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Working Memory: The state of the science
Abstract
Working memory refers to how we keep track of what we are doing moment to moment throughout our waking lives. It allows us to remember what we have just done, focus on what we are doing now, to solve problems, be creative, think about what we will be doing in the next few seconds, and continually to update in our mind changes around us throughout the day. This book brings together in one volume, state-of-the-science chapters written by some of the most productive and well-known working memory researchers worldwide. Chapters cover leading-edge research on working memory, using behavioural experimental techniques, neuroimaging, computational modelling, development across the healthy human lifespan, and studies of neurodegenerative disease and focal brain damage. A unique feature of the book is that each chapter starts with answers to a set of common questions for all authors. This allows readers very rapidly to compare key differences in theoretical assumptions and approaches to working memory across chapters, and to understand the theoretical context before going on to read each chapter in detail. All authors also have been asked to consider evidence that is not consistent with their theoretical assumptions. It is very common for authors to ignore contradictory evidence. This approach has led to new interpretations and new hypotheses for future research to greatly enhance our understanding of this crucial human ability.
... To characterize the core tenets of WM in a theoretically meaningful way, we must build an understanding that is generalizable across modalities and tasks and from the laboratory to the real world. Yet parsing out the generalizable versus task-constrained elements is a challenge, resulting in persistent debates about the neural code, functions, and architecture of WM as well as to what extent a unified theoretical account of WM is achievable (Ngiam, 2024;Nozari & Martin, 2024;Logie, Camos, & Cowan, 2020;Oberauer, 2020;Kiyonaga, 2019;Oberauer et al., 2018). ...
... The question is fundamental to understanding neurocognitive architecture but has nonetheless evaded consensus. We suggest that this theoretical challenge be productively addressed through an "adversarial collaboration" approach (Melloni et al., 2023;Cowan et al., 2020), where scientists with competing perspectives collaborate together to agree a priori on which experimental protocols, analyses, and outcomes would lead to decisive support for key hypotheses. (Melloni et al., 2023;Cowan et al., 2020). ...
... We suggest that this theoretical challenge be productively addressed through an "adversarial collaboration" approach (Melloni et al., 2023;Cowan et al., 2020), where scientists with competing perspectives collaborate together to agree a priori on which experimental protocols, analyses, and outcomes would lead to decisive support for key hypotheses. (Melloni et al., 2023;Cowan et al., 2020). Notably, disagreements about the role of sensory cortex in WM may be uniquely fueled by methodological differences across studies that can lead to discrepant outcomes and interpretations ( Yiling, Klon-Lipok, Shapcott, Lazar, & Singer, 2024;Miller, Tambini, Kiyonaga, & D'Esposito, 2022;Leavitt, Mendoza-Halliday, & Martinez-Trujillo, 2017;Birman & Gardner, 2016). ...
Working memory (WM) is an evolving concept. Our understanding of the neural functions that support WM develops iteratively alongside the approaches used to study it, and both can be profoundly shaped by available tools and prevailing theoretical paradigms. Here, the organizers of the 2024 Working Memory Symposium—inspired by this year's meeting—highlight current trends and looming questions in WM research. This review is organized into sections describing (1) ongoing efforts to characterize WM function across sensory modalities, (2) the growing appreciation that WM representations are malleable to context and future actions, (3) the enduring problem of how multiple WM items and features are structured and integrated, and (4) new insights about whether WM shares function with other cognitive processes that have conventionally been considered distinct. This review aims to chronicle where the field is headed and calls attention to issues that are paramount for future research.
... As highlighted by Cowan and Naveh-Benjamin (2023), experiments are needed to determine how declines in working memory (WM) during aging can be mitigated through training routines designed to function in complex environments, such as alternating between tasks. However, there is ongoing debate regarding the types of laboratory studies Working Memory in Aging 3 on WM in older adults that are most suitable for addressing critical questions in the field (Logie et al., 2021). Specifically, efforts to explain whether declines in attentional shifting, inhibition of irrelevant responses, and visuospatial storage are due to failures in sensory and representational processing speed, deterioration of specialized storage modules (e.g., verbal, visuospatial, episodic), or a combination of both problems (Cowan & Naveh-Benjamin, 2023). ...
... Working memory (WM) has been understood both as a dynamic, conscious activity and as a temporary information storage system for relevant material (Logie, Camos, & Cowan, 2021). Notably, it was William James, in the late 19th century, who provided a different description of recent memory, portraying it as an activity that integrates perception, sensations, and conceptions (e.g., original ideas and personal associations) with an essential role in personal identity (James, 1890(James, /1994 (Ebbinghaus, 1885(Ebbinghaus, /2013 had already emphasized the importance of temporal factors and lived experience in memory. ...
... Anecdotally, this may mark one of the origins of the recent issues raised by Logie et al. (2021), concerning the inability to determine whether different WM theories differ solely due to theoretical explanations or also because of the methods and experimental arrangements used to study WM in psychology laboratories. Such uncertainty arises from the dissociation between a large portion of experimental programs and the theoretical discussions and explanatory models proposed. ...
This article addresses the conceptual and theoretical limitations in the measurement of working memory (WM) during aging, highlighting how the predominant focus on operational definitions has hindered the understanding of underlying causes and the predictive capacity of WM in ecological transfer contexts. Through a critical review aimed at establishing the state of the art, significant gaps in the field were identified, attributed to a tendency to theorize from unidimensional or dual constructs, ignoring the complexities of an ecological approach. The historical analysis highlights two key factors: the abandonment of a heterophenomenological conception of memory, as originally proposed by William James, and the disconnection between empirical data collection in laboratories and the theoretical development of the phenomenon. In response, the article advocates for a reorientation toward a heterophenomenological perspective of WM, grounded in James J. Gibson's ecological psychology and Alan Baddeley's frameworks, emphasizing theoretical and methodological integration. Finally, the challenges inherent to this conceptual reconfiguration and its impact on contemporary research on working memory are examined.
Keywords: Working memory, William James, ecological psychology, aging, theories.
... Scliar-Cabral L. 1 1 Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil, Honorary Professor, Leonorsc20@gmail.com ...
... Скляр-Кабрал Л. 1 1 Федеральный университет Санта-Катарины, Бразилия, Почетный профессор, Leonorsc20@gmail.com ...
... Л.Скляр-Кабрал 1 1 Санта-Катарина Федералды университеті, Бразилия, құрметті профессор, Leonorsc20@gmail.com ...
Author pays attention to the question of problem of learning early literacy for reading and writing among future readers. The main point is a development of critical thinking in the process of reading put by the author of the article. The author cosiders that best way is to concentrate efforts on the early literacy cycle, reformulating the methodology, investing in the educators‘ continuing education and creating pedagogical material, all three, based on the sciences advances that deal with verbal language: the neuroscience of reading, linguistics, psycholinguistics and neuropsychology, gives the examples of tasks for students due to author‘s system and their works. Keywords: literacy, reading, writing, critical thinking, education.
Автор в статье обращает внимание на проблему раннего обучения чтению и письму у будущих читателей. Основной момент – это развитие критического мышления в процессе чтения, заложенное автором статьи. Автор считает, что лучший способ – сконцентрировать усилия на раннем цикле обучения грамоте, переформулировать методологию, инвестировать в непрерывное образование педагогов и создавать педагогические материалы, все три из которых основаны на достижениях наук, имеющих дело с вербальным языком: неврология чтения, лингвистика, психолингвистика и нейропсихология. Также в статье приводятся примеры заданий для студентов авторского подхода и результаты их выполнения. Ключевые слова: грамотность, чтение, письмо, критическое мышление, образование.
Мақала авторы болашақ оқырмандар үшін оқу мен жазуды ерте үйрену мәселесіне назар аударады. Мақала авторы үшін белгілеген оқу процесінде сыни тұрғыдан ойлауды дамыту басты мәселе. Автор ең жақсы жол – күш-жігерді ерте сауаттылық топтамасына бағыттау, әдістемені қайта тұжырымдау, үздіксіз мұғалімдер білімін инвестициялау және педагогика- лық материалдарды жасау, олардың үшеуі де ауызша тілмен айналысатын ғылымдардағы жетістіктерге негізделген: неврология. оқу, лингвистика, психолингвистика және нейропсихология. Мақалада сонымен қатар авторлық тәсілді қолданатын студенттерге арналған тапсырмалардың мысалдары және оларды орындау нәтижелері берілген. Тҥйінді сӛздер: сауаттылық, оқу, жазу, сыни ойлау, білім.
... Among the most common proposals has been the need to include conceptions and methods from ecological psychology (Fanuel, Plancher & Piolino, 2020). This eld involves analyzing more closely the reciprocal and interactive relationships between people's actions and the characteristics of the immediate assessment environment, where psychological phenomena such as WM are considered to arise (Hambrick et al., in Logie et al., 2021). An analysis of this nature could provide details on the behavioral skills that could more clearly distinguish one cognitive process from another, an analysis absent in contemporary studies. ...
... Furthermore, it is important to consider proposals for WM measurement in old age from ecological psychology. Hambrick et al. (in Logie et al., 2021) have proposed a model focused on analyzing skills that bene t from contextual cues and interference management over time and across environmental con gurations. Also, on the role of the environment in facilitating memory updating (e.g., refreshing), enabling episodic association with recent meaningful information recall (Fanuel et al., 2020). ...
The scoping review aimed to analyze the current methods of measuring working memory (WM) in healthy older adults (60–85 years) without cognitive impairments. The primary objective was to identify common methodological limitations and understand their implications for reliability, ecological validity, and the potential for transferring WM measures to everyday tasks. The hypothesis centered on the inconsistency and limited applicability of WM measures in real-world contexts. The review included 30 empirical studies selected using PRISMA guidelines, focusing on studies published post-2018 across multiple databases, emphasizing WM evaluation in aging. The main findings revealed notable heterogeneity in measurement tasks, with studies using varied tests (e.g., N-Back, Digit Span) and reporting limited use of response time as a measure. A geographic analysis showed that most studies originated in the U.S. and Europe. A significant proportion of the studies lacked reliability parameters, limiting their applicability in everyday contexts. The discussion highlighted theoretical differences as a contributing factor to measurement inconsistencies and emphasized the need for ecological approaches. Future research should address the observed bias, methodological limitations, and explore reliable, transferable WM measures for older adults.
... The storage aspect refers to how, where, how much, and how long encoded information is retained within the memory system. The storage of memories highlights the existence of two types of memory: short-term and long-term memory (Logie, et al., 2020;Irwin-Zarecka, 2017). Encoded information is first stored in short-term memory and then, if need be, is stored in long-term memory. ...
... The recall is how the semantic aspects correlate to present times. This could be done both unconsciously or consciously, but both indeed connect between what has happened and what happens now (Logie, et al., 2020;Irwin-Zarecka, 2017). The unconscious part is indicated when an event is recalled through any sensory and non-sensory aspect of a person. ...
This paper investigates the matters of preservations of memories in Yasunari Kawabata’s God Bones. This flash fiction tells about a girl who has never married but already has a baby in her womb. That condition reminds her and her surroundings about the history of the past, especially when she gives the ashes of the baby's bones to many men. Through qualitative method, this study explains about a person's memory that has happened and will continue to overshadow her. In analysis, memories are not merely collections of events or repositories of knowledge, those are also identities that shape further decision making processes. In conclusion, this story shows how memories link past with present and future. Those are the results of circulation of signs, regarding various concepts and contexts of the past.
... For both of those early authors the concepts of contemplation and the specious present were derived from what James (1902, p. 644) called introspective psychologizing regarding their own cognition, rather than objective observations of others in experiments. Over a century later, accumulation of a large volume of experimental evidence on working memory has led most contemporary researchers on this topic to view working memory as broadly consistent with contemplation and the specious present from the early introspective psychologizing, by referring to the ability to keep a small amount of information readily available to support current activities such as reasoning and decision making, guiding actions, keeping track of conversations, navigating, and updating our mental representation of rapid changes in the environment (Logie et al., 2021a). However, there are multiple ongoing, and long-lasting debates regarding the details of how the concept of working memory functions to support these activities (for contrasting reviews see Logie et al., 2021b). ...
... Reproduced from Belletier et al. (2023). different laboratories are using the category label of working memory to refer to different underlying concepts, even though we agreed on our introspections about the everyday activities that working memory supports (Logie et al., 2021a). As noted earlier, Cowan's primary interest was and is in understanding conscious experience, and this most likely reflects an individual's personal mental experience of the whole cognitive system functioning in a seamless manner to support cognitive performance on current tasks. ...
Frederic Bartlett (1932) championed the importance of individual strategy differences when remembering details of events. I will describe how long-running theoretical debates in the area of working memory may be resolved by considering differences across participants in the strategies that they use when performing cognitive tasks, and through adversarial collaboration between rival labs. In common with the established view within experimental cognitive psychology, I assume that adults have a range of cognitive functions, evolved for everyday life. However, I will present evidence showing that these functions can be engaged selectively for laboratory tasks, and that how they are deployed may differ between and within individuals for the same task. Reliance on aggregate data, while treating inter- and intra-participant variability in data patterns as statistical noise, may lead to misleading conclusions about theoretical principles of cognition, and of working memory in particular. Moreover, different theoretical perspectives may be focused on different levels of explanation and different theoretical goals rather than being mutually incompatible. Yet researchers from contrasting theoretical frameworks pursue science as a competition, rarely do researchers from competing labs work in collaboration, and debates self perpetuate. These approaches to research can stall debate resolution and generate ever increasing scientific diversity rather than scientific progress. The paper concludes by describing a recent extended adversarial collaboration (the WoMAAC project) focused on theoretical contrasts in working memory, and illustrates how this approach to conducting research may help resolve scientific debate and facilitate scientific advance.
... Working memory provides the task-relevant information needed to compare actions against intended outcomes (Logie et al., 2020). The dominant model (Baddeley, 2007) proposes two domain-specific storage subsystems -a left-lateralized phonological loop for verbal material and a right-lateralized visuospatial sketchpad for spatial content -that operate under the control of a domain-general central executive that allocates attention and cognitive resources (Fodor, 1983). ...
Introduction
Traditional lateralization models assign post-stroke verbal impairments to the left hemisphere and spatial impairments to the right hemisphere. When considering error measures, this dichotomy may be too simplistic, as performance monitoring may involve domain-general and domain-specific components. Furthermore, the error-monitoring hypothesis predicts domain-incongruent specialization, with left hemisphere dominance for spatial and right hemisphere dominance for verbal errors.
Methods
We performed voxel-based lesion-behavior mapping in N = 110 acute stroke patients who completed a cognitively demanding, error-prone, five-point spatial design fluency task and a verbal word-fragment completion task.
Results
Significant associations were found between lesion location and error rates in both tasks, spatial fluency (correlation = 0.36, p < 0.001) and verbal completion (correlation = 0.31, p = 0.001). Right inferior frontal lesions correlated with errors in both tasks. In addition, left frontal white matter (WM) lesions were associated with spatial errors, whereas right frontal WM lesions were associated with verbal errors. After adjusting for demographics, the left WM cluster remained significant for spatial errors and the right WM cluster for verbal errors, while the right inferior frontal association with spatial errors was no longer significant.
Discussion
Post-stroke performance monitoring involves two distinct neural systems. One is a domain-general system, probably centered in the right inferior frontal region, that supports overall accuracy. The other is a widely distributed, reverse lateralized system, with left lesions associated with spatial accuracy and right lesions associated with verbal accuracy. This suggests that performance monitoring relies on more complex hemispheric interactions than traditional models suggest.
... The relationship between working memory 1 (WM) or short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) has puzzled researchers for over a century (Broadbent, 1958;Cowan, 2019;Ebbinghaus, 1885Ebbinghaus, /1913Hebb, 1949;James, 1890;Shiffrin & Atkinson, 1969). WM is a system that allows the temporary holding of a limited number of mental representations for use in thought and action Logie et al., 2020), whereas LTM refers to our ability to retain large quantities of information over longer time periods (see Malmberg et al., 2019;Shiffrin & Atkinson, 1969). ...
Working memory (WM) is the cognitive system that allows the temporary holding of mental representations for use in thought and action. Long-term memory (LTM) refers to our ability to remember a potentially unlimited amount of information over longer time periods. Understanding how these two memory systems interact has important implications for theories of cognition, learning, and education. Here, we examined (a) whether a shared perceptual bottleneck accounts for the relation between WM and LTM accuracy, and (b) whether serial position effects in WM are mirrored in LTM. In two experiments, participants studied sequences of objects at varying set sizes and completed old/new recognition tests for some items immediately after encoding (WM tests) and for other items after all WM trials were completed (LTM tests). In Experiment 1 (N = 80), LTM performance was better for items presented in lower rather than higher set size sequences, indicating that limitations in WM capacity constrain LTM encoding, irrespective of perceptual bottlenecks. In Experiment 2 (N = 120), we observed WM and LTM recency effects, but primacy effects were only present in LTM and not in WM. Thus, serial position effects in WM did not consistently predict the relative rates at which items from different serial positions were preserved in LTM. These results reinforce accounts that view WM and LTM as having at least partially separate mechanisms, shedding light on the nature of these mechanisms.
... We redirect readers to appropriate literature for descriptions and debates about other models (e.g. Baddeley & Hitch, 1974;Chai et al., 2018;Conway et al., 2003;Cowan, 1988Cowan, , 1995Cowan et al., 2024;Fuster & Bressler, 2012;Logie et al., 2021;Morrison, 2005). The Embedded-Processes model consists of a focus of attention (FoA) within a temporarily activated portion of the long-term memory (aLTM). ...
Working memory (WM), an attention-based short-term storage system responsible for the manipulation and integration of past knowledge with present information for goal-directed behavior, is a key executive function and a principal predictor of general intelligence. As WM has not been a major research topic in animal behavior, we first summarize key ideas from the social sciences for interested colleagues. Given that past methodological inconsistencies have led to mixed results and conclusions across various species, we designed experiments that incorporate the critical components of WM, facilitating cross-species comparisons and accounting for potential ecological influences. We present such experiments on WM in an ectothermic vertebrate, the cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus), which faces environmental challenges potentially requiring complex cognitive adaptations. Overcoming several experimental challenges, we consistently obtained negative results across multiple experimental paradigms. Our negative results using experiments specifically designed to test WM call into question previous studies that used other experiments and reported positive WM findings in other fish species. If the negative results in specific WM tests were to be confirmed in other ectotherm vertebrates, the absence of WM may turn out to be a key factor underlying the significant encephalization gap between ectotherm and endotherm vertebrate species.
... This demonstrates the strategic involvement of semantic long-term memory during visuospatial working memory tasks. Importantly, though, there are individual differences in the availability of specialised cognitive resources relevant to using particular strategies, due to the role of central executive resources in strategy implementation (Gonthier & Roulin, 2020;Logie, 2011;Logie et al., 2021). Therefore, it could also be that participants who have higher spans have more capacity to successfully implement and benefit from semantic strategies (Bartsch & Oberauer, 2021). ...
Greater semantic availability (meaningfulness) within visual stimuli can positively impact visual working memory performance. Across two experiments, we investigated the effects of semantic availability and, for the first time, semantic strategy instruction on visual working memory performance. Experiment 1 focused on young adults’ (18-35 years) strategies during visual matrix task recognition. Results highlighted an existing propensity to report incorporating a semantic strategy. Interestingly, there was no significant effect of semantic availability within the task stimuli. Semantic strategy instruction also did not boost, or indeed hinder, accuracy. Experiment 2 incorporated older adults (60-87 years) and highlighted marked differences in capacity with older age. Greater semantic availability reliably benefitted capacity for young adults only. Furthermore, semantic strategy instruction neither boosted nor hindered capacity, even in older adults. There were also some interesting patterns regarding reported strategy use across groups. Again, participants did report spontaneously using semantic strategies, particularly young adults. However, instruction may have encouraged more frequent use of semantic strategies in older adults. Finally, the results suggest a role for task practice, likely related to strategy development and implementation over time. Future semantic strategy instruction protocols may need to incorporate more extensive training and/or practice to benefit working memory capacity.
... WM is defined as a system for temporarily storing incoming information and manipulating it according to task demands (6). WM processes are controlled by a largescale network of cortical and sub-cortical areas which are prone to the effects of stress, leading to disruption of this system (7). ...
This study explores the impact of stress on working memory (WM) performance, and the potential mitigating effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). The study had a crossover, randomized, single-blind, sham-controlled design, with stress induction as within-subject and stimulation condition as between-subject factors. We assessed stress-induced WM deficits using aversive video clips to induce stress and a verbal n-back task to assess WM performance. We analyzed physiological (cortisol and heart rate), behavioral, and electroencephalographic (EEG) changes due to stress before, during, and after WM task performance and their modulation by tDCS. Stress impaired WM performance in the sham stimulation condition for the 3-back load, but not for 2-back or 4-back loads in the WM task, and was associated with elevated physiological stress markers. tDCS over the vmPFC led to better WM task performance while stimulation over the dlPFC did not. Active tDCS with both dlPFC and vmPFC stimulation blunted cortisol release in stress conditions compared to sham. The EEG analysis revealed potential mechanisms explaining the behavioral effects of vmPFC stimulation. vmPFC stimulation led to a decreased P200 event-related potential (ERP) component compared to the sham stimulation condition and resulted in higher task-related alpha desynchronization, indicating reduced distractions and better focus during task performance. This study thus shows that the vmPFC might be a potential target for mitigating the effects of stress on WM performance, and contributes to the development of targeted interventions for stress-related cognitive impairments.
... Second, by encouraging ideas to mature and evolve through the accumulation of additional evidence. The explicit signposting of an unfinished, ongoing project has been an important invitation for researchers to contribute and add to the working memory story as part of the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) framework and as part of model variants (see Conway et al., 2007;Logie et al., 2021;Miyake & Shah, 1999). We view this special issue as a continuing part of the process -bringing new data and new topics to be integrated within working memory as well as to extend and indeed challenge our understanding. ...
... Several studies investigating multimodal WM brain networks (Boran et al., 2021;Daume et al., 2017;Li et al., 2014;Perfetti et al., 2014;Xie et al., 2021) assume independent functioning of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad components (except Perfetti et al., 2014)). However, in Baddeley's model, all WM components work interactively and simultaneously, coding one complex stimulus into visual and verbal modality, and then integrating the multi-modal information into one complex representation (Logie et al., 2020). Thus, a considerable amount of literature has been dedicated to cross-modal interactions in WM (Allen et al., 2009;Izmalkova et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2014). ...
Working memory (WM) is a cognitive function essential for short-term maintenance of information in a highly accessible state to support goal-directed behavior. The classical behavioral model of WM includes a visuospatial sketchpad, a phonological loop and the central executive. Neuroimaging studies selectively targeted the activity associated with maintenance and processing of modality specific information. However, an experimental design is still missing that would enable the assessment of all components of WM drawing a holistic neuroimaging model. In this study, we propose a modified paradigm based on the classical retro-cue task, which allows disentangling the activity of all WM components, and in particular of the central executive. This paradigm consists of five conditions: passive perception, simple verbal storage, simple visual storage, alphabetical reordering (complex verbal) and mental rotation (complex visual). Testing on a cohort of 35 healthy adults, we obtained a similar workload for simple storage conditions with a low engagement of the central executive. A different workload was verified between the simple and complex conditions in both verbal and visual modalities. This experimental design provides the framework to assess the neural activity associated with the central executive components in different modalities and to address the question of a unitary or modality-specific central executive nature. Therefore, the paradigm is suitable for utilization in neuroimaging to potentially advance our comprehension of the WM organization.
... Our experimental paradigm was designed with each trial comprising a question followed by an image, based on the assumption that these questions would likely prompt participants to visualize or imagine objects or faces. These mental images are expected to be held in working memory, particularly in the visuospatial sketchpad, which is essential for temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial information (Baddeley, 1992). The subsequent presentation of an image 1500 ms after the question either matches (expectancy-consistent condition) or does not match (expectancy-inconsistent condition) the mental image held. ...
... One important explanation for the mixed findings of previous research is the lack of consideration of all context-specific ways that EF can support reading acquisition and processes. Empirical evidence of cognitive development and neural networks suggests that cognition and knowledge gained from education work collaboratively to accomplish tasks (Evans & Stanovich, 2013;Logie et al., 2020). The relation between cognitive abilities, like EF, and academic skills is reciprocal (Peng & Kievit, 2020), and EF manifests in reading processes in task-specific ways (Cartwright et al., 2010). ...
The current study explored the distinct contributions of domain-general, behavioral, and reading-specific executive function to reading comprehension, while also examining whether foundational literacy skills including reading fluency and vocabulary moderate or mediate the relations between executive function and reading comprehension.
Data were collected from 129 4th and 5th graders (35.66%, 28.68%, 6.98%, and 28.68% for White, Hispanic, African American, and others [e.g., Multiracial], respectively; 54% are girls) who completed 9 assessments of executive function (targeting domain-general and context-specific working memory, inhibition, and switching). Additionally, children completed assessments of reading comprehension, reading fluency, and vocabulary. Factor scores were created for reading comprehension as well as each type of executive function.
Results suggested that after controlling for students’ demographics, reading fluency, and vocabulary, among all types of executive function, only behavioral and reading-specific executive function independently contributed to reading comprehension. Reading fluency and vocabulary partially mediated the relations between behavioral and reading-specific executive function and reading comprehension. Reading-specific executive function appeared to be particularly important for students with weaker vocabulary.
These findings align with the context-specific hypothesis of executive function, suggesting that context-specific executive function may be more important than domain-general executive function in reading comprehension. Reading-specific executive function may be distinct from both domain-general executive function and reading knowledge, yet it likely represents an integration of these two. This integration can enhance the efficiency of domain-general executive function when reading knowledge is limited, playing a compensatory role in reading comprehension.
... L a memoria de trabajo (MT) es un sistema de capacidad limitada que permite el mantenimiento a corto plazo de la información relevante para el individuo en situaciones en las que se presenta interferencia y/o procesamiento concurrente de información (Baddeley, 2012;Cowan, 2017). Aunque los modelos teóricos difieren, la mayoría asume que está integrada por componentes de control cognitivo de dominio general, así como de mantenimiento de información de dominio específico (ver Logie et al., 2021;Vernucci et al., 2021). A lo largo de la infancia, esta capacidad juega un rol importante en diversas habilidades complejas, tales como el razonamiento (Gray et al., 2017), distintas habilidades matemáticas (Cragg et al., 2017) y la lectura (Nouwens et al., 2021). ...
El entrenamiento de la memoria de trabajo (MT) durante la edad escolar conduce a mejoras en su funcionamiento, tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Sin embargo, no todos los participantes se benefician del mismo modo de la intervención. Recientemente, se ha propuesto considerar la contribución de diversos factores para conocer de qué manera estos moderan los efectos obtenidos, lo que favorecería una mejor comprensión de la plasticidad y el funcionamiento del proceso entrenado, así como identificar poblaciones específicas en las cuales la eficacia del entrenamiento se ve maximizada. Se ha indicado que el desempeño de base, factores motivacionales y estatus socioeconómico, entre otros, moderarían los efectos de transferencia, pero la evidencia al respecto es aún insuficiente. Por ello, se analizó si las diferencias en habilidad cognitiva, factores motivacionales y estatus socioeconómico contribuían a explicar las diferencias individuales en las ganancias de transferencia, más allá del nivel inicial en MT. Se implementó un diseño longitudinal. En el estudio, participaron 44 niños y niñas de 9-10 años de edad que realizaron un entrenamiento adaptativo informatizado de la MT. Los resultados del análisis de regresión jerárquica mostraron que el nivel inicial de MT explicó significativamente las ganancias de transferencia a corto y a largo plazo, pero, sin embargo, la inteligencia fluida, el tipo de mentalidad sobre la inteligencia, la motivación intrínseca y el estatus socioeconómico no realizaron una contribución adicional. Esto sugiere que los niños y niñas con un nivel más bajo de MT podrían beneficiarse en mayor medida del entrenamiento, más allá de su nivel en otros factores como los estudiados.
... Others, observing more substantial dual-task costs, concluded to a resource sharing between processing and storage and to the existence of some unitary system in charge of both functions (Barrouillet & Camos, 2015Barrouillet et al., 2004;Case et al., 1982;Chen & Cowan, 2009;Cowan et al., 2021;Daneman & Carpenter, 1980;Turner & Engle, 1989). As surprising as it may seem, this question has not yet been settled and these two theoretical options still coexist today (Logie, Camos, et al., 2021, for a review). As we will see, the most recent empirical investigations led to mixed and seemingly contradictory results as they revealed at the same time evidence for some resource sharing testified by the reciprocal detrimental effect of processing on storage and vice versa, while suggesting some autonomy of each function Rhodes et al., 2019). ...
The continuous flow of information in which we are immersed obliges our cognitive system to maintain accessible the relevant elements for the time necessary for their processing. The present study investigated how working memory balances the resource demands of this necessary storage in the face of demanding processing. In four experiments using a complex span task, we examined the residual performance in memory and processing of individuals who performed at their best in the other component. Reciprocal dual-task costs pointed toward a resource sharing between the two functions. However, whereas prioritizing processing almost abolished participants’ memory performance, more than 60% of their processing capacities were preserved while maintaining memory performance at span. We argue that this asymmetry might be adaptive in nature. Working memory might have evolved as an action-oriented system in which short-term memory capacity is structurally limited to spare the resources needed for processing the information it holds.
... The phonological loop of the working memory is responsible for the short-term storage of auditory information (Baddeley, 2003). Individuals differ in their cognitive abilities during encoding, storing and retrieving so that errors or distortions of the original information can occur (Baddeley et al., 2021;Logie et al., 2021). Although primary studies did almost not argue on underlying cognitive or memory processes during mock earwitness performance, we provide preliminary arguments in the Discussion which cognitive or memory processes could be differentiated in the context of mock earwitness performance. ...
Mock earwitness performance mainly addresses cognitive functions like free recall and recognition of auditory information. Based on primary studies a-priori experimental moderator effects on mock earwitness performance have been hypothesized. Including 46 articles with k = 66 experimental studies, a bare-bones and a random-effects, artefact-corrected meta-analysis have been performed. The results show a substantial ratio of the population effect size and the standard deviation of the population effect size (δ/SDδ) for the a-priori moderators bimodal compared to unimodal stimuli and for gender of listener. These results indicate that bimodal stimuli compared to unimodal stimuli yield substantially better mock earwitness performance. Women outperform men in mock earwitness performance. The fail-safe number demonstrates robust population effects for both a-priori moderators. As a post-hoc moderator, line-ups with target-present revealed substantial δ/SDδ ratios for stimulus length and gender of listener. These results for post-hoc moderators suggest that longer compared to shorter stimuli reveal better mock earwitness performance. The gender of listener effect is in target-present line-ups comparabale to the before mentioned gender of listener effect. G*Power calculations for future primary studies suggest that sample sizes in several primary studies were too small. Single-person earwitness assessments should be substantiated by reality monitoring and disentangled from hearsay evidence (i.e., situations in that individuals have heard information from other persons). The data recommend that best-practice options for earwitnesses in court settings should be derived from meta-analytic results, corresponding to the jurisdictions of the countries and exclusively for results that were substantial (δ/SDδ ratios) and robust (fail-safe number).
... Working memory and cognitive flexibility contributed 30 similarly to the effect of age on categorization performance. Working memory may have been required to keep track of which box corresponded to vegetables and which box corresponded to "other items", in 1 essence, the relation between each spatial location and the corresponding category information, or to 2 refresh this representation (see Logie et al., 2020 for an extensive presentation of models on working 3 memory). Moreover, given that vegetables and fruits are potentially overlapping categories (Rioux et al., 4 2016), a systematic analysis of the items' features before making a decision is likely to be necessary, 5 especially for less typical items. ...
Cognitive mechanisms underpinning categorization development are still debated, either resulting from knowledge accretion or an increase in cognitive control. To disentangle the respective influence of accumulated factual knowledge and executive functions (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) on (a) the development of categorization abilities in the food domain and (b) differences in this development by child characteristics (i.e., food neophobia), we conducted two experiments. The first experiment assessed 4−6-year-old children’s (n = 122) ability to taxonomically categorize food at the superordinate level of categorization. The second experiment tested 3−6-year-old children’s (n = 100) ability to cross-categorize the same food according to two different relationships alternatively (i.e., taxonomic and thematic). Results indicate that accumulated factual knowledge and executive functions mediated both the effect of age and the effect of food neophobia on categorization performance. Notably, the specific executive functions involved may vary depending on the categorization abilities tested, whereas world knowledge was always a prerequisite. Overall, this research highlights the complex interplay between accumulated factual knowledge, executive functions, and child characteristics in shaping the development of categorization abilities.
... Since the revival of the concept of working memory by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), many different approaches to it have emerged, but at the same time researchers are publishing an increasing number of attempts to synthesize findings from different academic centers (e.g., Logie, Camos, et al., 2021;Oberauer et al., 2018). The challenges facing researchers integrating the vast knowledge accumulated over 50 years on working memory revolve around the following questions: (1) What is the relationship of the structure of working memory to attentional processes, control processes, long-term memory and consciousness? ...
Exactly 50 years ago, Allan Baddeley and Graham Hitch's (1974) working memory model fascinated academics and diagnosticians dealing with human cognition and fundamentally transformed the landscape of memory research. Working memory is the ability of the human mind that enables the creation and reception of messages, mental arithmetic, decision-making and other complex cognitive activities that require the temporary storage of necessary information and manipulation of it in order to perform current tasks (e.g. following the flow of a conversation). It is therefore one of the most dynamically developed areas of mind research in cognitive psychology, cognitive science, neuropsychology and the psychology of individual differences (especially in the diagnosis of intellect). The research dispute concerns many aspects of the construct of working memory described in detail: its structure, functions, capacity limitations, connection with consciousness, long-term memory, attention, etc. (cf. Logie, Belletier et al., 2021). The proposed solutions are so detailed that people who do not closely follow the literature on the subject may have difficulty understanding their essence. The origins of this creative confusion date back to the proposals of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), who carefully analyzed data on temporary memory and recognized it as a system composed of many interacting components, that is, separate subsystems storing information in different formats (e.g., visual or auditory), and from their superior subsystem, which manages the flow and use of the collected information. This article presents the context in which Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) multi-component model of working memory was developed, describes the milestones marking the dynamic changes it underwent, and lists the research projects that prompted a more detailed description of the individual components of the model. Although an influential part of contemporary competing approaches to working memory abandons many of Baddeley's theses (Cowan, 2017; Oberauer, 2019), each of them follows the conceptual paths forged by this author and must specify their positions in the questions asked during the fifty-year journey of working memory researchers.
... applying cognitive constraints to influence the type of processing used in a study response. This is often done by loading the participants' working memory -an individual's capacity to temporarily store and manipulate information to support ongoing cognitive activities (Baddeley, Allen, and Hitch 2011;Logie, Camos, and Cowan 2021). Working memory is a defining feature of many definitions of Type 2 processing (see Table 1). ...
... Cowan's (1999;Cowan et al., 2005) posits that working memory consists of memory elements that are activated at different times. Although a detailed analysis of working memory theories is beyond the scope of this paper (e.g., Logie et al., 2020), we note that all of them explain that in some way working memory is limited in how much information can be processed at one time. This limitation is essential to recognize in the context of learning with new media because it can have an impact on how much various students can absorb from a lesson. ...
Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is being incorporated into education, but not all learners have
expertise in using this technology. As such, this research examined whether pre-training in IVR
can reduce the novelty of this technology and enhance learning from IVR lessons and understand
the role of individual differences in managing incoming information (i.e., executive function) and
capacity for holding information (i.e., working memory capacity) in learning from an IVR lesson.
Participants were split into two conditions; half of the participants played a game in IVR to
become knowledgeable about IVR technology and the other half did not play this game. All participants
then learned a lesson in IVR, took a posttest, and completed working memory tasks. The
results showed that playing the game prior to learning in IVR did not change the learners’ experience
of distraction or their learning outcome, indicating that IVR game-playing was not an effective
form of pre-training. Additionally, several measures of executive function and working memory
capacity were correlated with posttest performance, indicating that students with better executive
function learn better with distracting media such as IVR, regardless of pre-training. Theoretical and
practical implications are discussed.
... This demonstrates the strategic involvement of semantic long-term memory during visuospatial working memory tasks. Importantly, though, there are individual differences in the availability of specialised cognitive resources relevant to using particular strategies, due to the role of central executive resources in strategy implementation (Gonthier & Roulin, 2020;Logie, 2011;Logie et al., 2021). Therefore, it could also be that participants who have higher spans have more capacity to successfully implement and benefit from semantic strategies (Bartsch & Oberauer, 2021). ...
Greater semantic availability (meaningfulness) within stimuli, such as black-and-white chequered (‘matrix’) patterns, can positively impact working memory capacity. We investigated the effects of semantic availability and semantic strategy instruction on visual working memory performance. Experiment 1 focused on young adults’ (18-35 yrs) strategies during visual matrix task recognition. Results highlighted a propensity to incorporate a semantic strategy. Furthermore, as predicted, semantic strategy use was positively related to instructed participants’ capacity specifically for the more challenging low semantic patterns. However, instruction did not boost, or indeed hinder, accuracy. Experiment 2 incorporated older adults (60-87 yrs) and highlighted marked differences in strategic approach and capacity with ageing. Furthermore, higher semantic availability benefited only young adults’ capacity. Semantic strategy instructions again neither boosted nor hindered capacity, but were associated with greater strategic use of semantics. Interestingly, semantic strategies positively correlated with capacity in older age, specifically for high semantic patterns. Finally, there was a role for task practice, likely related to strategy development and implementation over time. We highlight common, spontaneous use of semantic strategies, particularly in young adults, which are related to task performance. However, semantic strategy instruction protocols may need to incorporate more extensive training and/or practice to be effective.
... The present study examines whether representations for tactile stimuli (e.g., touch, Roe et al., 2017) can be prioritised in working memory, providing a recall benefit for those representations. Although extensive work has been conducted examining the functional similarity between verbal and visual working memory (Logie et al., 2020), less is known about the extent to which tactile memory operates in an analogous manner. Here, we examine whether prioritisation effects (e.g., Hu et al., 2014) extend to tactile memory and, if so, what we can infer about the cross-modal functionality of working memory. ...
There is a growing body of evidence that higher-value information can be prioritised for both visual and auditory working memory. The present study examines whether valuable items can similarly be prioritised for the tactile domain. Employing an immediate serial recall procedure (ISR), participants reconstructed a 6-item tactile sequence by moving their fingers in the order of original stimulation. Participants were informed either that one serial position was worth notionally more points (prioritisation condition) or that all items were of equal value (control condition). For Experiment 1 (N = 48), significant boosts in correct recall were evident when serial positions 4 or 5 were more valuable (i.e., prioritisation effects). Experiment 2 (N = 24) demonstrated that the prioritisation effect persisted with concurrent articulation, suggesting that task performance was not a function of verbal recoding and rehearsal of the tactile information. Importantly, a significant recall cost for low-value (non-prioritised) items within the sequence was evident for both experiments. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that (1) prioritisation effects transfer to the tactile domain and (2) finite attentional resources can be deliberately and strategically redistributed to specific items within a sequence, dependent upon the prevailing task demands.
... Working Memory (WM) is a cognitive system that temporarily stores information necessary for complex cognitive processing and manipulation 35 . It was first introduced by Baddeley and Hitch 36 as a brain system constructed of a central executive and two Short-term memory (STM) slave components: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch pad. ...
Involuntary eye movements occur constantly even during fixation and were shown to convey information about cognitive processes. They are inhibited momentarily in response to external stimuli (oculomotor inhibition, OMI), with a time and magnitude that depend on stimulus saliency, attention, and expectations. It was recently shown that the working memory load for numbers modulates the microsaccade rate; however, the generality of the effect and its temporal properties remain unclear. Our goal was to investigate the relationship between OMI and the working memory load for simple colored shapes. Participants (N = 26) maintained their fixation while their eyes were tracked; they viewed briefly flashed colored shapes accompanied by small arrows indicating the shapes to be memorized (1/2/3). After a retention period, a probe shape appeared for matching. The microsaccade rate modulation and temporal properties were analyzed for the memory encoding, maintenance, and retrieval phases. Microsaccade inhibition was stronger when more shapes were memorized, and performance improved when microsaccades were suppressed during maintenance and retrieval. This occurred even though the physical stimuli were identical in number under all conditions. Thus, oculomotor inhibition may play a role in silencing the visual input while processing current stimuli and is generally related to processing time and load.
... Working memory (WM) is an executive function that emerges from the interaction between memory and attention and allows us to maintain and manipulate information for short periods of time (Cowan, 2014;Shelton et al., 2010). Information maintenance and management are key for dealing with cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, reasoning, and problem-solving (Baddeley, 1992;Vuontela et al., 2003). Stored information can be numerical, verbal, chromatic, or spatial, depending on the nature of the content to be stored (e.g., numbers, words, or colours). ...
... This is one of the multiple accepted models of working memory. For a thorough discussion, seeLogie et al. (2021). See alsoWoelfer et al. (2022) for a review of the role of working memory in the construction of mental representations of texts. ...
Cohesion is one of the main defining characteristics of textuality. There is a lack of approaches to textual cohesion benefiting from both high computational implementability, and compatibility with established theories of text organization and comprehension. The main goal of this study was to define indices of textual cohesion based on lexical repetition and semantic networks of cliques that can measure cohesion while being compatible with the aforementioned theories. As specific goals, the study aimed to develop an improved taxonomy for lexical repetition and to analyze the behavior of the proposed indices with a sample of texts from different genres. Six indices were proposed, and 60 texts from six different genres were analyzed. The results showed that the indices can capture different patterns of lexical cohesion that can be explored, for example, in classification tasks applied to texts, in summarization tasks, and in the adaptation of reading material to improve the readability and comprehensibility of texts by less proficient readers. Additionally, the patterns observed within the analysis of full texts were also observed in the analysis of the first 10 to 60 sentences of texts, depending on the index considered, suggesting that the first 10 to 60 sentences of a text are enough to analyze its lexical cohesion.
... This accords with cognitive research on working memory, which has increasingly been referred to as activated long-term memory (Cowan, 1988). In this view, the ensemble of components in working memory are in a heightened state of availability for use in ongoing information processing (Logie et al., 2020) rather than being a separate structure from long-term memory (Baddeley, 2012). We parallel the activated mental model concept with working memory as the activated long-term memory, and propose that only the active part of the generalized mental model interacts with TU directly. ...
The rapid advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) have led to a growing trend of human-AI teaming (HAT) in various fields. As machines continue to evolve from mere automation to a state of autonomy, they are increasingly exhibiting unexpected behaviors and human-like cognitive/intelligent capabilities, including situation awareness (SA). This shift has the potential to enhance the performance of mixed human-AI teams over all-human teams, underscoring the need for a better understanding of the dynamic SA interactions between humans and machines. To this end, we provide a review of leading SA theoretical models and a new framework for SA in the HAT context based on the key features and processes of HAT. The Agent Teaming Situation Awareness (ATSA) framework unifies human and AI behavior, and involves bidirectional, and dynamic interaction. The framework is based on the individual and team SA models and elaborates on the cognitive mechanisms for modeling HAT. Similar perceptual cycles are adopted for the individual (including both human and AI) and the whole team, which is tailored to the unique requirements of the HAT context. ATSA emphasizes cohesive and effective HAT through structures and components, including teaming understanding, teaming control, and the world, as well as adhesive transactive part. We further propose several future research directions to expand on the distinctive contributions of ATSA and address the specific and pressing next steps.
... Working Memory (WM) is a cognitive system that temporarily stores information necessary for complex cognitive processing and manipulation 35 . It was rst introduced by Baddeley and Hitch 36 as a brain system constructed of a central executive and two Short-term memory (STM) slave components: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch pad. ...
Involuntary eye movements occur constantly even during fixation and were shown to convey information about cognitive processes. They are inhibited momentarily in response to external stimuli (oculomotor inhibition, OMI), with a time and magnitude that depend on stimulus saliency, attention, and expectations. It was recently shown that the working memory load for numbers modulates the microsaccade rate; however, the generality of the effect and its temporal properties remain unclear. Our goal was to investigate the relationship between OMI and the working memory load for simple colored shapes. Participants (N = 26) maintained their fixation while their eyes were tracked; they viewed briefly flashed colored shapes accompanied by small arrows indicating the shapes to be memorized (1/2/3). After a retention period, a probe shape appeared for matching. The microsaccade rate modulation and temporal properties were analyzed for the memory encoding, maintenance, and retrieval phases. Microsaccade inhibition was stronger when more shapes were memorized, and performance improved when microsaccades were suppressed during maintenance and retrieval. This occurred even though the physical stimuli were identical in number under all conditions. Thus, oculomotor inhibition may play a role in silencing the visual input while processing current stimuli and is generally related to processing time and load.
Two experiments explored a finding that multiple, repeated presentations of the same, six-item colour-shape-location array results in no, or very slow improvements in change detection performance. This contrasts with studies showing clear learning from small numbers of repetitions of verbal and visual stimuli with memory tested by recall or reconstruction. Experiment 1 presented the same six-item visual array repeated across 120 trials for change detection between a study presentation and a test presentation that was identical or depicted a feature swap on 50% of trials. Longer (5000 ms) versus shorter (2000 ms and 500 ms) intervals between the study array and the test array resulted in more participants improving their performance, but only after at least 30 repetitions of the array. A study-test interval of 500 ms resulted in no improvement in performance across 180 repetitions of the same array. Experiment 2 showed that, regardless of the stimulus duration, presenting different arrays on each trial resulted in a lack of learning that was similar to that in Experiment 1 for a 500 ms study-test interval. Results appear consistent with reliance on a limited capacity temporary visual memory for change detection that retains the array only for the current trial and does not support learning across repetitions. With a sufficiently long study-test interval, it is proposed that on each trial there is, in addition, a weak long-term episodic trace of the array that gradually strengthens across repetitions until it is sufficiently strong to be useful for supplementing performance.
Background: Instructional videos are commonly employed in physical education (PE) to boost motor skills and motivation. However, their transient nature often hampers their effectiveness. Purpose: This study delves into how video modality and user control affect learning basketball tactics. Study Sample: Eighty third-year students ( M age = 16.13 years old, SD = 0.62) take part in this study. Research Design: Participants were randomly placed into four groups: “video + audio without control”, “video + text without control”, “video + audio with control”, and “video + text with control”. After the intervention, students were assessed through recall and transfer tests. Results: The results highlighted that the students performed significantly better in conditions where they had control over the video. Interestingly, the “video + text with control” group outperformed the “video + audio with control” group. This outcome suggests a reverse modality effect, challenging the traditional preference for audio over text in instructional videos. Conculsion: These results imply that giving learners control is beneficial, especially for novices dealing with complex dynamic visualizations. However, they also advise caution in choosing the modality, as the effectiveness can vary depending on the nature of the content and the learner’s control over it.
Previous research has shown that false memories-that is, remembering things that did not happen but are consistent with the gist of the actual experiences-increase during development. The current study shows that this developmental reversal of false memory is moderated by the development of working memory (WM). In two experiments, 5-and 8-year-olds (N = 184; 103 girls; European) were asked to memorize lists of three or four semantically related words during retention intervals of a few seconds in which the opportunities to maintain the studied words in WM were varied. The children then performed an immediate recall test and a delayed recognition test. Experiment 1 showed that 8-year-olds made more semantic recall errors-that is, false memories-than non-semantic recall errors in the immediate test, whereas the opposite was true for 5-year-olds. Experiment 2, which introduced a stronger manipulation of WM maintenance, showed that 8-year-olds made more semantic errors than 5-year-olds in the immediate test when the opportunity to maintain the studied words in WM was reduced. This developmental reversal disappeared when children had more opportunities to maintain the studied words in WM. These results suggest that the development of WM maintenance mechanisms during childhood reduces the age-related increase in false memories.
The recent past helps us predict and prepare for the near future. Such preparation relies on working memory (WM) which actively maintains and manipulates information providing a temporal bridge. Numerous studies have shown that recently presented visual stimuli can be decoded from fMRI signals in visual cortex (VC) and the intra-parietal sulcus (IPS) suggesting that these areas sustain the recent past. Yet, decoding concrete, sensory signals leaves open how past information is transformed into the abstract codes critical for guiding future cognition. Here, human participants used WM to maintain a separate spatial location in each hemifield wherein locations were embedded in a star-shaped sequence. On each trial, participants made a sequence-match decision to a spatial probe and then updated their WM with the probe. The same abstract star-shaped sequence guided judgments in each hemifield allowing us to separately track concrete spatial locations (hemifield-specific) and abstract sequence positions (hemifield-general), while also tracking representation of the past (last location/position) and future (next location/position). Consistent with previous reports, concrete past locations could be decoded from VC and IPS. Moreover, in anticipation of the probe, representations shifted from past to future locations in both areas. Critically, we observed abstract coding of future sequence positions in the IPS whose magnitude related to speeded performance. These data suggest that the IPS sustains abstract codes to facilitate future preparation and reveal the transformation of the sensory past into the abstract future.
Changes of passive predicates in the Masoretic Text (MT) to active predicates in the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) have long been noted by SP scholars. Most of these changes have been convincingly explained by morpho-phonological and morpho-semantic developments in Samaritan Hebrew (SH), mainly the loss of internal passives and the increased use of Nifʕal to encode passives. However, diachronic developments in SH alone cannot fully explain the passive-active variants found in SP. A sentence-processing evaluation of these variants may help explain the unexpected changes of 48 passive Nifʕal predicates in SP, as well as the retention of over 80% of internal passives in this tradition. It may also illuminate some variants in the opposite direction, i.e., active clauses in MT that appear as passive clauses in SP. It is argued that the non-canonical semantic-syntactic mapping in passive structures, which affects the way passives are interpreted or retrieved, may be involved in the generation of passive-active variants in SP.
GİRİŞ
Teknolojinin hayatımıza girmesi ile birçok alanda fayda elde etmiş, zaman alan aktivitelerden kurtulmuş, eğitim, ulaşım, sağlık gibi birçok sektörde hayatımızı kolaylaştıran fırsatlar elde etmiş olsak da kolaylaşan koşullarla birlikte bazı noktaların artık daha da zorlaştığı aşikâr. Zorlaşan bu alanların en başında dijital oyunlara karşı gelişen bağımlı davranışlar gelmektedir. Geçmişte çocuklar için sokaklar oyun alanı iken, bugün kendilerine keyif veren ve hayatı deneyimleme bakımından önem taşıyan oyun oynama ortamı tam anlamıyla değişmiş, sokaktan evlere taşınmış durumdadır. Teknoloji ile hayatımıza giren dijital oyunlar bireylere keyif veren bir aktivite olsa da oyunun değişen doğası birçok sosyal ve psikolojik sorunu da beraberinde getirmiştir. Geçmişte oyunun doğasında çocukların hayatı birbirleri ile deneyimlemeleri, oyun üzerinden derinlemesine bağ kurmaları varken bugün sağlıklı iletişim kurma ortamının sağlanmasının pek mümkün olmadığı dijital oyunlar ve arkadaşlıkların yaygınlaştığı görülmektedir. Bildiğimiz oyunlar veya diğer bir ifadeyle geleneksel oyunlar insan doğası için gerekli doğal birer aktivite olup bireyin büyümesine katkı sağlaması sebebiyle sağlıklı olduklarının da bir göstergesi ve bireylerin hem kendileri hem de başkalarıyla iletişim kurmaları için önemli bir iletişim aracıdır (Winnicott, 2019, s. 67). Oyun oynayan kişi genellikle sağlıklı ve motivasyonu yüksek olarak değerlendirilmekteydi. Hem toplumsal olarak hem de zihin sağlığı çerçevesinde değerlendirildiğinde neredeyse her kesimin geleneksel oyunları oynamaya bakışı bu nedenle oldukça pozitiftir ve teşvik edilen bir davranıştır. Çünkü oyun adeta bir terapi gibidir ve birey gerçek dünyayı oyun üzerinden ve oyun içerisinde deneyimler. Oyun içerisinde özgür olan birey oyundan keyif alır ve oyunun kontrolü tamamen kendisinde olduğu için özgürce oyunun yönünü ve tarzını kendi isteğine göre şekillendirebilir. Oyun, aynı zamanda çocuğun konuşmadığı fakat hareket ettiği, sembollerle dolu bir ortamdır (Klein, 2015, s. 31-32). Oyunun heyecan verici olma özelliği ise evrenseldir. İçinde yaratıcılığın da bulunduğu oyun birey için önemli bir deneyimdir. Dijital oyunlarda ise geleneksel oyunlardan farklı olarak çoğunlukla gerçek dışı bir dünya söz konusudur. Dijital oyunların sınırları ve kuralları vardır ve genellikle bir yarış içerisinde kurgulandığı için kaybetme hissi kaçınılmaz biçimde sürekli olarak deneyimlenir.
The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of the processes involved in working memory (WM) retrieval by distinguishing between recollective (direct access) and non-recollective (reconstruction) recall. To this end, the trichotomous theory of recall (Brainerd et al., 2009) was applied to young adults' recall performance in a complex span task in which word lists were presented in three successive study-test trials. In three experiments, factors known to affect WM performance were manipulated, such as the cognitive load (CL) of the concurrent task and the involvement of long-term memory (LTM) knowledge through the associative relatedness of the memory items and the temporally spaced presentation of memory lists. The application of the trichotomous theory of recall proved effective and established that both recollective and non-recollective processes support WM recall, though recollective processes are predominant. The detrimental effect of increased CL on recall performance appeared to result from a reduction in direct access, while leaving reconstruction unaffected. Two manipulations aimed at increasing the involvement of LTM in recall had different effects on retrieval processes. Associative relatedness favored direct access, while spaced presentation reduced it. The implications of these findings for our understanding of the relationships between LTM and WM and for WM theories are discussed. The advent of the cognitive revolution in the middle of the last century disseminated the view of the mind as an information processing system. As Miller et al. (1960) emphasized, such a conception made necessary the hypothesis of a buffer able to maintain for at least some seconds relevant information in a state appropriate for its processing. Working memory (WM), the term they coined to describe such a buffer, has consequently been usually defined as a limited-capacity system responsible for the online maintenance of information in the service of ongoing processing (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). While the mechanisms supporting online maintenance of information in WM have been the object of several investigations and debates (Barrouillet & Camos, 2015; Camos, 2017; for reviews), the processes underlying the retrieval of this information for immediate use have been less examined. The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of these processes.
We provide a broad overview of our original investigation of working memory, how the multicomponent model followed from our use of a dissociative methodology and our intention that it should be simple, robust, and applicable. We describe how subsequent development of the model has increased its scope, depth, and applications while at the same time retaining its core features. Comparisons with the growing number of alternative models suggest agreement on the basic phenomena to be explained and more similarities than differences. While differences between models attract interest, we caution that they do not necessarily reflect the most important issues for future research, which we suggest relate principally to the nature of executive control. The longevity of the multicomponent model reflects not only the importance of working memory in cognition but the usefulness of a simple, robust framework for further theoretical development and applications.
Working memory is the system that supports the temporary storage and processing of information. It is generally agreed that working memory is a mental workspace, with a combination of resources operating together to maintain information in mind for potential use in thought and action. Theories typically acknowledge contributions of long-term memory to this system. One particular aspect of long-term memory, namely semantic long-term memory, can effectively supplement or ‘boost’ working memory performance. This may be a relatively automatic process via the semantic properties of the stimuli or more active via strategy development and implementation. However, the precise mechanisms require greater theoretical understanding. In this review of the literature, we critically discuss theoretical models of working memory and their proposed links with long-term memory. We also explore empirical research that contributes to our understanding of the ways in which semantics can support performance on both verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks, with a view to potential intervention development. This includes the possibility of training people with lower performance (e.g., older adults) to use semantics during working memory tasks. We conclude that semantics may offer an opportunity to maximise working memory performance. However, to realise this potential, more research is needed, particularly in the visuospatial domain.
Working memory is an evolving concept. Our understanding of the neural functions that support WM develops iteratively alongside the approaches used to study it, and both can be profoundly shaped by available tools and prevailing theoretical paradigms. Here, the organizers of the 2024 Working Memory Symposium – inspired by this year’s meeting – highlight current trends and looming questions in working memory research.
Elaboration has emerged as a potential maintenance mechanism involved in the substantial contribution of long-term memory (LTM) to working memory (WM) performance. The objective of the current study was to determine whether elaborative strategies could be spontaneously implemented under favorable conditions. Across four experiments, the distribution of free-time periods was manipulated in a complex span task, while keeping the total amount of free time and cognitive load constant. As elaboration requires time to be set up, Experiment 1 elicited better WM performance in a condition with fewer long free-time periods compared to a condition with many short free-time periods. However, because this benefit did not persist during delayed recall, the following experiments aimed to further investigate this effect by manipulating factors supposed to modulate elaboration. In Experiment 2, half of the participants received no specific instructions regarding strategies whereas the other half were encouraged to use elaborative strategies. In Experiment 3, the to-be-maintained stimuli did or did not have LTM representations that are essential for elaboration (i.e., words or pseudowords). Finally, the last experiment used a self-strategy report to better understand the nature of the WM maintenance strategies spontaneously employed by participants. Despite a consistent effect of free time manipulation on WM recall, the explanatory assumption of elaboration was challenged by the unexpected lack of effect on LTM recall and on the type of strategy reported. Alternative explanations stemming from well-known factors influencing WM performance are discussed, and emphasis is placed on the potential contribution of direct semantic maintenance in WM.
Working memory is an active system responsible for “the temporary maintenance and processing of information in the support of cognition and action” (Baddeley et al., 2021). In keeping with this, a growing body of research has explored the close links between working memory and attention, and how these might be harnessed to impact performance and possibly improve working memory efficiency. This is theoretically and practically important, given that working memory is a central hub in complex cognition yet is extremely capacity- and resource-limited. We review work carried out over the last ten years or so looking at how high ‘value’ items in working memory can be strategically prioritised through selective attention, drawing principally from visual working memory paradigms with young adult participants, while also discussing how the core effects extend to different task domains and populations. A consistent set of core findings emerges, with improved memory for items that are allocated higher ‘value’ but no change in overall task performance, and a recency advantage regardless of point allocation when items are encountered sequentially. Value-directed prioritisation is effortful, under top-down strategic control, and appears to vary with perceptual distraction and executive load. It is driven by processes operating during encoding, maintenance, and retrieval, though the extent to which these are influenced by different features of the task context remain to be mapped out. We discuss implications for working memory, attention, and strategic control, and note some possible future directions of travel for this promising line of research.
Objetivo: Analizar la relación entre variables emocionales (IE-autopercibida y diferenciación emocional) y habilidades cognitivas (vocabulario y memoria de trabajo) con el bienestar-psicológico adolescente. Método: a una muestra de 221 adolescentes escolarizados se le administraron las escalas TMMS-21 y BIEPS-J, la prueba de Ordenamiento Dígito-Letra de la BIMET, un cuestionario de Vocabulario Emocional y la prueba BAIRES-A. Se realizaron correlaciones y se puso a prueba un modelo por medio de ecuaciones estructurales. Resultados: Muestran que la IE-autopercibida impacta de manera positiva sobre el bienestar y que este último se relaciona de forma positiva con los factores claridad y recuperación. La memoria de trabajo mostró tener un efecto indirecto, a través de la IE-autopercibida, sobre el bienestar-psicológico y una relación positiva con el factor recuperación. La diferenciación emocional, evaluada por medio del vocabulario emocional, y el vocabulario general no mostraron tener relación más que entre ambos constructos. Conclusión: Se destaca la importancia del efecto de la memoria de trabajo sobre la IE-autopercibida y la importancia de ésta última para el bienestar psicológico.
Flexible goal-directed human cognition is supported by many forms of self-directed manipulation of representations. Among them, Inner-Speech (IS; covert self-directed speech) acts on second-order representations (e.g., goals/sub-goals), empowering attention and feedback processing. Interestingly, patients with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (SSD) show impaired Executive Functions (EF; e.g., cognitive flexibility) and, probably, a related IS alteration. However, fragmentary evidence and no computational modeling prevent a clear assessment of these processes and focused therapeutic interventions. Here, we address these issues by exploiting a translational approach that integrates experimental clinical data, machine learning, and computational modeling. First, we administered the Wisconsin Cards Sorting Test (WCST; a neuropsychological test probing cognitive flexibility) to SSD patients and computed the behavioural data with a data-driven clustering algorithm. Second, we extracted the cluster neuropsychological profiles with our theory-based validated computational model of the WCST. Finally, we exploited our model to emulate an IS-based psychotherapeutic intervention for SSD subpopulations. We identified different SSD sub-populations and global trends (e.g., a descending feedback sensitivity); however, extremely different neuropsychological profiles emerged. In particular, `Relatively Intact' patients showed an unexpected profile (distraction/reasoning failures), quite divergent from the perseverative/rigid profile of the others. Importantly, the former showed no impact of Interfering-IS, while the others showed increased Interfering-IS strongly affecting their cognition. These differences highlight that SSD populations require a cluster-dependent individualisation of the intervention to achieve adequate cognitive performance. Overall, these results support a clear definition of neuropsychological profiles and the related Interfering-IS impact in SSD subpopulations, thus showing important implications for basic research (e.g., cognitive neuroscience) and clinical fields (clinical psychology and psychiatry).
The body of research on visual working memory (VWM)—the system often described as a limited memory store of visual information in service of ongoing tasks—is growing rapidly. The discovery of numerous related phenomena, and the many subtly different definitions of working memory, signify a challenge to maintain a coherent theoretical framework to discuss concepts, compare models and design studies. A lack of robust theory development has been a noteworthy concern in the psychological sciences, thought to be a precursor to the reproducibility crisis (Oberauer & Lewandowsky, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26, 1596–1618, 2019). I review the theoretical landscape of the VWM field by examining two prominent debates—whether VWM is object-based or feature-based, and whether discrete-slots or variable-precision best describe VWM limits. I share my concerns about the dualistic nature of these debates and the lack of clear model specification that prevents fully determined empirical tests. In hopes of promoting theory development, I provide a working theory map by using the broadly encompassing memory for latent representations model (Hedayati et al., Nature Human Behaviour, 6, 5, 2022) as a scaffold for relevant phenomena and current theories. I illustrate how opposing viewpoints can be brought into accordance, situating leading models of VWM to better identify their differences and improve their comparison. The hope is that the theory map will help VWM researchers get on the same page—clarifying hidden intuitions and aligning varying definitions—and become a useful device for meaningful discussions, development of models, and definitive empirical tests of theories.
In the embedded-processes model, working memory is represented as a two-phase process with the activated portion of long-term memory holding features temporarily, including newly learned information and, within it, the focus of attention holding up to several integrated items or chunks. This chapter focuses on the motivation to use the structure of modelling in which processes are embedded, and it considers how the model helps in the organization of extant data and guidance of research. It will consider how the model has changed over the years and will clarify some often-misunderstood points about the model.
This study uses a novel framework based on work by Shipstead, Harrison, and Engle (2016) that includes measures of both working memory capacity and fluid intelligence in an attempt to better understand the processes that influence successful reading comprehension at the latent level. Further, we extend this framework to a second educationally relevant ability: second-language vocabulary learning. A large sample of young adults received a battery of working memory, fluid intelligence, language comprehension, and memory updating tasks. The results indicate that individual differences in reading comprehension and vocabulary learning benefit from the ability to maintain active information, as well as to disengage from no longer relevant information. Subsequently, we provide an interpretation of our results based on the maintenance and disengagement framework proposed by Shipstead et al. (2016). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
There is broad agreement that working memory is closely related to attention. This article delineates several theoretical options for conceptualizing this link, and evaluates their viability in light of their theoretical implications and the empirical support they received. A first divide exists between the concept of attention as a limited resource, and the concept of attention as selective information processing. Theories conceptualizing attention as a resource assume that this resource is responsible for the limited capacity of working memory. Three versions of this idea have been proposed: Attention as a resource for storage and processing, a shared resource for perceptual attention and memory maintenance, and a resource for the control of attention. The first of these three is empirically well supported, but the other two are not. By contrast, when attention is understood as a selection mechanism, it is usually not invoked to explain the capacity limit of working memory – rather, researchers ask how different forms of attention interact with working memory, in two areas. The first pertains to attentional selection of the contents of working memory, controlled by mechanisms of filtering out irrelevant stimuli, and removing no-longer relevant representations from working memory. Within working memory contents, a single item is often selected into the focus of attention for processing. The second area pertains to the role of working memory in cognitive control. Working memory contributes to controlling perceptual attention – by holding templates for targets of perceptual selection – and controlling action – by holding task sets to implement our current goals.
In modern individual-difference studies, researchers often correlate performance on various tasks to uncover common latent processes. Yet, in some sense, the results have been disappointing as correlations among tasks that seemingly have processes in common are often low. A pressing question then is whether these attenuated correlations reflect statistical considerations, such as a lack of individual variability on tasks, or substantive considerations, such as that inhibition in different tasks is not a unified concept. One problem in addressing this question is that researchers aggregate performance across trials to tally individual-by-task scores. It is tempting to think that aggregation is fine and that everything comes out in the wash. But as shown here, this aggregation may greatly attenuate measures of effect size and correlation. We propose an alternative analysis of task performance that is based on accounting for trial-by-trial variability along with the covariation of individuals’ performance across tasks. The implementation is through common hierarchical models, and this treatment rescues classical concepts of effect size, reliability, and correlation for studying individual differences with experimental tasks. Using recent data from Hedge et al. Behavioral Research Methods, 50(3), 1166–1186, 2018 we show that there is Bayes-factor support for a lack of correlation between the Stroop and flanker task. This support for a lack of correlation indicates a psychologically relevant result—Stroop and flanker inhibition are seemingly unrelated, contradicting unified concepts of inhibition.
Reaction time is believed to be a good indicator of the speed and efficiency of mental processes and is a ubiquitous variable in the behavioral sciences. Despite this popularity, there are numerous issues associated with using reaction time (RT), specifically in differential and developmental research. Here, we identify and focus on two main problems-unreliability and sensitivity to speed-accuracy interactions. The use of difference scores is a primary factor that leads to many RT measures having demonstrably low reliability, and RT measures in general often do not properly account for speed-accuracy interactions. Both factors jeopardize the validity and interpretability of results based on RT. Here, we evaluate conceptually and empirically how these issues affect individual differences research. Although the empirical evidence we provide are primarily within the domains of attention control and task switching, we highlight examples from various other areas of psychological inquiry. We also discuss many of the statistical and methodological alternatives available to researchers conducting correlational studies. Ultimately, we encourage researchers comparing individuals of differing cognitive and developmental levels to strongly consider using these alternatives in lieu of RT, specifically RT difference scores.
In the last two decades, individual-differences research has put forward 3 cognitive psychometric constructs: executive control (i.e., the ability to monitor and control ongoing thoughts and actions), working memory capacity (WMC, i.e., the ability to retain access to a limited amount of information in the service of complex tasks), and fluid intelligence (gF, i.e., the ability to reason with novel information). These constructs have been proposed to be closely related, but previous research failed to substantiate a strong correlation between executive control and the other two constructs. This might arise from the difficulty in establishing executive control as a latent variable and from differences in the way the 3 constructs are measured (i.e., executive control is typically measured through reaction times, whereas WMC and gF are measured through accuracy). The purpose of the present study was to overcome these difficulties by measuring executive control through accuracy. Despite good reliabilities of all measures, structural equation modeling identified no coherent factor of executive control. Furthermore, WMC and gF-modeled as distinct but correlated factors-were unrelated to the individual measures of executive control. Hence, measuring executive control through accuracy did not overcome the difficulties of establishing executive control as a latent variable. These findings call into question the existence of executive control as a psychometric construct and the assumption that WMC and gF are closely related to the ability to control ongoing thoughts and actions.
Theories of working memory often disagree on the relationships between processing and storage, particularly on how heavily they rely on an attention-based limited resource. Some posit separation and specialization of resources resulting in minimal interference to memory when completing an ongoing processing task, while others argue for a greater overlap in the resources involved in concurrent tasks. Here, we present four experiments that investigated the presence or absence of dual-task costs for memory and processing. The experiments were carried in an adversarial collaboration in which researchers from three opposing theories collaboratively designed a set of experiments and provided differential predictions in line with each of their models. Participants performed delayed recall of aurally and visually presented letters and an arithmetic verification task either as single tasks or with the arithmetic verification task between presentation and recall of letter sequences. Single- and dual-task conditions were completed with and without concurrent articulatory suppression. A consistent pattern of dual-task and suppression costs was observed for memory, with smaller or null effects on processing. The observed data did not fit perfectly with any one framework, with each model having partial success in predicting data patterns. Implications for each of the models are discussed, with an aim for future research to investigate whether some combination of the models and their assumptions can provide a more comprehensive interpretation of the pattern of effects observed here and in relevant previous studies associated with each theoretical framework.
Any mature field of research in psychology-such as short-term/working memory-is characterized by a wealth of empirical findings. It is currently unrealistic to expect a theory to explain them all; theorists must satisfice with explaining a subset of findings. The aim of the present article is to make the choice of that subset less arbitrary and idiosyncratic than is current practice. We propose criteria for identifying benchmark findings that every theory in a field should be able to explain: Benchmarks should be reproducible, generalize across materials and methodological variations, and be theoretically informative. We propose a set of benchmarks for theories and computational models of short-term and working memory. The benchmarks are described in as theory-neutral a way as possible, so that they can serve as empirical common ground for competing theoretical approaches. Benchmarks are rated on three levels according to their priority for explanation. Selection and ratings of the benchmarks is based on consensus among the authors, who jointly represent a broad range of theoretical perspectives on working memory, and they are supported by a survey among other experts on working memory. The article is accompanied by a web page providing an open forum for discussion and for submitting proposals for new benchmarks; and a repository for reference data sets for each benchmark. (PsycINFO Database Record
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) has been frequently applied to executive function measurement since first used to identify a three-factor model of inhibition, updating, and shifting; however, subsequent CFAs have supported inconsistent models across the life span, ranging from unidimensional to nested-factor models (i.e., bifactor without inhibition). This systematic review summarized CFAs on performance-based tests of executive functions and reanalyzed summary data to identify best-fitting models. Eligible CFAs involved 46 samples ( N = 9,756). The most frequently accepted models varied by age (i.e., preschool = one/two-factor; school-age = three-factor; adolescent/adult = three/nested-factor; older adult = two/three-factor), and most often included updating/working memory, inhibition, and shifting factors. A bootstrap reanalysis simulated 5,000 samples from 21 correlation matrices (11 child/adolescent; 10 adult) from studies including the three most common factors, fitting seven competing models. Model results were summarized as the mean percent accepted (i.e., average rate at which models converged and met fit thresholds: CFI ≥ .90/RMSEA ≤ .08) and mean percent selected (i.e., average rate at which a model showed superior fit to other models: ΔCFI ≥ .005/.010/ΔRMSEA ≤ −.010/−.015). No model consistently converged and met fit criteria in all samples. Among adult samples, the nested-factor was accepted (41–42%) and selected (8–30%) most often. Among child/adolescent samples, the unidimensional model was accepted (32–36%) and selected (21–53%) most often, with some support for two-factor models without a differentiated shifting factor. Results show some evidence for greater unidimensionality of executive function among child/adolescent samples and both unity and diversity among adult samples. However, low rates of model acceptance/selection suggest possible bias toward the publication of well-fitting but potentially nonreplicable models with underpowered samples.
Working memory can be divided into separate subsystems for verbal and visual information. Although the verbal system has been well characterized, the storage capacity of visual working memory has not yet been established for simple features or for conjunctions of features. The authors demonstrate that it is possible to retain information about only 3-4 colors or orientations in visual working memory at one time. Observers are also able to retain both the color and the orientation of 3-4 objects, indicating that visual working memory stores integrated objects rather than individual features. Indeed, objects defined by a conjunction of four features can be retained in working memory just as well as single-feature objects, allowing many individual features to be retained when distributed across a small number of objects. Thus, the capacity of visual working memory must be understood in terms of integrated objects rather than individual features.
Immediate memory span and maximal articulation rate were assessed for word sets differing in frequency, word-neighborhood size, and average word-neighborhood frequency. Memory span was greater for high- than low-frequency words, greater for words from large than small phonological neighborhoods, and greater for words from high- than low-frequency phonological neighborhoods. Maximal articulation rate was also facilitated by word frequency, phonological-neighborhood size, and neighborhood frequency. In a final study all 3 lexical variables were found to influence the recall outcome for individual words. These effects of phonological-word neighborhood on memory performance suggest that phonological information in long-term memory plays an active role in recall in short-term-memory tasks, and they present a challenge to current theories of short-term memory.
In 2 experiments the authors examined whether individual differences in working-memory (WM) capacity are related to attentional control. Experiment 1 tested high- and low-WM-span (high-span and low-span) participants in a prosaccade task, in which a visual cue appeared in the same location as a subsequent to-be-identified target letter, and in an antisaccade task, in which a target appeared opposite the cued location. Span groups identified targets equally well in the prosaccade task, reflecting equivalence in automatic orienting. However, low-span participants were slower and less accurate than high-span participants in the antisaccade task, reflecting differences in attentional control. Experiment 2 measured eye movements across a long antisaccade session. Low-span participants made slower and more erroneous saccades than did high-span participants. In both experiments, low-span participants performed poorly when task switching from antisaccade to prosaccade blocks. The findings support a controlled-attention view of WM capacity.
Participants memorized briefly presented sets of digits, a subset of which had to be accessed as input for arithmetic tasks (the active set), whereas another subset had to be remembered independently of the concurrent task (the passive set). Latencies for arithmetic operations were a function of the setsize of active but not passive sets. Object-switch costs were observed when successive operations were applied to different digits within an active set. Participants took 2 s to encode a passive set so that it did not affect processing latencies (Experiment 2). The results support a model distinguishing 3 states of representations in working memory: the activated part of long-term memory, a capacity limited region of direct access, and a focus of attention.
What happens to goal-relevant information in working memory after it is no longer needed? Here, we review evidence for a selective removal process that operates on outdated information to limit working memory load and hence facilitates the maintenance of goal-relevant information. Removal alters the representations of irrelevant content so as to reduce access to it, thereby improving access to the remaining relevant content and also facilitating the encoding of new information. Both behavioral and neural evidence support the existence of a removal process that is separate from forgetting due to decay or interference. We discuss the potential mechanisms involved in removal and characterize the time course and duration of the process. In doing so, we propose the existence of two forms of removal: one is temporary, and reversible, which modifies working memory content without impacting content-to-context bindings, and another is permanent, which unbinds the content from its context in working memory (without necessarily impacting long-term forgetting). Finally, we discuss limitations on removal and prescribe conditions for evaluating evidence for or against this process.
Short-term memories are thought to be maintained in the form of sustained spiking activity in neural populations. Decreases in recall precision observed with increasing number of memorized items can be accounted for by a limit on total spiking activity, resulting in fewer spikes contributing to the representation of each individual item. Longer retention intervals likewise reduce recall precision, but it is unknown what changes in population activity produce this effect. One possibility is that spiking activity becomes attenuated over time, such that the same mechanism accounts for both effects of set size and retention duration. Alternatively, reduced performance may be caused by drift in the encoded value over time, without a decrease in overall spiking activity. Human participants of either sex performed a variable-delay cued recall task with a saccadic response, providing a precise measure of recall latency. Based on a spike integration model of decision making, if the effects of set size and retention duration are both caused by decreased spiking activity, we would predict a fixed relationship between recall precision and response latency across conditions. In contrast, the drift hypothesis predicts no systematic changes in latency with increasing delays. Our results show both an increase in latency with set size, and a decrease in response precision with longer delays within each set size, but no systematic increase in latency for increasing delay durations. These results were quantitatively reproduced by a model based on a limited neural resource in which working memories drift rather than decay with time.
Chunking is the recoding of smaller units of information into larger, familiar units. Chunking is often assumed to help bypassing the limited capacity of working memory (WM). We investigate how chunks are used in WM tasks, addressing three questions: (a) Does chunking reduce the load on WM? Across four experiments chunking benefits were found not only for recall of the chunked but also of other not-chunked information concurrently held in WM, supporting the assumption that chunking reduces load. (b) Is the chunking benefit independent of chunk size? The chunking benefit was independent of chunk size only if the chunks were composed of unique elements, so that each chunk could be replaced by its first element (Experiment 1), but not when several chunks consisted of overlapping sets of elements, disabling this replacement strategy (Experiments 2 and 3). The chunk-size effect is not due to differences in rehearsal duration as it persisted when participants were required to perform articulatory suppression (Experiment 3). Hence, WM capacity is not limited to a fixed number of chunks regardless of their size. (c) Does the chunking benefit depend on the serial position of the chunk? Chunks in early list positions improved recall of other, not-chunked material, but chunks at the end of the list did not. We conclude that a chunk reduces the load on WM via retrieval of a compact chunk representation from long-term memory that replaces the representations of individual elements of the chunk. This frees up capacity for subsequently encoded material. (PsycINFO Database Record
The word length effect, better recall of lists of short (fewer syllables) than long (more syllables) words has been termed a benchmark effect of working memory. Despite this, experiments on the word length effect can yield quite different results depending on set size and stimulus properties. Seven experiments are reported that address these 2 issues. Experiment 1 replicated the finding of a preserved word length effect under concurrent articulation for large stimulus sets, which contrasts with the abolition of the word length effect by concurrent articulation for small stimulus sets. Experiment 2, however, demonstrated that when the short and long words are equated on more dimensions, concurrent articulation abolishes the word length effect for large stimulus sets. Experiment 3 shows a standard word length effect when output time is equated, but Experiments 4-6 show no word length effect when short and long words are equated on increasingly more dimensions that previous demonstrations have overlooked. Finally, Experiment 7 compared recall of a small and large neighborhood words that were equated on all the dimensions used in Experiment 6 (except for those directly related to neighborhood size) and a neighborhood size effect was still observed. We conclude that lexical factors, rather than word length per se, are better predictors of when the word length effect will occur. (PsycINFO Database Record
Inhibition is often conceptualized as a unitary construct reflecting the ability to ignore and suppress irrelevant information. At the same time, it has been subdivided into inhibition of prepotent responses (i.e., the ability to stop dominant responses) and resistance to distracter interference (i.e., the ability to ignore distracting information). The present study investigated the unity and diversity of inhibition as a psychometric construct, and tested the hypothesis of an inhibition deficit in older age. We measured inhibition in young and old adults with 11 established laboratory tasks: antisaccade, stop-signal, color Stroop, number Stroop, arrow flanker, letter flanker, Simon, global-local, positive and negative compatibility tasks, and n-2 repetition costs in task switching. In both age groups, the inhibition measures from individual tasks had good reliabilities, but correlated only weakly among each other. Structural equation modeling identified a 2-factor model with factors for inhibition of prepotent responses and resistance to distracter interference. Older adults scored worse in the inhibition of prepotent response, but better in the resistance to distracter interference. However, the model had low explanatory power. Together, these findings call into question inhibition as a psychometric construct and the hypothesis of an inhibition deficit in older age. (PsycINFO Database Record
Individual differences in cognitive paradigms are increasingly employed to relate cognition to brain structure, chemistry, and function. However, such efforts are often unfruitful, even with the most well established tasks. Here we offer an explanation for failures in the application of robust cognitive paradigms to the study of individual differences. Experimental effects become well established - and thus those tasks become popular - when between-subject variability is low. However, low between-subject variability causes low reliability for individual differences, destroying replicable correlations with other factors and potentially undermining published conclusions drawn from correlational relationships. Though these statistical issues have a long history in psychology, they are widely overlooked in cognitive psychology and neuroscience today. In three studies, we assessed test-retest reliability of seven classic tasks: Eriksen Flanker, Stroop, stop-signal, go/no-go, Posner cueing, Navon, and Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Code (SNARC). Reliabilities ranged from 0 to .82, being surprisingly low for most tasks given their common use. As we predicted, this emerged from low variance between individuals rather than high measurement variance. In other words, the very reason such tasks produce robust and easily replicable experimental effects - low between-participant variability - makes their use as correlational tools problematic. We demonstrate that taking such reliability estimates into account has the potential to qualitatively change theoretical conclusions. The implications of our findings are that well-established approaches in experimental psychology and neuropsychology may not directly translate to the study of individual differences in brain structure, chemistry, and function, and alternative metrics may be required.
The ability to follow new instructions is crucial for acquiring behaviors and the cultural transmission of performance-related knowledge. In this article, we discuss the observation that successful instruction following seems to require both the capacity to understand verbal information, but also the ability to transform this information into a procedural format. Here we review the behavioural and neuroimaging literature on following new instructions and discuss how it contributes to our understanding of the functional mechanisms underlying instruction following. Based on this review, we distinguish three phases of instruction following. In the instruction phase, the declarative information of the task instruction is transformed into a task model consisting of a structured representation of the relevant condition-action rules. In the implementation phase, elements of this task model are transformed into a highly accessible state guiding behaviour. In the application phase, the relevant condition-action rules are applied. We discuss the boundary conditions and capacity limits of these phases, determine their neural correlates, and relate them to recent models of working memory.
Short-term consolidation is the process by which stable working memory representations are created. This process is fundamental to cognition yet poorly understood. The present work examines short-term consolidation using a Bayesian hierarchical model of visual working memory recall to determine the underlying processes at work. Our results show that consolidation functions largely through changing the proportion of memory items successfully maintained until test. Although there was some evidence that consolidation affects representational precision, this change was modest and could not account for the bulk of the consolidation effect on memory performance. The time course of the consolidation function and selective influence of consolidation on specific serial positions strongly indicates that short-term consolidation induces an attentional blink. The blink leads to deficits in memory for the immediately following item when time pressure is introduced. Temporal distinctiveness accounts of the consolidation process are tested and ruled out.
The Hick-Hyman law describes a linear increase in reaction time (RT) as a function of the information entropy of response selection, which is computed as the binary logarithm of the number of response alternatives. While numerous behavioral studies have provided evidence for the Hick-Hyman law, its neural underpinnings have rarely been examined and are still unclear. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging study, by utilizing a choice reaction time task to manipulate the entropy of response selection, we examined brain activity mediating the input and the output, as well as the connectivity between corresponding regions in human participants. Beyond confirming the Hick-Hyman law in RT performance, we found that activation of the cognitive control network (CCN) increased and activation of the default mode network (DMN) decreased, both as a function of entropy. However, only the CCN, but not the DMN, was involved in mediating the relationship between entropy and RT. The CCN was involved in both stages of uncertainty representation and response generation, while the DMN was mainly involved at the stage of uncertainty representation. These findings indicate that the CCN serves as a core entity underlying the Hick-Hyman law by coordinating uncertainty representation and response generation in the brain.
Automaticity is widely assumed to reflect hardwired tendencies or the outcome of prior practice. Recent research on automatic effects of instruction (AEIs), however, indicates that newly instructed tasks can become immediately automatic without ever having been practiced. This research shows that the representations underlying AEIs need not always be directly linked to an overt response but must be highly accessible for future use and involve bidirectional links between stimuli and responses. AEIs were also found to decrease with increasing intellectual abilities among young adults and from childhood to young adulthood, possibly because of improved abstract cognitive control. We argue that AEIs are based on the unintentional retrieval of episodic memories that encode instructions.
Working memory capacity (WMC) and reasoning abilities—as assessed by figural matrices tests—are substantially correlated. It is controversially discussed whether this correlation is only caused by controlled attention or also by storage capacity. This study aims at investigating storage of partial solutions as a possible mechanism by which storage capacity may contribute to solving figural matrices tests. For this purpose, we analyzed how an experimental manipulation of storage demands changes the pattern of correlations between WMC and performance in a matrix task. We manipulated the storage demands by applying two test formats: one providing the externalization of partial solutions and one without the possibility of externalization. Storage capacity was assessed by different types of change detection tasks. We found substantial correlations between storage capacity and matrices test performance, but they were of comparable size for both test formats. We take this as evidence that the necessity to store partial solutions is not the limiting factor which causes the association between storage capacity and matrices test. It is discussed how this approach can be used to investigate alternative mechanisms by that storage may influence performance in matrices tests.
The association between working memory capacity (WMC) and the antisaccade task, which requires subjects to move their eyes and attention away from a strong visual cue, supports the claim that WMC is partially an attentional construct (Kane, Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001; Unsworth, Schrock, & Engle, 2004). Specifically, the WMC-antisaccade relation suggests that WMC helps maintain and execute task goals despite interference from habitual actions. Related work has recently shown that mind wandering (McVay & Kane, 2009, 2012a, 2012b) and reaction time (RT) variability (Unsworth, 2015) are also related to WMC and they partially explain WMC’s prediction of cognitive abilities. Here, we tested whether mind-wandering propensity and intraindividual RT variation account for WMC’s associations with two antisaccade-cued choice RT tasks. In addition, we asked whether any influences of WMC, mind wandering, or intraindividual RT variation on antisaccade are moderated by (a) the temporal gap between fixation and the flashing location cue, and (b) whether targets switch sides on consecutive trials. Our quasi-experimental study re-examined a published dataset (Kane et al., 2016) comprising 472 subjects who completed 6 WMC tasks, 5 attentional tasks with mind-wandering probes, 5 tasks from which we measured intraindividual RT variation, and 2 antisaccade tasks with varying fixation-cue gap durations. The WMC-antisaccade association was not accounted for by mind wandering or intraindividual RT variation. WMC’s effects on antisaccade performance were greater with longer fixation-to-cue intervals, suggesting that goal activation processes — beyond the ability to control mind wandering and RT variability — are partially responsible for the WMC-antisaccade relation.
Working memory capacity is an important construct in psychology because of its relationship with many higher-order cognitive abilities and psychopathologies. Working memory capacity is often measured using a type of paradigm known as complex span. Some recent work has focused on shortening the administration time of the complex span tasks, resulting in different versions of these tasks being used (Foster et al., 2015; Oswald, McAbee, Redick, & Hambrick, 2015). Variations in the complex span tasks, such as the number of set sizes, can lead to varying power to discriminate individuals at different ability levels. Thus, research findings may be inconsistent across populations due to differing appropriateness for the ability levels. The present study uses a combination of item response theory and correlational analyses to better understand the psychometric properties of the operation span, symmetry span, and rotation span. The findings show that the typical administration of these tasks, particularly the operation span, is not suitable for above average ability samples (Study 1; n = 573). When larger set sizes are added to the tasks (Study 2; n = 351), predictive validity and discriminability is improved for all complex span tasks, however the operation span is still inferior to the spatial tasks. The authors make several conclusions about which tasks and set sizes should be used depending on the intended population, and further suggest avoiding the standard-length operation span for average or higher ability populations.
According to some estimates, more than half of the world’s population is multilingual to some extent. Because of the centrality of language use to human experience and the deep connections between linguistic and nonlinguistic processing, it would not be surprising to find that there are interactions between bilingualism and cognitive and brain processes. The present review uses the framework of experience-dependent plasticity to evaluate the evidence for systematic modifications of brain and cognitive systems that can be attributed to bilingualism. The review describes studies investigating the relation between bilingualism and cognition in infants and children, younger and older adults, and patients, using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods. Excluded are studies whose outcomes focus primarily on linguistic abilities because of their more peripheral contribution to the central question regarding experience-dependent changes to cognition. Although most of the research discussed in the review reports some relation between bilingualism and cognitive or brain outcomes, several areas of research, notably behavioral studies with young adults, largely fail to show these effects. These discrepancies are discussed and considered in terms of methodological and conceptual issues. The final section proposes an account based on “executive attention” to explain the range of research findings and to set out an agenda for the next steps in this field.
Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence have been demonstrated to be strongly correlated traits. Typically, high working memory capacity is believed to facilitate reasoning through accurate maintenance of relevant information. In this article, we present a proposal reframing this issue, such that tests of working memory capacity and fluid intelligence are seen as measuring complementary processes that facilitate complex cognition. Respectively, these are the ability to maintain access to critical information and the ability to disengage from or block outdated information. In the realm of problem solving, high working memory capacity allows a person to represent and maintain a problem accurately and stably, so that hypothesis testing can be conducted. However, as hypotheses are disproven or become untenable, disengaging from outdated problem solving attempts becomes important so that new hypotheses can be generated and tested. From this perspective, the strong correlation between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence is due not to one ability having a causal influence on the other but to separate attention-demanding mental functions that can be contrary to one another but are organized around top-down processing goals.
The article introduces an interference model of working memory for information in a continuous similarity space, such as the features of visual objects. The model incorporates the following assumptions: (a) Probability of retrieval is determined by the relative activation of each retrieval candidate at the time of retrieval; (b) activation comes from 3 sources in memory: cue-based retrieval using context cues, context-independent memory for relevant contents, and noise; (c) 1 memory object and its context can be held in the focus of attention, where it is represented with higher precision, and partly shielded against interference. The model was fit to data from 4 continuous-reproduction experiments testing working memory for colors or orientations. The experiments involved variations of set size, kind of context cues, precueing, and retro-cueing of the to-be-tested item. The interference model fit the data better than 2 competing models, the Slot-Averaging model and the Variable-Precision resource model. The interference model also fared well in comparison to several new models incorporating alternative theoretical assumptions. The experiments confirm 3 novel predictions of the interference model: (a) Nontargets intrude in recall to the extent that they are close to the target in context space; (b) similarity between target and nontarget features improves recall, and (c) precueing-but not retro-cueing-the target substantially reduces the set-size effect. The success of the interference model shows that working memory for continuous visual information works according to the same principles as working memory for more discrete (e.g., verbal) contents. Data and model codes are available at https://osf.io/wgqd5/. (PsycINFO Database Record
We report 4 experiments examining whether associations in visual working memory are subject to proactive interference from long-term memory (LTM). Following a long-term learning phase in which participants learned the colors of 120 unique objects, a working memory (WM) test was administered in which participants recalled the precise colors of 3 concrete objects in an array. Each array in the WM test consisted of 1 old (previously learned) object with a new color (old-mismatch), 1 old object with its old color (old-match), and 1 new object. Experiments 1 to 3 showed that WM performance was better in the old-match condition than in the new condition, reflecting a beneficial contribution from LTM. In the old-mismatch condition, participants sometimes reported colors associated with the relevant shape in LTM, but the probability of successful recall was equivalent to that in the new condition. Thus, information from LTM only intruded in the absence of reportable information in WM. Experiment 4 tested for, and failed to find, proactive interference from the preceding trial in the WM test: Performance in the old-mismatch condition, presenting an object from the preceding trial with a new color, was equal to performance with new objects. Experiment 5 showed that long-term memory for object-color associations is subject to proactive interference. We conclude that the exchange of information between LTM and WM appears to be controlled by a gating mechanism that protects the contents of WM from proactive interference but admits LTM information when it is useful.
Working memory is now established as a fundamental cognitive process across a range of species. Loss of information held in working memory has the potential to disrupt many aspects of cognitive function. However, despite its significance, the mechanisms underlying rapid forgetting remain unclear, with intense recent debate as to whether it is interference between stored items that leads to loss of information or simply temporal decay. Here we show that both factors are essential and interact in a highly specific manner. Although a single item can be maintained in memory with high fidelity, multiple items compete in working memory, progressively degrading each other?s representations as time passes. Specifically, interaction between items is associated with both worsening precision and increased reporting errors of object features over time. Importantly, during the period of maintenance, although items are no longer visible, maintenance resources can be selectively redeployed to protect the probability to recall the correct feature and the precision with which cued items can be recalled, as if it was the only item in memory. These findings reveal that the biased competition concept could be applied not only to perceptual processes but also to active maintenance of working memory representations over time.
This study investigated the structure of working memory in young school-age children by
testing the fit of three competing theoretical models using a wide variety of tasks. The best
fitting models were then used to assess the relationship between working memory and
nonverbal measures of fluid reasoning (Gf) and visual processing (Gv) intelligence. One
hundred sixty-eight English-speaking 7–9 year olds with typical development, from three
states, participated. Results showed that Cowan’s three-factor embedded processes model
fit the data slightly better than Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) three-factor model (specified
according to Baddeley, 1986) and decisively better than Baddeley’s (2000) four-factor
model that included an episodic buffer. The focus of attention factor in Cowan’s model
was a significant predictor of Gf and Gv. The results suggest that the focus of attention,
rather than storage, drives the relationship between working memory, Gf, and Gv in young
school-age children. Our results do not rule out the Baddeley and Hitch model, but they
place constraints on both it and Cowan’s model. A common attentional component is
needed for feature binding, running digit span, and visual short-term memory tasks;
phonological storage is separate, as is a component of central executive processing
involved in task manipulation. The results contribute to a zeitgeist in which working
memory models are coming together on common ground (cf. Cowan, Saults, & Blume,
2014; Hu, Allen, Baddeley, & Hitch, 2016).
Previous research has identified several cognitive abilities that are important for multitasking, but few studies have attempted to measure a general multitasking ability using a diverse set of multitasks. In the final dataset, 534 young adult subjects completed measures of working memory, attention control, fluid intelligence, and multitasking. Correlations, hierarchical regression analyses, confirmatory factor analyses, structural equation models, and relative weight analyses revealed several key findings. First, although the complex tasks used to assess multitasking differed greatly in their task characteristics and demands, a coherent construct specific to multitasking ability was identified. Second, the cognitive ability predictors accounted for substantial variance in the general multitasking construct, with working memory and fluid intelligence accounting for the most multitasking variance compared to attention control. Third, the magnitude of the relationships among the cognitive abilities and multitasking varied as a function of the complexity and structure of the various multitasks assessed. Finally, structural equation models based on a multi-faceted model of working memory indicated that attention control and capacity fully mediated the working memory and multitasking relationship.
It is well established that measures of reasoning ability and of working memory capacity (WMC) correlate positively. However, the question of what explains this relationship remains open. The purpose of this study was to investigate the capacity hypothesis, which ascribes causality to WMC. This hypothesis holds that people high in WMC are more successful in capacity-demanding cognitive tasks than people lower in WMC because they can temporarily maintain more information in the form of sub-goals, hypotheses, and partial solutions. Accordingly, this hypothesis predicts that the correlation between WMC and reasoning performance should increase as the capacity demands of the reasoning items increase. We tested this prediction using items from Raven’s Progressive Matrices and two measures of WMC, complex span and the k estimate from the Visual Arrays task. Neither WMC measure showed the effect predicted by the capacity hypothesis. Furthermore, the results cannot be attributed to restriction of range in performance on the individual reasoning items. This finding adds to existing evidence calling into question the capacity hypothesis, and, more generally, the view that WMC has a causal influence on fluid intelligence.
The worst performance rule (WPR) describes the phenomenon that individuals' slowest responses in a task are more predictive of their intelligence than their fastest or average responses. Because the WPR supposedly amplifies in heavily g-loaded tasks and in samples whose cognitive abilities factor structure is dominated by a strong g-factor, it has been suggested that whatever mechanism is giving rise to the positive manifold may not promote peak performance, but may rather limit performance in a wide range of cognitive tasks. The aim of the present meta-analysis was to provide a meta-analytically determined estimate of the strength, consistency, and generalizability of the WPR. Across 19 studies containing 23 datasets with a total of 3767 participants, there was robust evidence for the WPR. However, the increase in correlations across quantiles of the RT distribution did not follow a linear, but a logarithmic trend, suggesting that those cognitive processes contributing to fast responses in reaction time tasks are less strongly related to cognitive abilities (r = −0.18) than other cognitive processes contributing to average (r = −0.28) and slow responses (r = −0.33). There was no evidence that the strength of the worst performance rule increased with greater mean reaction times, in tests of general intelligence, or in samples with lower or average cognitive abilities. Instead, it was attenuated in less intelligent samples and greater when correlated with speed instead of intelligence or memory tests. Hence, the WPR may not be as characteristic for g and may play a smaller role for theoretical accounts of the positive manifold than previously thought.
Objective
Spearman's notion of general intelligence (g) denotes the existence of a general mental ability that contributes to successful performance of diverse cognitive tasks. But, what cognitive processes underlie this g factor?
Method/Results
In this paper, I discuss several pieces of evidence that suggest that general intelligence largely relies on a basic capacity to regulate mental activity according to goals and intentions, allowing for the relatively fast and flexible adaptation to changing conditions, a mechanism prominently associated with the executive control of attention.
Conclusion
This body of evidence advocates for training attention as a strategy to promote people's mental capital. Some data to this respect show very exciting results, however, additional research is needed before we determine the nature of most effective interventions.
Articulatory rehearsal is assumed to benefit verbal working memory. Yet, there is no experimental evidence supporting a causal link between rehearsal and serial-order memory, which is one of the hallmarks of working memory functioning. Across four experiments, we tested the hypothesis that rehearsal improves working memory by asking participants to rehearse overtly and by instructing different rehearsal schedules. In Experiments 1a, 1b, and 2, we compared an instructed cumulative-rehearsal condition against a free-rehearsal condition. The instruction increased the prevalence of cumulative rehearsal, but recall performance remained unchanged or decreased compared to the free-rehearsal baseline. Experiment 2 also tested the impact of a fixed rehearsal instruction; this condition yielded substantial performance costs compared to the baseline. Experiment 3 tested whether rehearsals (according to an experimenter-controlled protocol) are beneficial compared to a matched articulatory suppression condition that blocked rehearsals of the memoranda. Again, rehearsing the memoranda yielded no benefit compared to articulatory suppression. In sum, our results are incompatible with the notion that rehearsal is beneficial to working memory.
People can rehearse to-be-remembered locations either overtly, using eye movements, or covertly, using only shifts of spatial attention. The present study examined whether the effectiveness of these two strategies depends on environmental support for rehearsal. In Experiment 1, when environmental support (i.e., the array of possible locations) was present and participants could engage in overt rehearsal during retention intervals, longer intervals resulted in larger spans, whereas in Experiment 2, when support was present but participants could only engage in covert rehearsal, longer intervals resulted in smaller spans. When environmental support was absent, however, longer retention intervals resulted in smaller memory spans regardless of which rehearsal strategies were available. In Experiment 3, analyses of participants’ eye movements revealed that the presence of support increased participants’ fixations of to-be-remembered target locations more than fixations of non-targets, and that this was associated with better memory performance. Further, although the total time fixating targets increased, individual target fixations were actually briefer. Taken together, the present findings suggest that in the presence of environmental support, overt rehearsal is more effective than covert rehearsal at maintaining to-be-remembered locations in working memory, and that having more time for overt rehearsal can actually increase visuospatial memory spans.
In this follow-up to my 2002 article on working memory capacity, fluid intelligence, and executive attention in Current Directions in Psychological Science, I review even more evidence supporting the idea that the ability to control one’s attention (i.e., executive attention) is important to working memory and fluid intelligence. I now argue that working memory tasks reflect primarily the maintenance of information, whereas fluid intelligence tests reflect primarily the ability to disengage from recently attended and no longer useful information. I also point out some conclusions in the 2002 article that now appear to be wrong.
Refreshing and elaboration are cognitive processes assumed to underlie verbal working-memory maintenance and assumed to support long-term memory formation. Whereas refreshing refers to the attentional focussing on representations, elaboration refers to linking representations in working memory into existing semantic networks. We measured the impact of instructed refreshing and elaboration on working and long-term memory separately, and investigated to what extent both processes are distinct in their contributions to working as well as long-term memory. Compared with a no-processing baseline, immediate memory was improved by repeating the items, but not by refreshing them. There was no credible effect of elaboration on working memory, except when items were repeated at the same time. Long-term memory benefited from elaboration, but not from refreshing the words. The results replicate the long-term memory benefit for elaboration, but do not support its beneficial role for working memory. Further, refreshing preserves immediate memory, but does not improve it beyond the level achieved without any processing.
Two converging approaches tested the assertion that the capacity limit of short-term memory span (seven plus/minus two 'chunks') is related to a fundamental limit in 'working memory' of information processing. Each approach led to findings that deny this hypothesis. The first approach examined performance when subjects determine which digit is missing when eight different digits appear sequentially in random order. Although this task requires memory for digits, it does not exhibit the properties of short-term memory span (sensitivity to rhythmic patterning and acoustic/articulatory interference). Thus, there must be a working memory that is distinct from the span memory of an ordered-recall task. The second approach required that subjects perform information-processing tasks during the retention interval of memory span. According to the hypothesis that working memory and memory span are equivalent, interference should occur in this paradigm. There was no such interference provided that an initial rehearsal period for the memory span was allowed prior to the intervening task.
We investigated the role of two kinds of attention - visual and central attention - for the maintenance of visual representations in working memory (WM). In Experiment 1 we directed attention to individual items in WM by presenting cues during the retention interval of a continuous delayed-estimation task, and instructing participants to think of the cued items. Attending to items improved recall commensurate with the frequency with which items were attended (0, 1, or 2 times). Experiments 1 and 3 further tested which kind of attention - visual or central - was involved in WM maintenance. We assessed the dual-task costs of two types of distractor tasks, one tapping sustained visual attention and one tapping central attention. Only the central attention task yielded substantial dual-task costs, implying that central attention substantially contributes to maintenance of visual information in WM. Experiment 2 confirmed that the visual-attention distractor task was demanding enough to disrupt performance in a task relying on visual attention. We combined the visual-attention and the central-attention distractor tasks with a multiple object tracking (MOT) task. Distracting visual attention, but not central attention, impaired MOT performance. Jointly, the three experiments provide a double dissociation between visual and central attention, and between visual WM and visual object tracking: Whereas tracking multiple targets across the visual filed depends on visual attention, visual WM depends mostly on central attention.
Working memory (WM) holds and manipulates representations for ongoing cognition. Oberauer (Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 51, 45–100, 2009) distinguishes between two analogous WM sub-systems: a declarative WM which handles the objects of thought, and a procedural WM which handles the representations of (cognitive) actions. Here, we assessed whether analogous effects are observed when participants switch between memory sets (declarative representations) and when they switch between task sets (procedural representations). One mechanism assumed to facilitate switching in procedural WM is the inhibition of previously used, but currently irrelevant task sets, as indexed by n-2 task-repetition costs (Mayr & Keele, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(1), 4–26, 2000). In this study we tested for an analogous effect in declarative WM. We assessed the evidence for n-2 list-repetition costs across eight experiments in which participants switched between memory lists to perform speeded classifications, mental arithmetic, or a local recognition test. N-2 list-repetition costs were obtained consistently in conditions assumed to increase interference between memory lists, and when lists formed chunks in long-term memory. Further analyses across experiments revealed a substantial contribution of episodic memory to n-2 list-repetition costs, thereby questioning the interpretation of n-2 repetition costs as reflecting inhibition. We reanalyzed the data of eight task-switching experiments, and observed that episodic memory also contributes to n-2 task-repetition costs. Taken together, these results show analogous processing principles in declarative and procedural WM, and question the relevance of inhibitory processes for efficient switching between mental sets.
Objectives: Healthy aging is associated with a decline in visuospatial working memory. The nature of the changes leading to this decline in response of the eye and/or hand is still under debate. This study aims to establish whether impairments observed in performance on cognitive tasks are due to actual cognitive effects or are caused by motor-related eye–hand coordination. Methods: We implemented a computerized version of the Corsi span task. The eye and touch responses of healthy young and older adults were recorded to a series of remembered targets on a screen. Results: Results revealed differences in fixation strategies between the young and the old with increasing cognitive demand, which resulted in higher error rates in the older group. We observed increasing reaction times and durations between fixations and touches to targets, with increasing memory load and delays in both the eye and the hand in the older adults. Discussion: Our results show that older adults have difficulty maintaining a “preparatory set” for durations longer than 5 s and with increases in memory load. Attentional differences cannot account for our results, and differences in age groups appear to be principally memory related. Older adults reveal poorer eye–hand coordination, which is further confounded by increasing delay and complexity.