pattern. It can
be seen that the directional pattern has a regular pencil
shape directed perpendicular to the antenna plane, and
the gain reaches ~ 31 dBi for a given aperture size.
Because the calculation of MSA, which consists of tens
of thousands of subwavelength elementary cells, requires
significant computing power, a model with an aperture
size of 16 was calculated in this study.
In the future, it will be possible to increase the gain
by increasing the MSA aperture size.
Fig. 5. 3D far-field radiation pattern of a designed MSA
at 82 GHz.
MSA is a promising solution because of the
simplicity and low cost of its manufacture. MSA can be
made by metal deposition of patches on a dielectric
substrate. The proposed antenna made on a dielectric
with a dielectric constant of 3,8. The W-band is more
advantageous than other frequencies, not only because of
the transparency window in the atmosphere, but also
because the influence of the atmosphere is not considered
in the outer space. A component base for the W-band
frequency will be more easily achievable as power
crystals, feeders and measuring chambers are being
developed for these frequencies.
3.3 Efficient beam steering method
One of the major challenges for ISL systems is their
ability to electronically steer beams. For example, for
optical links, this can be solved by creating a mechanical
laser beam control system. This construction is
cumbersome [15].

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A notable feature is that, as a rule, large scanning
sectors are not required. As a rule, cones of the order
of 40° were sufficient. Depending on the orbital
construction of a group or swarm.
Through the use of metasurfaces, it is possible to
create controllable flat antenna systems [16]. Control was
carried out by modulating the substrate. The modulation
created a distributed retardation structure, and the beam
was deflected along the normal direction. The
modulation was controlled by changing the effective
permittivity of the medium, that is the substrate. The
implementation of this approach can be carried out both
electronically, for example, when using controlled
materials (ferroelectrics, nematic liquid crystals, ferrites,
etc.) and rotary pseudo lenses [17,18].
This control method is interesting in that it does not
require large power consumption or the formation of a
complex amplitude-phase distribution in the case of a
phased array. The control is carried out with the help of
several actions, which immediately control the position
of the entire diagram, and not the state of each antenna
element. In other words, a group control of the elements
is formed. Fig. 7 shows the MSA beam swing/deflection
of ±15° using the proposed control method.
Fig. 6. Cross-section of the far-field radiation pattern of
a tuneable MSA.
4. Summary and results
In this paper, we presented the concept of a software-
defined constellation of small satellites designed to
provide high-speed broadband Internet broadcasting,
with the prospect of introducing new technological
solutions for designing future LEO communication
constellations for the IoT, broadband Internet access in
remote areas of Earth, and traffic load redistribution from
ground infrastructure to space systems.
The concept of a LEO communication constellation
was developed and described in this paper, which is
distinguished by the presence of SDN and SDR
technology and ISL at 82 GHz. The concept of a
metasurface antenna on a W-band using pseudo lenses
for beam rotation was proposed.
The radio-link budget is calculated using the initial
parameters of the ISL. Because the antenna gain can be
increased to 40 dBi with the scaling of its shape, the
available computing power has been the limiting factor
at the moment, and a value of 40 dBi will be assumed in
further calculations.
Link Budget calculation is presented in the following
table:
Table 1. ISL Budget estimation.
Parameter
Value
Unit
Carrier frequency
82
GHz
Tx Power
1 (30)
W (dBm)
Tx Gain
40
dBi
Rx Gain
40
dBi
Bandwidth
100
MHz
Modulation
QAM-16
Code rate
2/3
EIRP
37.4
dBW
SNR
12.8
dB
BER
1,1 ∙ 10−7
Bitrate
1096
Mbps
5. Prospects for the future
A number of global trends are currently visible in
“new telecom”, such as the boom of non-GSO
constellations, the creation of new SDN-based LEO-
satellites, and the mastering of new frequency bands - W,
D, and subTHz. Consequently, the possibility of creating
compact devices operating in new frequency ranges
opens up.
The transition to freer, higher-frequency bands makes
it possible to reduce the mass and dimensions of satellites
and their equipment. Software-defined constellations
have driven the emergence of hyperconverged networks.,
in which satellite and terrestrial infrastructure operate as
a single network.
As part of our future research and publications, we
will manufacture and test antenna modules with a
steerable beam on the W-band. Then, we demonstrate an
experiment of high-speed data transmission between the
two stratostats. A software-defined transceiver-router,
acting as a software-defined payload will be tested. The
final experiment will be conducted between the two
stratospheric balloons. Multi-beam antenna systems with
the possibility of beam-hopping are used in the user
sector, and a W-band channel is used for the inter-
satellite link. Routing will be performed using a
software-defined payload. This technical backlog can be
used for promising low-orbit communication
constellations.

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