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Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH Vol. XXII, ISSUE 1, 2022, Romania
The journal is indexed in: ERIH PLUS, Ebsco, SPORTDiscus, INDEX COPERNICUS JOURNAL MASTER LIST, DOAJ DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCES JOURNALS, Caby, Gale Cengage Learning, Cabell’s Directories
16
Science, Movement and Health, Vol. XXII, ISSUE 1, 2022
January 2022, 22 (1): 16 - 21
Original article
Effect of flywheel resistance exercises on oxidative stress and record level of 100m backstroke for
young swimmers
BAKRY Osama
1
, ELHABASHY Ahmed2, CAZAN Florin3, DRAGOMIR Lenuța3, AMR Hamza1
Abstract
Aim. Use of inertial flywheel for multi-directional movements in certain sporting conditions leads to greater improvements
in performance compared to conventional training. The aim of this study was to investigate effectiveness of flywheel
resistance exercises on oxidative stress and record level of 100m backstroke for young swimmers.
Methods. The main sample was selected from the Benha Sports Club, (22) swimmers under 16 years old, and (4) juniors
were excluded as an exploratory study, so that the actual research sample consisted of (18) swimmers, samples were divided
equally into two groups, one experimental and the other control group. Experimental group practiced 10-weeks of flywheel
resistance training, and the control group practiced 10-weeks of traditional swimming training. The data collected before -
after the training programs for the two groups.
Results. Statistical analyses showed that: Significant Difference between the experimental group and control group in all
physical variables for posttest to the experimental group. Significant Difference between the experimental group and control
group in (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase, Malondialdehyde) for posttest to the experimental group. Significant
Difference between the experimental group and control group in in 100m backstroke record
Conclusions. Under the conditions of our article, the researcher conclusion that ten weeks of flywheel resistance training
contributed to improving oxidative stress and record level of 100m backstroke for young swimmers.
Key words: Flywheel Resistance Training, Power, 100m Backstroke.
Introduction
Muscles or muscle fibers can be activated while
maintaining their constant length (isometric contraction)
are "shortened" (concentric contraction) or "lengthened"
(eccentric contraction). In the latter scenario, the muscle-
tendon system is stretched allowing the performance of
negative work (e.g., deceleration) and the absorption of
mechanical energy, which can be dissipated as heat or
stored as elastic energy and recovered by immediate
concentric contraction.
Franchi et al. (2014) that resistance training (RT) can
be performed through (3) different types of muscle
movements, concentric, eccentric, isometric, and central
movement occurs when the muscle produces force as it
shortens; Extension actions occur when a muscle produces
force during its extensions; Isometric measures occur
1Faculty of physical education, Sohag University, Egypt
2Faculty of physical education, Benha University, Egypt
3Faculty of physical education, Ovidius University of Constanța, Romania
Received 15.11.2021 / Accepted 16.
12
.202
1
when a muscle produces a force without changing its
length.
It has been observed that the muscle activation strategy
used by the system is specific to the type of contraction
and that during eccentric contractions, although the
response of the motor cortex is increased, at the spinal
level there is an inhibition of the descending signals of
supraspinal areas (Enoka and Duchateau, 2016). This
would explain the fact that, compared to concentric
contractions, in the face of submaximal loads, the motor
units recruited and the rate of fire of these are lower, or
that during maximum contractions the rate of fire and, in
some cases the voluntary activation, is lower. In short, that
the electrical signal that reaches the muscle is lower in
both maximum and submaximal eccentric contractions.
In this regard, Amr (2022) indicates that Eccentric
Overload Training using Flywheel is great interest in the
Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH Vol. XXII, ISSUE 1, 2022, Romania
The journal is indexed in: ERIH PLUS, Ebsco, SPORTDiscus, INDEX COPERNICUS JOURNAL MASTER LIST, DOAJ DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCES JOURNALS, Caby, Gale Cengage Learning, Cabell’s Directories
17
sports field, as it allows the athlete to move his maximum
capabilities from muscular strength to advanced levels.
Timmins et al. (2015) that the beginnings of
longitudinal overload training were in bodybuilding and
weightlifting halls, then sports scientists began subjecting
it to scientific experimentation to explore its multiple
benefits, and then it became a major part of the sports
teams’ programs, until it is now implemented with
advanced methods.
Schoenfeld (2016) points out that of these three
procedures, extension movements have been hypothesized
to be the most important when improving muscular
strength. This hypothesis is supported by findings that
lengthening exercise leads to higher levels of muscle
protein synthesis and a greater increase in intracellular
anabolic signaling and gene expression versus central
exercise.
Friedmann-Bette et al. (2010) that eccentric
contraction is an active movement of a muscle, as it is
lengthened under load. Prolongation is also known as
“negatives,” in old school bodybuilding gyms, and every
resistance lift we do in the gym will have an eccentric
element within.
For example, he adds, during a basic squat, the muscles
work eccentrically when descending. However,
lengthening training (also known as AEL - accentuated
eccentric loading) typically uses a variety of means to
overload the eccentric portion of the lift. This intense
(centered) longitudinal loading can take many different
forms, with some having more scientific reasons than
others.
Giovanni Fiorilli et al. (2020) that the inertial flywheel
method attributes its effectiveness to its combination of
the benefits of both variable resistance and extension
training with overload.
Amr (2022) points out that the use of the inertial
flywheel for multi-directional movements in certain
sporting conditions leads to greater improvements in
performance compared to conventional training.
Maroto-Izquierdo et al. (2017) that in flywheel
training, the athlete first uses force to speed it up, and then
uses force again to slow it down. This means that there is
constant resistance in both the "pull and return"
movements, ie in the phases of contraction by shortening
(central) and muscle lengthening (eccentric). Whereas
with conventional weights, the weight is fixed, so
resistance is only felt in the contraction (central) phase.
Festa et al. (2019) adds that with flywheel training, the
athlete feels resistance when going up and when squatting.
It uses its power to rotate the disk, and then to slow the
disk's momentum. This allows for increased continuous
muscle stimulation in both the central and eccentric
phases.
Amr (2022) indicates that the flywheel tool, which is
commercially called the kBox, is a simple and easy tool to
manufacture, as it is a wooden box, a double rope, and a
small iron bar with an iron reel, at the end of which a
rotating disk (with multiple weights) is attached.
During the last decade, both physical exercise and
certain dietary models have been widely studied as
important inducers of oxidative stress.
Free radicals are highly reactive compounds that are
produced because of metabolic activity of cells in
biological systems. Both aerobic and anaerobic physical
exercise cause an increase in the production of different
free radicals.
Leeuwenburgh, Heinecke (2001) Oxidative stress
during physical exercise has been introduced as a cause of
damage at the level of the myocyte membrane, which
leads to an exacerbated inflammatory response, and
consequently to the suffering of excessive pain and muscle
fatigue after exercise. However, in the current literature
there are obvious discrepancies, both in the presence of
oxidative stress associated with different efforts, and in the
adaptive phenomena that could result if this imbalance
persists during a given period. Possibly, the main
determinants of these discrepancies are the high reactivity
and short half-life of free radicals.
Amr (2022) Fernandezto et al. (2009) indicated that
physical exercise in varying degrees, induces metabolic
and mechanical stress that can cause an imbalance of
oxidant/antioxidant homeostasis in favor of oxidizing
compounds. Not one, but several physiological
mechanisms, are involved in production of more free
radicals during exercise; but in addition, there are other
factors extrinsic to exercise (oxidative risk factors) that
can favor the occurrence of oxidative stress, such as diet,
postprandial situation, temperature, degree of hydration,
level of training of the individual, etc. Although oxidative
stress is potentially relevant among the mechanisms linked
to muscle fatigue, recovery from exercise, and perhaps
even also for better sports performance, there is a growing
number of publications that link it with the occurrence of
adaptive phenomena of the immune system and
antioxidant defense of the athlete, which ultimately leads
to greater cytoprotecting and biological resistance of the
organism.
Some coaches believes that swimming is 80%
technical and 20% physical condition to highlight the
enormous importance of performing a good technical
gesture in this sport and the effects that an improvement
in efficiency can have on swimming speed. mainly
because the aquatic environment is 800 times denser than
air and knowing how to move properly in this adverse
environment is essential.
Aim of this study was to investigate effectiveness of
flywheel resistance exercises on oxidative stress and
record level of 100m backstroke for young swimmers
Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH Vol. XXII, ISSUE 1, 2022, Romania
The journal is indexed in: ERIH PLUS, Ebsco, SPORTDiscus, INDEX COPERNICUS JOURNAL MASTER LIST, DOAJ DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCES JOURNALS, Caby, Gale Cengage Learning, Cabell’s Directories
18
Methods
The main sample was selected from the Benha Sports
Club, (22) swimmers under 16 years old, and (4) juniors
were excluded as an exploratory study, so that the actual
research sample consisted of (18) swimmers, samples
were divided equally into two groups, one experimental
and the other control group. Experimental group practiced
10-weeks of flywheel resistance training, and the control
group practiced 10-weeks of traditional swimming
training. The data collected before - after the training
programs for the two groups.
Data collection tools.
• Stadiometer to measure the length to the nearest
1 cm
• Medical scale to measure weight in kilograms to
the nearest 1/2 kg
• Measuring tape for lengths to the nearest 1 cm
• A 30w Casio stopwatch is recorded to the nearest
1/100th of a second .
• A dynamometer to measure the strength of the
muscles of the legs and back - to the nearest 1 kg
• Grip dynamometer to measure grip strength
(right and left) to the nearest 1 kg
• Jump boxes
• Bars
• kBox
• swimming pool (50m)
• Plastic syringes
• Blood Collection Tube
• Cotton
• Ice tank
Physical tests.
• Testing the strength of the leg’s muscles using a
dynamometer.
• Testing the strength of the back muscles using a
dynamometer.
• Grip strength test (right and left)
• Testing the muscular ability of the legs (vertical
jump from a step up).
• Testing the muscular ability of the arms
(throwing a medical ball weighing 3 kg).
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were calculated by the SPSS
statistical package version 26. The results were reported
as means and standard deviations (SD). Differences
between two groups reported as mean difference.
Confidence intervals (± 95%). Student’s t-test for groups
were used to determine the differences.
Results.
Table 1. Characteristics of the two groups (Mean ± SD)
Group
N
Age [years]
Weight [kg]
Height [cm]
Experimental
9
15.12 ± 0.3
55.00 ± 3.9
167 ± 3.80
Control
9
12.09 ± 0.6
53.14 ± 4.7
155 ± 3.60
Table 1 shows characteristics of the two groups. There were no significant differences observed in the variables between
the different groups.
Table 2. Differences significant between the posttests for the two Groups (experimental and control) in physical
variables
Variables
Experimental group
Control group
Sign.
After
After
Medicine ball throw (3kg)
6.40 ±0.11
6.20 ±0.13
S
Leg strength
82.14 ±3.47
78.34 ±3.52
S
Back strength
79.63 ±3.50
74.11 ±3.28
S
Grip Strength (Right)
23.91 ±2.67
21.48 ±1.97
S
Grip Strength (Lift)
21.15 ±2.30
19.08±2.00
S
Table 2 shows that:
• Significant Difference between the experimental group and control group in all physical variables for posttest
to the experimental group.
Table 3. Differences significant between the posttests for the two Groups (experimental and control) in oxidative
stress variables
Variables
Experimental group
Control group
Sign.
After
After
Superoxide dismutase (ng/ml)
68.57 ±7.14
59.14 ±8.17
S
Catalase (pg/ml)
63.92 ±8.16
57.11 ±10.20
S
Malondialdehyde (nmol/ml)
15.65 ±2.08
18.27 ±2.19
S
Table 3 shows that:
• Significant Difference between the experimental group and control group in (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase,
Malondialdehyde) for posttest to the experimental group.
Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH Vol. XXII, ISSUE 1, 2022, Romania
The journal is indexed in: ERIH PLUS, Ebsco, SPORTDiscus, INDEX COPERNICUS JOURNAL MASTER LIST, DOAJ DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCES JOURNALS, Caby, Gale Cengage Learning, Cabell’s Directories
19
Table 4. Differences significant between the posttests for the two Groups (experimental and control) in 100m
backstroke record
Variables
Experimental group
Control group
Sign.
After
After
100m backstroke record
58.14 ±0.78
59.89 ±0.67
S
Table 4 shows that:
• Significant Difference between the experimental group and control group in in 100m backstroke record.
Discussion
The researchers attributed those differences in the
physical variables to the good planning of the program of
longitudinal overload exercises, and the legalization of the
training loads in a scientific manner appropriate to the
dental and training phase of the research sample, and to
the use of rotating wheel exercises as a main part of the
longitudinal overload exercises with the aim of developing
muscular strength of both types, maximum strength, and
ability.
In this regard, Schoenfeld, (2016) confirms that
eccentric exercises are the most important when
improving muscle strength. This hypothesis is supported
by findings that lengthening exercise leads to higher levels
of muscle protein synthesis and a greater increase in
intracellular anabolic signaling and gene expression
versus central exercise.
Amr (2022) asserts that greater intensity can be
obtained through supramaximal eccentric training. This
has several positive effects, as more strength means more
adaptation. Extension training does this by increasing
neural drive levels.
Friedmann-Bette et al. (2010) It has been shown that
lengthening training also enables preferential recruitment
of HTMUs (high-threshold motor units), which has been
shown to increase force production.
Amr (2022) asserts that eccentric overload training
enables the athlete to develop strength across the full range
of motion. Thus, the force is generated in long, medium,
and short muscle lengths, maximizing the positive effect
in developing muscle strength in addition to preventing
injuries, as the force is effectively generated to prevent
injury.
Anderson & Aagard (2010) add that preferential
recruitment of type II fibers can be obtained through
lengthening overload exercises – these fibers have a
greater growth potential than type I fibers and are arguably
more important fibers for high-intensity activities such as
volleyball. soccer, swimming.
Roig, et al. (2009) confirms. that there is a growing
body of studies showing that eccentric overload training
has a greater effect on muscle strength when compared to
core training.
Amr (2022) asserts that eccentric overload exercises
cause an increase in the number of sarcomeres within the
chain, allowing muscle shortening to occur at greater
speeds in the bundles.
Wahab (1998) indicates that despite the devastating
effects of Free Radicals, we need them to live, but in small
proportions, and because they work with the immune
system in preventing some diseases that invade the body
and help in regulating muscle and water contraction. It
also helps in blood flow processes by stimulating the
muscle tone of these blood vessels
Abul-Ela (1999) adds that the accumulation of oxygen
atoms in large proportions in cells causes damage to the
components of the muscle cell, especially (DNA).
Leeuwenburgh & Powers (1999) add that free radicals
are a natural product of chemical reactions and metabolic
processes that occur within the body, and that the increase
in free radicals is an indicator of fatigue and muscle stress.
Vasankari et al. (1996) indicated that free radicals are
characterized by a short lifespan, which makes it difficult
to measure them, but their presence and percentages can
be inferred by identifying the ratios of MDA in blood or
urine.
While Friedmann-Bette et al. (2010) show that
longitudinal overload exercises improve satellite cell
reproduction and activation in type II muscle fibers.
Blazevich et al (2007) adds that satellite cells are cells
that donate their muscle nuclei to another cell (in this case
muscle fibers), allowing greater control over a group of
muscle fibers. The easiest way to think about it is to
imagine muscle as an airport: satellite cells are like control
towers, and runways are muscle fibers. If we only had one
control tower, only a few runways could be had before the
control tower could no longer handle aircraft traffic. And
if we want to increase airport capacity, we need more
control towers - and with more control towers, we could
create more runways (muscle fibers). And if, during the
lift, we can put in more satellite cells, then we could put in
a lot of passages (muscle fibers).
In this direction confirm Douglas et al. (2016) that
eccentric overload exercises depend on the principle of
reversibility. Even if aircraft traffic stops, the control
towers remain, so there is still potential for growth if
aircraft traffic returns. Therefore, when someone stops
training for an extended period, they can bulk up much
faster than someone who has never trained before. For this
reason, there is a strong case for exposing young athletes
to this type of training to place satellite cells early and give
them greater potential for growth at a later age.
Verkhoshansky & Verkhoshansky (2011) confirm that
the vertical jump distance depends on the number of
Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH Vol. XXII, ISSUE 1, 2022, Romania
The journal is indexed in: ERIH PLUS, Ebsco, SPORTDiscus, INDEX COPERNICUS JOURNAL MASTER LIST, DOAJ DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCES JOURNALS, Caby, Gale Cengage Learning, Cabell’s Directories
20
excited fibers. The higher the number of fibers, the greater
the ability to perform, as well as the muscles and their
tendons. For the athlete to reach the maximum distance,
all muscle fibers of the muscles involved in the work must
be excited to the maximum degree and at the highest rate.
This is confirmed by Adams et al. (1992) that the
activity of the elastic reflexology allows for an excellent
transfer of muscular power to the same biomechanically
similar movements that require a high capacity of the trunk
and legs.
Tillin, & Bishop (2009) stress that the increased
actions of motor units induced by heavy loads or resulting
from short-term high intensity movements, results in an
increase in the number of motor or recruited units (higher
threshold motor units) in addition to an increase in the rate
of firing of these motor units.
The results of the study constant with those of (Suarez-
Arrones, et al. 2018; Francisco Javier, et al. 2018; Luca
Festa, et al. 2019; Joey Brien, et al. 2020; Giovanni
Fiorilli, et al. 2020; Alejandro Azze, et al. 2020) that
eccentric overload training contributes to improving the
performance of the vertical jump, and the muscular
endurance of the experimental group.
Conclusion
Under the conditions of our article, the researcher
conclusion that ten weeks of flywheel resistance training
contributed to improving oxidative stress and record level
of 100m backstroke for young swimmers.
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