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Nutraceutical Potential of Parkia speciosa
(Stink Bean): A Current Review
Nur Hayati Azizul*1, Yin-Hui Leong2, Nurul Izzah Ahmad3 and Salina Abdul Rahman1
1Nutrition, Metabolic and Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health, Malaysia
2National Poison Centre of Malaysia, University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
3Environmental Health Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health, Malaysia
*Corresponding author: Nur Hayati Azizul, Nutrition, Metabolic and Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research,
Ministry of Health, Kompleks NIH, No. 1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Seksyen U13, Setia Alam, 40170 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
To Cite This Article: Nur Hayati Azizul. Nutraceutical Potential of Parkia speciosa (Stink Bean): A Current Review. Am J Biomed Sci & Res. 2019
- 4(6). AJBSR.MS.ID.000842. DOI: 10.34297/AJBSR.2019.04.000842
Received: August 08, 2019; Published: August 26, 2019
Background
P. speciosa or stink bean is a classic Malaysian favourite and is
commonly grown and cultivated in Southeast Asia e.g. Indonesia,
Malaysia, and some parts of North-Eastern India [1]. P. speciosa is
also known as ‘petai’ in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia [2], ‘sa-
tor’ or ‘sataw’ in Thailand [3], ‘u’pang’ in Philippines [2], and ‘yong-
chak’ in India [4]. P. speciosa earned its nickname ‘stink bean’ from
its strong and pungent odour. The plant belongs to the pea or bean
family Fabaceae and placed in Leguminosae and Mimosaceae [4]. P.
speciosa contained several phytochemical compounds such as poly-
saponins [7-10], steroids [7,8,10], tannins [7,9] and phytosterol
[11,12]. Globally, the World Health Organization [WHO] reported
that about 80% of the world population relies on traditional med
icine to cure ailments [13]. In Malaysia, P. speciosa has been used
traditionally to treat various diseases and ailments such as hyper-
tension [4] and kidney disorders [14]. There is a limited data of
P. speciosa especially on the cardiovascular
and antioxidant effects. From the previous review articles, only two
[15,16] research experiments were included for cardiovascular ef-
fects; and only seven [15] and nine [16] research experiments were
article could be used as a database for future clinical studies. This
P. speciosa as to
provide the foundational knowledge on the topic; so that the pre-
clinical and clinical studies can be conducted for future drug devel-
opment.
Copy Right@
Nur Hayati Azizul
This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
AJBSR.MS.ID.000842.
American Journal of
Biomedical Science & Research
www.biomedgrid.com
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ISSN: 2642-1747
Research Article
Abstract
Background: Inadequate fruits and vegetables intake contributes to the prevalence of major diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and
cancers. Parkia speciosa [stink bean] is a common vegetable consumed in the Southeast Asia. Although it contains various phytochemicals that can
Parkia speciosa remains a challenge. Here, we
P. speciosa that can be used as a guide to develop future clinical studies.
Method: We conducted a database search on PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct using the keywords “nutraceutical potential”, “Parkia
speciosa” “antioxidant”, “hypoglycemic”, “antitumor”, “antimicrobial” and “cardiovascular effects”. We included clinical trial, in vitro and in vivo studies
that were written in English or Malay; and excluded review articles with no time limitations.
Result: We reviewed a total of 28 research articles. No clinical trial was found. The articles were grouped into antioxidative, hypoglycemic,
antitumor, antimicrobial and cardiovascular effects. Six articles had combination of the medicinal properties. Seeds and empty pods are the most
common plants parts used. Each bioactivities differed depending on the plant parts, extracts, methods, cultivar and plantation site.
Conclusion: P. speciosa demonstrated antioxidative, hypoglycemic, antitumor, antimicrobial and cardiovascular effects that were contributed
information from the articles reviewed for drug development and clinical trial.
Keywords: Nutracetical potential; Parkia Speciosa; Antioxidant, Hypoglycemic; Antitumor; Antimicrobial; Cardiovascular Effects.
Am J Biomed Sci & Res Copy@ Nur Hayati Azizul
American Journal of Biomedical Science & Research
393
Methods
P.
speciosa using PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct using
Parkia speciosa” “antioxidant”,
“hypoglycemic”, “antitumor”, “antimicrobial” and “cardiovascular
effects”. We included clinical trials, in vitro and in vivo studies; and
exclude review articles. The literature search was limited to articles
published in Malay and English without time limitations.
Results and Discussion
We found a total of 28 eligible articles: 23 in vitro and 5 in vivo
studies. No clinical trial was found on this topic. Of the articles re-
viewed, 14 articles reported on antioxidant activity, 5 articles on
hypoglycemic activity, 5 articles on antitumor activity, 6 articles
on antimicrobial activity and 4 articles on cardiovascular effects.
There were combinations of bioactivities studied in six articles re-
viewed: one article documented on the antioxidant, hypoglycemic
and antimicrobial activities [6], one article performed research on
antioxidant and antitumor effects [17], one article reported on an-
tioxidant and antimicrobial effects [18], two studies described both
the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [5,18] and one study
combined antioxidant and cardiovascular effects [19].
Antioxidant activity
A total of 13 in vitro and 1 in vivo study on the antioxidative
property of P. speciosa were reviewed. In most of the studies cited,
the seeds of P. speciosa were used [5,19-22] (Table 1). Other studies
analysed empty pods [6,17,23,24], pods [9,18] and seed coat and
pericarp of the P. speciosa bean [25]. The commonly used tests for
antioxidative activity are 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radi-
cal [DPPH] scavenging and reducing ferric ion antioxidant poten-
tial [FRAP] assay. Other assays used are anti-lipid peroxidation,
superoxide radical scavenging activity, 2,2’-azino-bis [3-ethylben-
thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid] [ABTS] radical scavenging activity and
metal chelating activity. The relationship between total phenolic
studies [5,20,22,26]. Two studies examined the antioxidant level
indirectly [21,25], whereby the antioxidant level was related to hy-
drogen sulphide [H2S] in one study, and the other to Heinz body
inhibition [aggregation of denatured hemoglobin in the red blood
cell resulting from oxidative process]. Four studies compared the
antioxidant level between P. speciosa and other plants [20,22,26].
Generally, the antioxidant level varies depending on the part of the
plant, the extraction variables [solvent-extract ratio, time, tempera-
ture and solvent type] and the plantation location.
In vitro studies
-
nolic content, as well as the antioxidant activity were evaluated. The
-
ric method, while the phenolic content was carried out using the
Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method. Reducing power assay and DPPH
were used to examine the antioxidant activity. The study found
that P. speciosa pod powder extract had 14.16±0.02 mg gallic acid
equivalents per gram [GAE/g] dry weight total phenolic content
and 5.28±0.03 mg rutin equivalents per gram [RE/g] dry weight
-
pounds are related to antioxidant activity of the plant. The extract
also showed potent antioxidant activity as demonstrated by IC50
values of the extract in DPPH, 74.37µg/ml compared to the stan-
dard butylatedhydroxy toluene [BHT] 35.40 µg/ml. IC50 indicates
the concentration of test extracts or positive controls that inhibit or
scavenge the radical formation by 50% [23]. Although the DPPH
radical scavenging activity was lower than BHT, it was evident that
the extract contained a substance/s with proton-donating ability
and was capable of inhibiting free radicals.
Ko and coleague [23] evaluated the antioxidant activities of
aqueous and ethanolic extracts of P. speciosa empty pods using
several assays namely: anti-lipid peroxidation, superoxide radical
scavenging activity, DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical
scavenging, metal chelating and reducing power. It showed that
the ethanol extracts possessed stronger antioxidant activity via all
the assays except for superoxide radical scavenging activity. This
IC50 was 5.02±1.06 µg/ml, DPPH radical scavenging activity was
64.2±3.46 µg/ml, ABTS radical scavenging 19.6±0.44 µg/ml, met-
al chelating activity 319 ± 26.3µg/ml and reducing power activity
274±16.1µg/ml. The extracts contained several polyphenolic con-
stituents, the most abundant of which were gallic acid, catechin,
ellagic acid and quercetin.
Two types of P. speciosa in Thailand [‘Sataw-Khao’ and ‘Sa-
taw-Dan’] were studied by Wonghirundecha and co-workers [18]
for their total phenolic content, antioxidant and antimicrobial ac-
tivities. It was found that the extraction yield, total phenolic and to-
that of ‘Sataw-Khao’ pod extracts. In contrast, ‘Sataw-Khao’ pod
extracts showed higher DPPH [1218.07± 8.72 µmol Trolox equiv-
alent/g dry weight [TE/g] vs 920.32±6.15 µmol TE/g dry weight],
ABTS radical scavenging activity [1610.67±11.88µmol TE/g dry
weight vs 1261.14±17.44µmol TE/g dry weight] and metal ion che-
lating activity [9.76±0.03 Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid equiva-
lent/g dry weight [EDTAE/g] vs. 5.86±0.02 EDTAE/g dry weight]
compared to Sataw-Dan pod extracts. Thus, the authors concluded
that there was no relationship between total phenolic content and
antioxidant activity in the PS extract, suggesting that other phyto-
chemicals apart from polyphenols may contribute to the antioxi-
dant activity. In addition, both extracts showed antimicrobial effect
in the form of inhibition zone formation through the agar well dif-
fusion assay.
In a study by Aisha and co-workers [17], eight empty P. spe-
ciosa pod extracts were examined for phenolic content and anti-
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American Journal of Biomedical Science & Research
394
oxidant, cytotoxic and antiangiogenic activities. The results of the
study showed that the methanolic sub-extract had the highest total
phenolic content, 25.55± 1.57 GAE/100 mg. In the DPPH scaveng-
ing assay, antioxidant activity was also highest in the methanolic
sub-extract, [IC50 26±3.0µg/ml]. It can be visualized from all the
extracts used that; the antioxidant level corresponded to the total
phenols content.
Sonia and co-workers [6] further explored the antioxidant, an-
-
ciosa. The FRAP value of the hydromethanolic extract was higher
than of the ascorbic acid controls (1.9mM Ferrous sulfate (FESO4)).
Its strong antioxidant activity was supported by DPPH study, as
in vitro DPPH radical concentration
(64.52±2.4 % inhibition, IC50315.75 µg/ml), and hydrogen perox-
ide (H2O2) assay [78.06 ± 5.7 % inhibition, IC50 166.3µg/ml]. The
-
pooxygenase activity (38.6±10.2 % inhibition, IC50 493.34 µg/ml;
control 56.9 ± 11.4% inhibition , IC50 280.71 µg/ml], proteinase
inhibitory activity (22.78±3.6 % inhibition, IC50 1142.3µg/ml; con-
trol 29.9±5.9 % inhibition, IC50 53.75 µg/ml ) and RBC membrane
stabilization activity (99.21±12.6% inhibition, IC50 67.01µg/ml
;control 99.36±6.7 % inhibition, IC50 53.75µg/ml).
There is increasing demand for new ingredients from natural
sources in the food industry. Moreover, there are suggestions to
use agrowaste materials [in this case, P. speciosa empty pods] as
functional food ingredients. Gan and Aishah [24] studied the physi-
cochemical properties’ characterization, looking at the antioxidant
property of P. speciosa
method of drying [freeze dried and oven dried], different functional
properties can be seen. Higher antioxidative properties were shown
in freeze dried P. speciosa pod (FDPSP) which consist total phenolic
-
tent (TFC) of 8.5 mg pyrocatechol equivalents/g sample. These ex-
tracts [pre-diluted 50x] gave %DPPHsc, %ABTSsc and FRAP values
of 65.3%, 77.4% and 1.9mM FESO4, respectively. Therefore, P. spe-
ciosa
Five Malay raw salads namely: leaves of Cosmos caudatus
(‘Ulam Raja’), Oenanthe javanica (‘Selom’), Murraya koenigii [curry
leaf], Centella asiatica (‘Pegaga) and the seeds of P. speciosa (‘Pe-
tai’) were studied by Reihani and Azhar [20] for their total pheno-
lic content and antioxidant activities. The total phenolic content
[mg GAE/g of plant on dry basis] were highest in Murraya koenigii
(33.18) and lowest in P. speciosa (6.45). Pertaining to antioxidant
property, Cosmos caudatus had the highest DPPH free radical
scavenging activity (212.8) and Centella asiatica the lowest (32.4).
Oenanthe javanica and Cosmos caudatus demonstrated the high-
est ferric reducing activities: 199.96 µmol TE/g and 183.11µmol
TE/g, respectively; while P. speciosa showed the lowest (44.67 µmol
-
relation between antioxidant activity and total phenolic content.
This may be due to steric hindrance and presence of other reducing
agents in the extracts studied.
Siow and Gan [19] examined the antioxidative bioactive pep-
tides from P. speciosa seeds using alcalase. Prior to extraction, the
P. speciosa seeds protein hydrolysate was analysed for amino acid
composition. Glutamine and aspartic acid were found in the high-
est amounts, followed by cysteine (154, 132, 84.8 per 1000 amino
acid residuals, respectively). Glutamine and aspartic acid are strong
antioxidants as they act as electron donors [27]. In this study, the
effects of temperature, substrate-to-enzyme ratio and incubation
time were taken into consideration. The highest DPPH free radical
scavenging activity and FRAP activity (2.9 mg GAE/g and 11.7mM
substrate/enzyme (S/E) ratio of 50 and 2hours incubation time.
The high temperature causes unfolding of the protein molecules
thus making the protein active site more accessible to the enzyme
and exposes the protein donating residues. Partial hydrolysis of the
proteins is essential to give higher DPPH value, compared to exten-
sive protein hydrolysis caused by higher enzyme concentration.
The DPPH values increased along with the incubation time. Upon
fractionation of the protein hydrolysates that had the highest DPPH
free radical scavenging activity and FRAP activity, the peptide frac-
tion of <10k Da showed the strongest bioactivities. Using advanced
-
sponsible for the potent bioactivities, that could be developed into
novel nutraceuticals.
The production of phytochemicals in plants depends on the
variety or species and external variables such as environmental
conditions, agricultural practices and post-harvest handling [5]. A
study by Ghasemzadeh and co-workers [5] compared the phyto-
chemical constituents and biological activities of P. speciosa collect-
ed from 3 regions of Malaysia [Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Johor].
The result showed that the seeds (ethanol extract) collected from
Perak contained highest phytochemical content at concentration
of 100 µg/mL, DPPH (66.29%) and FRAP (522.1 µM of Fe (II)/g)
scavenging activity, followed by Negeri Sembilan and Johor. The
authors analyzed the correlation between the parameters studied
-
In another study, Maisuthisakul and co-workers [26] analyzed
the correlation between parameters [yield, radical scavenging ac-
-
of 28 Thai plants. EC50 is the concentration of extract necessary
to decrease DPPH radical scavenging by 50%. Generally, the seeds
of the plants studied had high energy, and P. speciosa seeds were
among the plants with the highest energy content (441.5 Kcal/100g
edible portion, db). It showed antiradical activity of 1.5 (1/EC50),
total phenolics of 51.9 mg GAE/g db and total phenolics of 20.3mg
RE/g db. The yield of extractable compounds ranged from 0.6%
Am J Biomed Sci & Res Copy@ Nur Hayati Azizul
American Journal of Biomedical Science & Research
395
to 4.5%. The yields from berries, fruit and seeds were higher than
from other parts of the plants. In terms of correlation analysis,
content. A high yield did not correspond to high content of phenolic
compounds and high antioxidant activity. The study also revealed
that plants with strong antioxidant activity had high total phenolic
Interestingly, Liang and co-workers [21] investigated the hy-
drogen sulphide [H2S] releasing capacity of ten organosulphur
rich fruits and vegetables [garlic, red onion, yellow onion, scal-
lion, shallot, leek, spring onion, Chinese chives, durian and stinky
beans]. H2S is a gaseous signaling molecule that has several effects
on human health including antioxidant effect [28]. To demonstrate
the importance of this gas, the authors quoted previous studies to
investigate how garlic has been used as an herbal remedy for thou-
sands of years and having cardioprotective effect. Benavides and
co-workers [29] from their work in rats proposed that the two ma-
jor components of garlic extract, namely diallyl trisulphide [DATS]
and diallyl disulphide [DADS] are converted to H2S resulting in re-
laxation of the rat aorta ring. Similarly, Chuah and co-workers [30]
showed that through H2S-dependent mechanism, S-allyl cysteine,
the major compound of aged garlic was able to protect against
myocardial infection. In the study by Liang ang and colleagues [21],
the H2S releasing capacity of plant essential oils was evaluated by
2S selective and sensitive turn- on
as the medium. MCF-7 cells incubated with BCu for 3 hours were
treated with H2S donors to produce H2S. Fluorescence produced by
H2S captured by the probe was measured by a microplate reader.
The results showed that P. speciosa had the highest DATS equiva-
lent (DATS-E) value (158 mmol DATS/kg of raw material), followed
by garlic (18.5mmol DATS/kg of raw material) and yellow onion
(4.59 mmol DATS/kg of raw material). DATS-E value is a concept
introduced in which each plate was divided into two zones; one
zone loaded with different concentrations of samples, and the oth-
er zone loaded with different concentration of DATS. This method
was performed to enable data comparison among different groups.
Among the reasons P. speciosa had the highest DATS- E value was
because of its high sulphur content, and presumably its cyclic sul-
phur compounds could be converted to H2
linear compounds. This study indirectly relates the presence of H2S
in P. speciosa to antioxidant bioactivities.
co-workers [22] for their antioxidant properties. The total polyphe-
nol contents, free radical scavenging, ferric ion reducing (expressed
as TEAC-Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) and cupric ion
chelating capabilities (CCA) were determined. The result showed
that P. speciosa leaves extract had the highest TPC but showed low
TEACDPPH and TEACFRAP. The non-correspondence between TPC and
antioxidant activities is due to the fact that P. speciosa may contain
other compounds that can oxidize the Folin-Ciocalteu, other than
polyphenols. In addition, P. speciosa leaf extract chelated the cupric
secondary compounds. TPC showed satisfactory correlation with
TEACDPPH and TEACFRAP, indicating that polyphenols in the extracts
were partly responsible for the antioxidant activities. Conversely,
TPC correlated poorly with CCA, indicating that polyphenols might
not be the main cupric ion chelators.
Indirect relationship between inhibitory activity of Heinz body
induction and antioxidant activity was studied by Tunsaringkarn
and co-workers [25]. Hemoglobin chains undergo denaturation
process through oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species and
produced Heinz body, an aggregation of denatured and precipitated
hemoglobin within red blood cells [31]. Hence it can be a biomark-
er for oxidative damage in the body. In this study, P. speciosa seed
coat extracts showed the highest activity of Heinz body inhibition
(39.98%, IC25 2.68 mg/ml), followed by X. xylocarpa bark (42.75%,
IC25 15.71 mg/ml), P. speciosa Hassk. pericarp (44.89%, IC25 28.14
mg/ml) and E. rheedii Spreng. seed coat (55.12%, IC25 33.20 mg/
ml) X. xylocarpa bark, E. rheedii seed coat, Hassk seed coat, and X.
xylocarpa stem contained high tannin concentration. It has been
shown that the percentage of Heinz body inhibition was correlated
to tannin concentration. The previous study suggested that the an-
tioxidant activity of tannin was mainly due to iron chelation rather
-
ed the results of the study by Wong and co-workers [22] discussed
before.
In vivo study
Al Batran and co-workers [1] studied antioxidant and antiulcer
activity of P. speciosa ethanolic leaf extract in ethanol-induced gas-
tric ulcer in rats. Sprague Dawley rats were divided into 7 groups:
Groups 1 and 2 received 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) as
vehicle; Group 3 received 20mg/kg omeprazole and groups 4-7
received ethanolic leaves extract of P. speciosa at doses of 50, 100,
200 or 400 mg/kg. After 1 hour, CMC or absolute ethanol was ad-
ministered to groups 2-7. The rats were euthanized after 1 hour
and the gastric mucosa was examined for gastric juice acidity, gas-
tric wall mucus, macroscopic gastric lesion evaluation, antioxidant
activity, histological examination and immunohistochemical stain-
ing. Regarding the antioxidant activity, gastric tissue homogenate
prepared from the groups that were treated with plant extract
malondialdehyde (MDA) and elevated levels of total glutathione
(GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), in response to oxidative
ion transport and membrane integrity resulting in loss of cellular
function [33]. It was found that the groups treated with the plant
extract reduced this process. GSH plays a role in determining ulcer
severity and acts as tissue protective agent [34,35]. SOD converts
superoxide to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is transformed into
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water by catalase in the lysosomes or by glutathione peroxidase in
the mitochondria [36].
Hypoglycemic Activity
There were 5 articles that demonstrated the hypoglycemic
property of P. speciosa, 2 in vitro and another 3 in vivo studies. One
of the in vitro hypoglycemic studies has been discussed earlier by
Sonia and co-workers [6] as part of their study. Two studies exam-
ined empty pods and seeds separately [37,38], one study examined
seeds and pericarp separately [39] and two studies examined emp-
ty pod [6,11]. Among the assays used were -glucosidase inhibition
activity, alpha amylase inhibition activity, and porcine pancreatic
studies exhibited a strong hypoglycemic activity of the plant. Two
studies explored the compounds responsible for the hypoglyce-
mic activity [11,38]. There was some inconsistency on parts of the
plant that gives greater hypoglycemic effect. Tunsaringkarn and
colleagues [39] found that the P. speciosa pericarp had a higher hy-
poglycemic activity than the seeds, but Jamaluddin and colleagues
the cultivar, harvesting time and method, types of extract and as-
says performed.
In vitro study
A study by Tunsaringkarn and colleagues [39] evaluated twenty
species of Thai plants of Mimosaceae family. - glucosidase is the
enzyme responsible for digestion of polysaccharide and oligosac-
charide to monosaccharides [40]. Using -glucosidase inhibition
assay, P. speciosa pericarp was one of the plants that showed high
inhibition activity; IC50 0.0581 mg/ml (89.46%). As a comparison,
other plants had -glucosidase inhibition of: Entada rheedii seed
coat IC50 0.0043, Archidendron jiringa seed coat IC50 0.0054, Albi-
zia lebbeck branch bark IC50 0.0397 and Albizia lebbeckoides bark
IC50 0.0702mg/ml. P. speciosa seed showed lower percentage of -
glucosidase inhibition activity (45.72%).
Sonia and co-workers [6] studied the anti- diabetic activity of P.
speciosa empty pods via two assays: alpha amylase inhibition and
porcine pancreatic lipase (PPL) inhibitory assay. The alpha amylase
acts to hydrolyze dietary starch [maltose] to glucose. In this study,
the researchers explored how the P. speciosa pod extract can inhibit
alpha amylase resulting in reduction of post prandial hyperglyce-
mia. It was found that P. speciosa showed a maximum inhibition of
79.2% at 500ug/ml. The extract exhibited anti- diabetic property
as the IC50 of P. speciosa were found to be 199.29µg/ml compared
to standard acarbose (324.18µg/ml). From another aspect, pancre-
triacylglycerol to 2-monoacylglycerol and fatty acids. Through PPL
inhibitory assay, the maximum inhibitory activity of P. speciosa ex-
tract at 500ug/ml was 89.5%; IC50196.61 µg/ml compared to Orli-
stat, 76.3%; IC50227.27µg/ml.
In vivo studies
Jamaludin & Mohamed [37] studied the hypoglycemic effect
of P. speciosa extracts using glucose oxidase method. In this study,
healthy Sprague Dawley rats were induced to be diabetic via intra-
venous injection of 60mg/kg alloxan. The two groups of normal
and alloxan-induced diabetic rats were given the P. speciosa extract
in the range of 25-500mg extract/ kg body weight (BW), together
with 1g glucose/kg BW of rat. The result showed that only the chlo-
roform extracts from both the empty pods and seeds had a strong
hypoglycemic activity on diabetic rats. The seed had a higher hypo-
glycemic activity than the pod. The reduction of blood glucose in
alloxan diabetic rats given 0.4g/ kg P. speciosa pod and seed were
36% and 57%, respectively. The hypoglycemic action took place as
early as within an hour, best after 2 hours and lasted for at least 24
hours. The study also revealed the dose-response relationship of P.
speciosa seed on blood glucose level. Maximum reduction of blood
glucose was seen with 500mg/ kg BW [77% decrement]. Optimum
blood glucose levels of normal rats fed with 0.4 g seed or pod ex-
tracts.
As an extension of the above study, Jamaludin and co-workers
[38] explored further on the actual compound contributing to the
hypoglycemic effect of P. speciosa seeds. The hypoglycemic fraction
-
tion showed 83% reduction of blood glucose at 100mg/kg BW, com-
pared to 111% reduction of blood glucose at 5mg glibenclamide/kg
BW. The minimum effective dose was 25mg/ kg BW. The fraction
was found to contain mixture of -sitosterol (66%) and stigmaster-
ol (34%). Interestingly, the two sterols exhibited synergistic effect.
No hypoglycemic effect produced when the sterols were tested in-
dividually.
component P-7.1 (stigmast-4-en-3-one) as the compound respon-
sible in producing hypoglycemic activity of pod extract. Compared
to 111% blood glucose reduction by 5mg/ kg BW glibenclamide,
100mg/ kg BW of P-7.1 reduced the glucose levels by 84%. The
minimum effective dose was 50mg empty pods/ kg. The extract at
in normally fed rats.
Antitumor/Antimutagenicity
the plant. Several terms including antimutagenicity, antiprolifera-
tion and antiangiogenic were combined as to describe antitumor
activity. All of the articles were in vitro studies. One of the studies
by Aisha and colleagues [17] has been mentioned earlier in anti-
oxidant activity. Three articles used P. speciosa seed [41-43], one
article used empty pods [17] and one article used pericarp and seed
coat [44]. Various techniques have been used to demonstrate the
antitumor activity such as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) inhibitory as-
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American Journal of Biomedical Science & Research
397
say [41], Ames preincubation method against Trp-P-1 in Salmonella
typhimurium TA98 [42], thioproline determination [43], Peripher-
al Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC) culture and 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-
4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide (XTT) cell
proliferation test [44]; and using rat aortic rings, matrigel matrix
with Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells [HUVEC] and Vascu-
lar Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) level [17]. Effect of thermal
processing to the antitumor activity was assessed in two studies
[42,43]. All articles demonstrated positive antitumor activity of P.
speciosa.
In vitro studies
Murakami and colleagues [41] studied the antitumor activities
of 114 methanol extracts of edible Malaysia plants for their anti-
tumor activity towards tumor promoter HPA-induced Epstein Barr
Virus (EBV)activation in Raji cells. EBV activation was evaluated by
detecting early antigen (EA) which was stained with high titre EA-
positive sera from nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients. The results
were ranked into 4 categories, based on inhibitory rate (IR) toward
-
P. speciosa showed weakly active
inhibitory rate towards tumor promoter HPA-induced Epstein Barr
Virus (EBV) activation, with 45% IR and>90% CV. Of the samples
studied, 32% [37 samples] showed strongly active, 25% (28 sam-
ples) moderately active and 17% (19 samples) weakly active inhib-
itory action.
Research study done by Tangkanakul and co-workers [42] ex-
amined 10 foods in central and southern Thailand containing local
Thai vegetables. Methanol extracts of both the raw ingredients and
homogenized foods were evaluated for antioxidant activity using
DPPH scavenging assay and antimutagenic assay using Ames pre-
incubation method (against Trp-P-1 in Salmonella typhimurium
TA98). Total phenolic content was determined using the Folin-
Ciocalteau reagent. Raw P. speciosa showed antioxidant activity
of 0.04 g vitamin C equivalent / 100g [VCE/100 g], total phenolic
content of 0.13 g GAE/100 g and 31% inhibition against Trp-P-1.
A strong antimutagenicity was demonstrated by galangal, lemon-
-
oxidant activity and antimutagenicity increased after the plant was
cooked. The antioxidant activity increased from 0.04 g VCE/100g to
0.14gVCE/100 g, and the the antimutagenic activity increased from
bioactivities.
Thioproline or thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (TCA) is a sul-
phur-containing amino acid, produced from condensation of
formaldehyde and cysteine. It was documented as an effective ni-
trite-trapping agent in human body, thus inhibiting the endogenous
formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds [45]. In this ex-
periment, Suvachittanont and colleague [43] evaluated the formal-
dehyde, thiol and TCA level in various edible leguminous seeds in
Thailand. The uncooked P. speciosa was found to have the highest
level of formaldehyde [0.77 ± 0.07 mmol/100 g], which decreased
upon boiling [0.25±0.18 mmol/100 g]. This observation could be
due to volatilization of formaldehyde and formation of TCA upon
boiling. Consistently, the TCA content of uncooked P. speciosa was
<0.001 mmol/100 g dry beans and it increased to 0.14 ± 0.02
mmol/100 g dry beans after boiling. The highest level of TCA was
found in Archidendron clypearia [‘Niang Nok’] both in uncooked
and cooked status.
In subsequent study, Tunsaringkarn and colleague [44] evaluat-
ed the antiproliferation activity of human white blood cells, Periph-
eral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC) with 21 Thai Mimosaceous
plant extracts. P. speciosa pericarp and seed coat were among plants
with high inhibitory cell proliferation (17.17% and 12.16%, respec-
tively). The researchers correlated the high inhibitory effect with
tannin level, which was also consistently high, 250mg/g in Parkia
speciosa pericarp and 350mg/g in Parkia speciosa seed coat. This
In the assessments of antiangiogenic activity, the methanolic
extract and all its sub-extracts showed more than 50% inhibition
of rat aortic microvessel outgrowth [17]. P speciosa extracts also
inhibited tube formation on matrigel matrix involving HUVECs (Hu-
man Umbilical Vein Endothelial cells). Under light microscopy, the
HUVECs treated with P. speciosa extracts showed formation of cy-
toplasmic vacuoles, which are markers of autophagy as a result of
nutritional deprivation which is essential to maintain cell viability
[46]. The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) concentration
of treated HUVECs was also reduced, (36± 2.2pg/ml) compared to
51±1.6 pg/ml in untreated cells. The extracts did not show acute
toxicity.
Antimicrobial activity
We found six articles on this bioactivity, and all were in vitro
studies. Three studies have also experimented on the antioxidant
studies described earlier [5,6,18]. Main methods used in the exper-
iments were agar-well diffusion assay and disc diffusion method.
In vitro studies
Uyub and co-workers [47] reported that the extracts of P. spe-
ciosa seeds in petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol demon-
strated antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori but none
was found in the water extract. The activity was found highest in
the chloroform extract followed by methanol and petroleum ether.
In comparison, the chloroform extract of P. speciosa showed a mod-
erate inhibition zone diameter to mg extract ratio (25.0), compared
to other plant extracts where the ratios were in the range of 1.5-
117.5.
In the study of Sakunpak and Panichayupakaranant [48],
amongst the forty-four extracts of twenty-two Thai edible plants
that were investigated for antibacterial activity using the disc diffu-
sion method, the methanolic P. speciosa seed extract was found be
able to inhibit Helicobacter pylori growth, while the ethyl acetate
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398
extract was effective against Escherichia coli. These extracts, how-
ever, had no inhibitory effect on Salmonella typhimurium, Salmo-
nella typhi, and Shigella sonnei growth. According to Gmelin and
and trithiolane in the P. speciosa seeds are contributing to its anti-
bacterial property.
In Thailand, the ‘Sataw’ or P. speciosa pods extract could be
potentially used as a natural preservative [18]. Both ‘Sataw-Khao’
and ‘Sataw-Dan’ pod extracts under investigated by the same group
of researchers showed antimicrobial activity against food-borne
pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Staph-
ylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Vibrio
cholerae non O1/ non O139) and food spoilage bacteria (Aeromonas
hydrophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens). Al-
and ‘Sataw-Dan’ pod extracts against all the tested bacteria, but for
Gram negative bacteria, the extracts exhibited a lower range of inhi-
bition zone than Gram positive bacteria. However, the result is not
in favour for Vibrio cholerae which was the most susceptible strain
in comparison with other tested Gram-negative bacteria. These re-
[50] who observed that P. speciosa extract could be effective against
all Gram-positive bacteria [Streptococcus agalatiae, S. aeruginosa
and S. aureus] and some Gram-negative bacteria (A. hydrophila and
V. parahaemolyticus). However, the Gram-negative bacteria includ-
ing Citrobacter freundii, Edwardsiella tarda, E. coli and V. alginolyti-
cus were resisted to the extract.
whereby the methanolic extract of P. speciosa pod showed the in-
hibition against common pathogens [Staphylococcus aureus, Esch-
erichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae].
The highest zone of inhibition was demonstrated for the gram-pos-
itive Staphylococcus aureus at 10 mm. The bioactive compounds are
responsible to effectively inhibit and/or stop microbial growth via
disruption of the synthesis of microbial nucleic acids, proteins and
cell walls [51]. According to the previous studies, P. speciosa pod
extract could inhibit all tested pathogenic and spoilage bacteria
compared to rambutan peel, mangosteen peel, palmyra peel and
coconut husk [52], rambutan peel and seed [53], pomelo peel [54]
and banana peel [55] which could only inhibit certain bacteria and
their inhibition zones were reported to be inferior to the P. speciosa
extract.
Fatimah [56] studied the utilization of P. speciosa pod extract as
reducing agent in silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) synthesis and its po-
tential as antimicrobial agent. She reported that the microwave-as-
sisted synthesis of Ag NPs using P. speciosa pod extract demonstrat-
ed antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus
aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
act as reducing agents and support the antimicrobial activity of Ag
From the comparison study done by Ghasemzadeh and
co-workers [5], P. speciosa extract from Perak had a strong inhibi-
tory effect towards both Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
The bacterial strains that were most susceptible to P. speciosa ex-
tract were Staphylococcus aureus [7.2±0.346 mm inhibition zone,
minimal inhibitory concentration of 40.0 µg/ml] and Bacillus sub-
tilis [8.4±0.320mm inhibition zone, minimal inhibitory concentra-
tion of 40.0 µg/ml]. The Gram-negative bacteria were less sensitive
to the extracts compared to Gram positive, due to the presence of a
cell wall that prevents permeation of the extract into the cell. The
antibacterial activity was correlated to the effect of gallic acid.
Effects on Cardiovascular system
Four articles were reviewed for the effects of P. speciosa on car-
diovascular system. Three research studies done in vitro involving
human umbilical vein endothelial cells [HUVECs], cardiomyocytes
(cells of the heart) and Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
[19,57,58]. The other study was done in vivo [59]. One study also
experimented antioxidant activity [described in the antioxidant
section] [19]. Three of the articles used empty pod extracts [57-59]
and one article used seed [19]. The chemical agents used apart from
P. speciosa extract were tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-), querce-
tin, nicardipine, N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) and
protein expressions: nuclear factor kappa B cell (NFB) p65, p38
mitogen-activated protein kinase [p38 MAPK) , inducible nitric ox-
ide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and vascular cell
adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) [57,58]; blood pressure level, plas-
ma nitric oxide level, cardiac angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
inhibitory activity, NADPH oxidase activity and cardiac lipid perox-
idation content [59]. The outcome proved cardioprotective effect of
the P. speciosa extract.
In vitro studies
As a basis of understanding, TNF- -
kine that has been used in many in vitro -
oxide [NO], COX-2 and VCAM-1, through [NFB] pathway activation
[60]. NFB induces cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [61]. In addition,
as TNF- and COX-2 [62]. Elevated p38 MAPK activity resulted in
patients with end-stage heart failure and ischemic heart disease
[63].
-
tivity of P. speciosa empty pod extract in human umbilical vein en-
dothelial cells [HUVECs]. HUVECs were divided into four groups:
HUVECs exposed to TNF- [10 ng/ml] in the presence [25ug/ml]
or absence of P. speciosa extract. Quercetin act as positive control
while HUVECs without TNF- served as negative control. The con-
centration of the P. speciosa extract was chosen at 25ug/ml because
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399
of its highest cell viability in HUVECs co-incubated with TNF- .
Quercetin was used as the positive control as it was present in the
HUVECs with P. speciosa extract, namely NFB p65, iNOS, COX-2 and
VCAM-1, as determined with Western blot analysis. The nitric oxide
[NO] and reactive oxygen species [ROS] level were also decreased
[10.24uM and 120%, respectively]. These effects were comparable
to that of quercetin. This observation was demonstrated as P. spe-
ciosa extract attenuates TNF-
by blocking the activation of NFB p65 and thus reduces the iNOS,
COX-2 and VCAM-1 expressions as well as ROS and NO production.
A relatively similar study design was performed by Gui and col-
P. speciosa ex-
of P. speciosa were due to modulation of NFB and MAPK pathways.
The cardiomyocytes were divided into four groups: negative con-
trol, cardiomyocytes exposed to TNF- , cardiomyocytes exposed to
P. speciosa extract and TNF- and cardiomyocytes exposed to quer-
cetin and TNF- . The P. speciosa extract [500ug/ml] and quercetin
[1000uM] used were different in quantity compared to the previ-
ous study. The NFB p65 and p38 MAPK expression were reduced
in cardiomyocytes pre-treated with P. speciosa extract or quercetin.
Similarly, the iNOS, COX-2 and VCAM-1 expression as well as NO
-
tulation and could be attributable to the polyphenol content of P.
speciosa
Using alcalase, Siow and Gan [19] examined the antihyperten-
sive bioactive peptides from P. speciosa seeds. Amino acids such as
isoleucine, valine, phenylalanine and tyrosine contributed to the
angiotensin converting enzyme [ACE]- inhibitory activity. A com-
parison of the ACE-inhibitory activity was made between different
temperature, substrate-to-enzyme [S/E] ratio and incubation time.
The highest percentage of ACE- inhibitory activities [80.2%] were
incubation time.
In vivo studies
Kamisah and colleague [59] experimented the effects of P. spe-
ciosa empty pod extract in rats given N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl
ester (L-NAME). L-NAME is an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase. It
reduces plasma nitric oxide and increases systolic blood pressure
[due to relaxation of blood vessel], ACE and NADPH oxidase activ-
ities, as well as lipid peroxidation in the heart [59]. Twenty-four
male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups: Group 1 was
given L-NAME (25mg/kg, intraperitoneally), Group 2 was given
L-NAME and P. speciosa empty pods methanolic extract (800mg/
kg, orally), Group 3 was given L-NAME and nicardipine (3mg/kg,
orally) and Group 4 served as negative control. The plasma nitric
oxide reduction was inhibited in Group treated with P. speciosa
(12.33%), but not with nicardipine (-29.29%). The blood pressure
increase was prevented in groups given P. speciosa and nicardipine.
However, no difference was seen between the two groups. Consis-
tently, the cardiac ACE, NADPH oxidase activity, as well as cardiac
lipid peroxidation content were reduced in groups given P. speciosa
and nicardipine. These effects were the result of high polyphenol
content in P. speciosa. As being reported in previous studies, quer-
cetin exerted hypertensive effect by enhancing nitric oxide produc-
tion via induction of endothelial nitric oxide synthase [eNOS] phos-
phorylation [64]. In addition, quercetin also was shown to reduce
ACE protein level in endothelial cells [65] and inhibit myocardial
NADPH oxidase-dependent superoxide anion generation in hyper-
tensive rats [64].
Conclusion
P. speciosa or known as stinky bean, is a plant found abundant-
ly in Southeast Asia. Despite of its odorous smell, it has been used
both as culinary ingredients and indirectly as a medicine to treat
various diseases such as hypertension and urinary tract infection.
Various parts of the plant were used, including seed, pod and seed
P. speciosa are mainly contributed by
-
nin, although the levels differ based on the types of extracts, parts
of the plant, plantation and post-harvest handling. P. speciosa also
has hypoglycemic effect by inhibiting -glucosidase, -amylase and
pancreatic lipase. The effect was due to the synergistic effect of
-sitosterol and stigmasterol, and by a compound known as stig-
mast-4-en-3-one. The antitumor activity was exhibited more in
pericarp, seed coat and empty pods, compared to the seed of the
plant. P. speciosa demonstrated antimicrobial activity against both
Gram positive and negative pathogen, although the effect was less
potent in the latter. P. speciosa
blocking the NFB and MAPK pathways, prevent plasma nitric ox-
ide loss, as well as inhibiting heart angiotensin-converting enzyme.
We found that limited animal study and absent of clinical trial was
done in evaluating the medicinal effects of Parkia speciosa. Thus, fu-
ture animal and human studies are needed to strengthen evidence
of its medicinal effect.
Table 1: List of Abbreviations.
DPPH 1,1-DIPHENYL-2-PICRYLHYDRAZYL FREE RADICAL
FRAP REDUCING FERRIC ION ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL
ABTS 2,2’-AZINO-BIS [3-ETHYLBENTHIAZOLINE-6-SULFONIC ACID]
H2S HYDROGEN SULPHIDE
GAE/G GALLIC ACID EQUIVALENTS PER GRAM
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400
RE/G RUTIN EQUIVALENTS PER GRAM
IC50 HALF-MAXIMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION
BHT BUTYLATEDHYDROXY TOLUENE
TE/G TROLOX EQUIVALENTS PER GRAM
EDTAE/G ETHYLENEDIAMINETETRAACETIC ACID EQUIVALENT/G DRY WEIGHT
FESO4 FERROUS SULFATE
H2O2HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
FDPSP FREEZE DRIED P. SPECIOSA POD
TPC TOTAL PHENOLIC CONTENT
TFC TOTAL FLAVONOID CONTENT
%DPPHSC PERCENTAGE DPPH WHICH WAS SCAVENGED
%ABTSSC PERCENTAGE ABTS WHICH WAS SCAVENGED
EC50 HALF MAXIMAL EFFECTIVE CONCENTRATION
DADS DIALLYL DISULPHIDE
DATS DIALLYL TRISULPHIDE
BCU
MCF- 7 MICHIGAN CANCER FOUNDATION-7
DATS- E DATS EQUIVALENT
CCA CUPRIC ION CHELATING CAPABILITIES
TEACDPPH TROLOX EQUIVALENT ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY DPPH
TEACFRAP TROLOX EQUIVALENT ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY FRAP
CMC CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE
MDA MALONDIALDEHYDE
GSH TOTAL GLUTATHIONE
SOD SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE
PPL PORCINE PANCREATIC LIPASE
BW BODY WEIGHT
EBV EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS
PBMC PERIPHERAL BLOOD MONONUCLEAR CELL
XTT 2,3-BIS-(2-METHOXY-4-NITRO-5-SULFOPHENYL)-2H-TETRAZOLIUM-5-CARBOXANILIDE
HUVEC HUMAN UMBILICAL VEIN ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
VEGF VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR
EA EARLY ANTIGEN EA
IR INHIBITORY RATE
CV CELL VIABILITY
VCE/ 100 G VITAMIN C EQUIVALENT / 100 G
TCA THIOPROLINE OR THIAZOLIDINE-4-CARBOXYLIC ACID
AG NPS SILVER NANOPARTICLES
ACE ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME
L-NAME N(G)-NITRO-L-ARGININE METHYL ESTER
NUCLEAR FACTOR KAPPA B CELL
P38 MAPK P38 MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE
INOS INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE
COX- 2 CYCLOOXYGENASE-2
VCAM-1 VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE-1
NADPH NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHATE HYDROGEN
ENOS ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE
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401
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the Director General of Health Malaysia
for his permission to publish this article. We are also grateful to the
Director of the Institute for Medical Research (IMR), “Selangor” for
the continuous support and encouragement. We thank Ms Sumarni
Mohd Ghazali from Epidemiology and Bio-Statistic Unit, IMR for
editing, proofreading and reviewing the manuscript.
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