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Volume 5, Issue 2, November 2022 Page 29–42
Keywords:
cosmetic surgery
liposuction
Brazilian Bu Lift
courtship behavior
Nigeria
Liposuction and Brazilian Bu Lift have been identied as the most common
cosmetic surgeries performed worldwide. In Nigeria, the appeal and
demand for liposuction and gluteal augmentation (Brazilian Bu Lift) has
increased with many women opting for it and highlighting its benets in
the media. This study investigates this new trend and its implications for
courtship behavior. The study adopts the Self-discrepancy Theory and the
Theory of Value as theoretical framework which in adjunct explains the
issues associated with body modications and its implications for courtship
behavior. The cross-sectional survey design was adopted, and data were
collected using questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and peer-reviewed
journals. The study was conducted in four States in Nigeria. The sample
size for the study is 410. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and
thematic analysis. The result of this study has shown that whereas women
have dierent psychosocial reasons for opting for cosmetic surgery, this
new trend unintendedly impacts the perception of men about women and
courtship behavior. The study recommends regular public health education
on the ramications of cosmetic surgeries. Also, there is the need to introduce
psychological screening in the procedures for cosmetic surgeries which helps
to inuence the choices of women on cosmetic surgery.
Nwakanma, E. (2022). Liposuction and Brazilian Bu Lift (BBL): New trends in body augmentation and
implications for courtship behavior in Nigeria. Simulacra, 5(2), 29–42. hps://doi.org/10.21107/sml.v5i2.16379
Received 13 August 2022; Received in revised form 7 October 2022; Accepted 29 October 2022; Published online
25 November 2022.
augmentation and implications for courtship behavior in
Nigeria
Emmanuel Nwakanma1*
1 Department of Sociology, University of Port Harcourt, East/West Road, PMB 5323 Choba, Rivers State,
Nigeria 510241
* Corresponding author
E-mail address: emmanuel.nwakanma@uniport.edu.ng
DOI: hps://doi.org/10.21107/sml.v5i2.16379
Simulacra | ISSN: 2622-6952 (Print), 2656-8721 (Online)
hps://journal.trunojoyo.ac.id/simulacra
30
Emmanuel Nwakanma
Introduction
With a vast range of technology to
enhance, reconstruct, and beautify the
body, cosmetic surgery has become one of
the most sought-after medical procedures
globally. Studies by Kumar (2022), Tabin,
(2022), Bizot (2021), Valina and Sessa
(2020), and Madar (2017) have shown that
cosmetic surgery, particularly liposuction
and gluteal augmentation (popularly known
as Brazilian Bu Lift or BBL), has become
fashionable in recent times, and a signicant
portion of global travels for health reasons
and medical tourism involves cosmetic
procedures. Statistics from the International
Society for Plastic Surgery and the American
Society of Plastic Surgeons show that there
has been an upward surge in demands
for cosmetic surgery procedures globally
(ASPS, 2020; Valina & Sessa, 2020). Similarly,
the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic
Surgery (ISAPS) (2022); John Hopkins (2019),
Moeller-Medical (2019) and the American
Society of Plastic Surgeons (2018) reveal that
demand for cosmetic treatments has not only
increased in the last few years, cosmetic facial
plastic surgeries and aesthetic procedures
such as liposuction (body contouring),
mastopexy (breast lift), mammoplasty (breast
augmentation), blepharoplasty (eyelid surgery),
abdominoplasty (tummy tuck), rhinoplasty
(nasal reconstruction), rhytidectomy (facelift),
and labiaplasty (vagina rejuvenation), have
today become luxury goods in the medical
market place.
According to ISAPS (2022), Michas
(2022) and McCarthy (2021), in 2020 alone
there were 1,525,197 liposuction procedures
recorded across the globe which accounted
for 15.1% of the total cosmetic surgical
procedures completed in that year; while
breast augmentation was the most popular
cosmetic surgery worldwide with over
1,624,281 procedures recorded in 2020
also. Eyelid surgery likewise came third
as the most sought-after surgery with just
under 1.3 million procedures (Michas, 2022;
McCarthy, 2021). In 2019, data from ISAPS
(2020) reveal that 11.36 million plastic
surgery procedures were completed around
the world, which represents a 7.1 per cent
increase in cosmetic procedures in 2018,
and a 20.6 per cent increase in those in 2015.
Statistics from Grand View Research (2022)
also show that the market for global cosmetic
surgery devices which was valued at USD
2.6 billion in 2021, is expected to expand at
a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
of 12.5% from 2022 to 2030. This indicates
an apparent increasing demand for body
augmentation procedures globally.
The increasing appeal for cosmetic
surgeries is aected by many things;
however, common predisposing factors
include issues related to dysmorphic
disorder, dissatisfaction with body mass or
shape, and changing denitions of beauty
and appearance in society (Garcia, 2014;
Slevec & Tiggemann, 2010; Swami, 2009).
Similarly, Valina and Sessa (2020) explained
that consideration of cosmetic surgery was
signicantly predicted by new denitions of
a perfect body as presented in media. Kumar
(2022) has also noted that trim bodies and big
bus have become normalized today, with a
lot of media personalities, entertainers and
social media inuencers promoting it or
highlighting the beauty of their new body.
Following this, a publication by Vogue
Magazine declared that “We’re ocially in
the era of the Big Booty” where a woman’s
appeal is largely measured by her body
shape, especially the prominence of her
buocks (Madar, 2017; Garcia, 2014). This
suggests that body modications, especially
liposuction and BBL, have become aesthetic
today and more persons are increasingly
requesting them.
The Brazilian Bu Lift is a cosmetic
procedure that reshapes the buocks to
highlight either a pear-shaped body or an
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 29–42
31
‘hour-glass’ physique. The procedure often
requires liposuction, which involves moving
fat from various body areas (typically the
stomach, thighs, or back) to the buocks
(Kumar, 2022; Tabin, 2022; Stephan, et al,
2018). Thus, the buocks appear well-
shaped and prominent with unusually
high levels of fat compared to the rest of
the body. Women who aspire to have the
ideal physique resort to cosmetic surgery
to improve their appearance and cover up
perceived physiologic aws (Tabin, 2022;
Valina & Sessa, 2020). As exciting as the
outcomes are, the American Society of Plastic
Surgeons opine that the BBL-related death
rate is the highest of all procedures, with fat
embolism being the leading cause of death
(The Guardian, 2021; This day, 2021).
Kita (2020) and ISAPS (2020) noted that
the number of Brazilian Bu Lifts rose by
77.6% since 2015, and liposuction became the
second favorite cosmetic surgical procedure
in the world, and Silicone implants which
were once banned as a health risk are
increasing now in popularity with more
women opting for implants. Similarly,
Tabin (2022), Bizot (2021), Stephan, et al
(2018), Agullo, et al (2011), have found that
liposuction and the BBL have become the
world’s fastest-growing cosmetic surgeries,
despite mounting concerns over the health
implications of the procedure such as the
high mortality rate and implications for fat
embolism, kidney and heart problems. Risks
and challenges associated with liposuction
and BBL include psychological, social
and health risks such as unsatisfactory
aesthetic results (e.g., contour irregularities,
asymmetry body shapes, excessive or
unfavorable scarring, etc.), dissatisfaction
with surgery outcomes and need for
secondary surgeries, risk of addiction,
severe nerve damage, anesthesia risks (e.g.,
shock, respiratory failure, allergic reactions,
cardiac arrest, coma, etc.), and in some cases
death (ASPS, 2021; Kita, 2020); while the
gains are mainly increased self-esteem, relief
from social anxiety and social acceptance,
revitalized appearance and younger looks,
and a healthier life owing to reduction in
body fat and weight (Climan, 2022; Stephan,
et al, 2018; Agullo, Palladino & Sozer, 2011).
Succinctly put, liposuction and BBL are
mainly surgical solutions for unwanted body
shapes that come with their risks and in spite
the unique benets.
The cosmetic surgery industry has
also witnessed a signicant increase
in activity, recognition and revenue
generation in Nigeria, with more persons,
particularly women, opting for body
shape reconstruction, breast lift and
augmentation, labiaplasty, and gluteal
augmentation. According to data available
to The Guardian (2021) and This day (2021),
costing an average of $5000 or N2.08million,
liposuction and BBL are the most requested
surgical procedures in Lagos and Abuja
where most surgery clinics are located.
Whereas the health implications of cosmetic
surgeries (including liposuction and BBL
procedures) have been widely researched,
very lile has been done in assessing its
social impacts, particularly on human social
behavior in Nigeria. For instance, human
courtship behavior, (which is basically how
humans rationalize the selection of partners
for intimate relationships and marriage), is
believed to be inuenced by several factors
including physical appearance, character,
intelligence level, mental health, and other
social information such as profession,
nancial status, and social class (Bracke,
2016; Olusola, 2015; Alavi, et al, 2014; Oladeji
& Ariyo, 2014; Prince, 1961).
In this study, it is hypothesized that,
while many women have good reasons
for choosing cosmetic surgery, it may
be aecting courtship behavior and the
chances of having a commied intimate
relationship. Specically, men may be less
inclined to be commiedly involved with
32
Emmanuel Nwakanma
women who have had body modications
partly because they are aware that the new
body is somewhat articial. In light of this,
the purpose of this study was to examine
the concerns surrounding the current trend
in body enhancement in Nigeria, as well
as the consequences for courting behavior.
Key objectives of the study include:
investigating the common reasons women
have for undergoing liposuction and BBL;
investigating the psychosocial outcomes of
the procedure on women; examining the
perception of men about women having
body modication surgeries, and assessing
how men feel about dating or being in
commied relationships with women that
have had liposuction or BBL, and analyzing
how liposuction and BBL procedures impact
on the courtship behavior of men in Nigeria.
The cross-sectional survey design was
adopted for this study. The study was
conducted in four (4) areas in Nigeria, namely:
Lagos State, FCT (Abuja), Rivers State and
Kano State. These areas were preferred
owing to their cosmopolitan nature and the
presence of various cosmetic surgery clinics
in the cities. As shown in Table 1, whereas the
selected cities have an expansive population
with varying annual population changes,
data from the National Bureau of Statistics
in 2006 put the total male population of
Lagos State, Rivers State, Federal Capital
Territory (FCT) and Kano State at 13,073,275.
The study employed a combination of non-
probability sampling techniques, such
as purposive and convenience sampling
techniques. Firstly, a sample of 400 was
derived from a population of 13,073.275
using the Taro Yamane formula (at a 0.05
error margin). This sample is entirely male
and was distributed proportionally across
the selected cities (see Table 1). Furthermore,
to elicit qualitative data, ten (10) females
who have had at least one type of liposuction
or BBL were identied and included in the
Interview; thus, making the sample size 410.
Distribution of sample size across selected cities
S/N States Sample
size
1. Lagos State 4,719,125 144 3
2. FCT (Abuja) 733,172 23 3
3. Rivers State 2,673,026 82 2
4. Kano State 4,947,952 151 2
5. Total 13,073,275 400 10
Source: Field survey, 2022; Brinkho, 2017.
The study relied on both primary and
secondary sources of data. Primary data for
this study were gathered through the use of
a semi-structured questionnaire based on the
objectives of the study. The questionnaire
was designed in sections to cover the socio-
demographic information of the respondents
as well as their experiences and perception of
cosmetic surgery. To considerably increase
the validity and the generalizability of the
research ndings, the study combined the
questionnaires with In-Depth Interviews
(IDI). A pilot study was conducted with 10%
of the sample size in one of the States (i.e.,
Rivers State). Thereafter, adjustments were
made where necessary before proceeding
with the actual study. The reliability of the
quantitative data was determined using
Cronbach’s alpha which yielded a coecient
level of α = 0.7 indicating strong reliability
with a high level of internal consistency
based on the average inter-item correlation.
Secondary data used in the study were
extracted from peer-reviewed journals,
newspaper publications, online reviews,
crowdsourcing sites and trend magazines.
Data collected for the study were analyzed
using univariate analysis and descriptive
statistics. Methods such as percentage
analysis, distribution tables, and charts were
used to analyze all variables considered
suitable for univariate analysis. Thematic
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 29–42
33
analysis and narrative analysis were also
used to evaluate and present the data from
the interviews. It is important to note that
the study considered all ethical concerns for
a study of this nature and adhered strictly to
informed consent, voluntary participation,
anonymity, data condentiality, non-
malfeasance to participants, and privacy, as
recommended by Nigeria’s National Code
of Health Research (NCHR) and the Helsinki
Declaration of 1964, which governs human
participants in human-related research.
Socio-demographic information of the
respondents
As shown in Table 2, the survey
respondents were both male (n=400) and
female (n=10). The male respondents for
the study were largely within the age range
of 38 – 47 years, (i.e., 35.3%), and were
mostly Christians (49.3%); however, 26.3%
indicated that they are Muslims, while 8.5%
indicated belonging to other faiths such as
Eckankar and Agnostic religion. Most of the
male respondents, i.e., 47.8%, have tertiary
education, and only 32.5% were married at
the time of the study. The female participants
selected for the In-Depth Interview, on the
other hand, were mostly between the age
of 28 – 37 years. Furthermore, 49.3% were
Christians, while 26.3% were Muslims. While
47.8% have aained tertiary education,
24.3% have post-Graduate degrees and
other professional qualications. Also, 32.5%
indicated that they were married, 24.8%
were dating, 17.0% were cohabiting, and
the remaining 9.3% of the respondents were
either divorced or separated at the time of
the study.
Reasons women give for having
liposuction and BBL procedures
On the reasons women give for having
cosmetic surgeries such as BBL, analysis of
data from the In-Depth Interviews revealed
four (4) themes, namely:
1) Liposuction and BBL are done to improve
their beauty and appearance: Some of the
interview participants mentioned that
the reason for having a procedure was
to improve their beauty and appearance.
For instance, some of the participants
explained that:
“I have always wanted a slimmer midri, and
when the opportunity presented itself, I had to
go in for it. However, asides from working on my
tummy and waist, I rmed up my, you know...
backside… (smiles)” (Omolara, Lagos State,
Female, 35 yrs.).
Socio-demographic information of the
Respondents
Categories Variables Freq Freq
Age 18 – 27 68 17.0 2 20.0
28 – 37 91 22.8 4 40.0
38 – 47 141 35.3 3 30.0
48 – 57 100 25.0 1 10.0
Religion Christianity 197 49.3 4 40.0
Islam 105 26.3 3 30.0
African
Tradition
64 16.0 1 10.0
Others 34 8.5 2 20.0
Education
level
Primary
education
26 6.5 1 10.0
Secondary
education
86 21.5 2 20.0
Tertiary
education
191 47.8 5 50.0
Others 97 24.3 2 20.0
Relationship
status
Unmarried 66 16.5 2 20.0
Dating 99 24.8 3 30.0
Cohabiting 68 17.0 3 30.0
Married 130 32.5 1 10.0
Others 37 9.3 1 10.0
Source: Field survey, 2022.
34
Emmanuel Nwakanma
Another participant from Rivers State
expressed that:
“This cosmetic thing gives women an opportunity
to look beer. For instance, this is my third
procedure. First, I did a pointed nose, then I had
my waist and tummy reshaped., and I can tell I
look more aractive now… I feel more alluring”
(Boma, Rivers State, Female, 33 yrs.).
2) Liposuction and BBL are done to
correct perceived physiological aws:
The interviews also revealed that some
women had liposuctions and BBL simply
to correct perceived bodily aws. Below
is an illustrative account of one of the
participants:
“It is true that many people do these surgeries to
look preier; but for me, it wasn’t so. I had tried
losing fat through exercise and it wasn’t working.
Even though I was aractive to many, I still felt
awed. So, I had to go for a body modication
and all the excess fat was moved to my behind”
(Jasmine, FCT-Abuja, Female, 43 yrs.).
3) Liposuction and BBL are done to improve
social networks: Some of the participants
also explained that they had liposuction
and BBL procedures largely to enhance
their social network, including geing
certain jobs and ing into certain social
roles. For instance, one of the participants
opined that:
“As a social media inuencer and a model, there
are certain jobs that come to you and you need to
fully t into the physical and social characteristics
required. I sell certain products online, such as
enhancement products, cosmetics and all that.
So, I had to look prim for the representative role
(sic)” (Kafayat, Kano State, Female, 38 yrs.).
4) Liposuction and BBL are done to meet
intimate partner’s needs: Asides from
the earlier reasons identied, some
participants also noted that women
sometimes do cosmetic surgeries,
including BBL, to please their intimate
partners. For instance, one of the
participants specied that:
“Actually, it is my ancé that suggested I go
for surgery. He preferred me more noticeable in
certain places… laughs… so he convinced me to
(sic)” (Bintu, Lagos State, Female, 27 yrs.).
Subjective ratings of psychosocial
outcomes of liposuction and BBL
cosmetic procedures
The survey also examined the
psychosocial outcomes of liposuction
and BBL cosmetic procedures on women.
Thematic analysis of qualitative data from
the study revealed two (2) key observations
which illustrates how respondents feel about
their cosmetic surgery:
(1) Some women are satised with the
outcomes of the procedure as it has
helped them gain self-esteem, social
condence, and improvement in sexual
relationships. For instance, some of the
participants noted that:
“I am actually glad that I did the surgery. It
was scary at rst, but I feel wonderful today. I
feel more positively treated by my social circle.
When I walk into a place, I’m more condent”
(Temidayo, Kano State, Female, 37 yrs.).
“The procedures can be costly and scary, but
the outcomes are satisfactory. Women should do
what makes them feel good. That is how I feel…”
(smiles) (Nkechi, Rivers State, Female, 40 yrs.).
“Post-surgery, I always felt insecure among my
peers. I rst experimented with enhancement
drugs, they didn’t do much, until I tried this.
You can see me now… (chuckles)… So, it is quite
rewarding. I appear graceful now (sic)” (Belema,
FCT-Abuja, Female, 26 yrs.).
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 29–42
35
(2) However, some others expressed that
whereas the cosmetic surgeries were
successful, they still felt dissatised
with the new body or realized that
the procedure did not make them
exceptional:
“Well, I won’t deny I felt good at rst. But at a
point I started feeling o… like strange; as if I
am dierent. Sometimes I even feel people mock
me for having a surgery; like all the love and
admiration are fake… you get? (sic)” (Delight,
Abuja, Female, 32 yrs.).
“My intention was to look younger and more,
you know, aractive. However, I feel I am yet to
get there. If I had the resources, I would do some
more. I feel I’ve not goen the exact looks that I
wanted” (Blessing, Lagos State, 49 yrs.).
Perception of men about women having
cosmetic surgeries (e.g., BBL)
courtship behavior, the survey also examined
the perception of men about women who
have had such body beautifying surgeries.
As shown in Table 3, a majority of the
respondents, i.e., 79.8%, indicated that they
do not approve of such body beautifying
procedures including liposuction and BBL.
Only 8.5% were indierent while 11.8%
indicated that they approve of cosmetic
surgeries. This goes to show that more men
do not approve of cosmetic surgeries, even
though it is desirable for some.
Do you approve of such body beautifying
surgeries (e.g., BBL)?
Variables
No Total
18 - 27 11 2.8 49 12.3 8 2.0 68
28 - 37 14 3.5 66 16.5 11 2.8 91
38 - 47 14 3.5 118 29.5 9 2.3 141
48 - 57 8 2.0 86 21.5 61.5 100
Total 47 11.8 319 79.8 34 8.5 400
Source: Field survey, 2022.
Do you consider women who have had such
surgeries preier than women with a natural body?
Variables
No Total
18 – 27 9 2.3 50 12.5 9 2.3 68
28 – 37 11 2.8 70 17.5 10 2.5 91
38 – 47 9 2.3 120 30.0 12 3.0 141
48 – 57 9 2.3 75 18.8 16 4.0 100
Total 38 9.5 315 78.8 47 11.8 400
Source: Field survey, 2022.
Such cosmetic body modications will make a woman appear articial or unnatural
N Total
18 - 27 51.3 9 2.3 6 1.5 18 4.5 30 7.5 68
28 - 37 8 2.0 9 2.3 11 2.8 24 6.0 39 9.8 91
38 - 47 9 2.3 8 2.0 11 2.8 53 13.3 60 15.0 141
48 - 57 71.8 8 2.0 8 2.0 33 8.3 44 11.0 100
Total 29 7.3 34 8.5 36 9.0 128 32.0 173 43.3 400
Similarly, a majority of the respondent
also indicated that they do not consider
women that have had such body beautifying
surgeries preier than women who retain
their natural bodies (see Table 4). Only
9.5% of the respondents indicated that they
consider women that have had surgeries
preier, while the remaining 11.8% of the
respondents were indierent. This again
reveals that more men are not particularly
keen on cosmetic surgeries, except in life-
threatening situations.
In line with the aim of the study to
assess the impact of liposuction and BBL on
Source: Field survey, 2022.
36
Emmanuel Nwakanma
Furthermore, in Table 5, 43.3% of the
respondents strongly agree that cosmetic
surgeries such as liposuction and BBL done
to beautify the body only make the recipient
appear articial or unnatural. Another 32.0%
equally agreed while 9.0% were indierent.
Only 7.3% and 8.5% strongly disagree and
disagree respectively.
Assessment of how men feel about
dating women that have had their
bodies modied
On how men feel about dating/courting
women that have their body modied, 46.0%
and 28.0% of the respondents strongly agree
and agree respectively that whereas cosmetic
surgeries in totally an individual choice,
they would prefer their partner(s) without
such body modications. Only 9.5% strongly
disagree alongside another 8.3% that equally
disagree (see Table 6).
While cosmetic surgery is a choice, I prefer my partner without such body modications
Variables (Rel.) SD % D % N % A % SA % Total
Unmarried 71.8 71.8 61.5 17 4.3 29 7.3 66
Dating 10 2.5 8 2.0 61.5 22 5.5 53 13.3 99
Cohabiting 61.5 9 2.3 51.3 18 4.5 30 7.5 68
Married 12 3.0 6 1.5 12 3.0 45 11.3 55 13.8 130
Others 30.8 30.8 4 1.0 10 2.5 17 4.3 37
Total 38 9.5 33 8.3 33 8.3 112 28.0 184 46.0 400
Source: Field survey, 2022.
How do you feel about dating women who have had such cosmetic surgeries?
CSC NUn VU Total
Unmarried 8 2.0 61.5 11 2.8 26 6.5 15 3.8 66
Dating 9 2.3 12 3.0 12 3.0 47 11.8 19 4.8 99
Cohabiting 9 2.3 8 2.0 8 2.0 28 7.0 15 3.8 68
Married 11 2.8 10 2.5 8 2.0 54 13.5 47 11.8 130
Others 51.3 3 0.8 5 1.3 16 4.0 8 2.0 37
Total 42 10.5 39 9.8 44 11.0 171 42.8 104 26.0 400
Source: Field survey, 2022.
Furthermore, 42.8% of the respondents
indicated that they feel uncomfortable (Un)
dating women that have had such cosmetic
surgeries. Another 26.0% indicated they
feel very uncomfortable (VU); however,
10.5% indicated that they are comfortable
(C) dating a woman that has had cosmetic
surgery, while 9.8% noted that they are
somewhat comfortable (SC).
The survey also reveals in Figure 1 that
some men see women that are interested
in or have had liposuction or BBL cosmetic
surgeries as lacking self-esteem (43.0%),
having low self-worth (27.8%), and not
contented with their natural bodies (19.5%).
However, some of the respondents are of the
opinion that cosmetic surgery is a private
choice (4.5%), and women are free to improve
their beauty (5.3%).
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 29–42
37
Impact of cosmetic surgery (e.g.,
Liposuction, BBL) on courtship behavior
On how liposuction and BBL may be
impacting courtship behavior, the survey, in
Table 8, shows that 78.3% of the respondents
indicated yes that the new trend in cosmetic
surgeries contributes to the objectifying of
women as sex symbols, 12.0% indicated no,
while the remaining 9.8% were indierent.
Table 9 also show that while some of
the respondents strongly disagree (11.8%)
and disagree (14.5%), 45.0% and 22.0% of
the respondents strongly agree and agree
respectively that whereas men may nd
women who have had cosmetic body
surgeries aractive, they would not consider
them for a commied relationship (including
marriage).
Opinion on women opting for surgeries. Source: Field survey, 2022.
Do you think this new trend in body
beautication may be objectifying women as sex symbols?
Variables
No Total
Primary 16 4.0 5 1.3 51.3 26
Secondary 61 15.3 13 3.3 12 3.0 86
Tertiary 159 39.8 19 4.8 13 3.3 191
Others 77 19.3 11 2.8 9 2.3 97
Total 313 78.3 48 12.0 39 9.8 400
Source: Field survey, 2022.
Men may nd women who have had body surgeries aractive, but would
not consider them for a commied relationship (e.g., Marriage)
Variables
(Age)
SD %D%N%A%SA %Total
18 - 27 10 2.5 11 2.8 61.5 12 3.0 29 7.3 68
28 - 37 11 2.8 13 3.3 51.3 19 4.8 43 10.8 91
38 - 47 13 3.3 19 4.8 8 2.0 34 8.5 67 16.8 141
48 - 57 13 3.3 15 3.8 8 2.0 23 5.8 41 10.3 100
Total 47 11.8 58 14.5 27 6.8 88 22.0 180 45.0 400
Source: Field survey, 2022.
38
Emmanuel Nwakanma
From the results, it can be seen that the
predisposing factors for liposuction and BBL
procedures for women include improving
beauty and appearance, correction of
perceived physiological aws, improving
their social network, need to access certain
social roles and jobs, and the need to satisfy
the desires of an intimate partner. This
nding correlates with observations in the
works of Nikolic, et al (2013) and Brown, et al
(2007) that factors predicting the likelihood
of demand for aesthetic and unnecessary
(non-indicated) cosmetic surgery include
poor self-evaluation of measures of beauty
and aractiveness, desire to feel more
feminine, self-esteem and social acceptance
issues, etc. Similarly, Sharp (2008) noted
that body dissatisfaction largely contributes
to motivation for cosmetic surgeries, while
Slevec and Tiggemann (2010) observed
that the need to meet social standards of
beauty, ageing anxiety and media inuence
constitutes aitudes toward cosmetic surgery
in middle-aged women: body image, ageing
anxiety, and the media. The survey also
shows that on the psychosocial outcomes of
liposuction and BBL cosmetic procedures,
some women indicated that they were
satised with the outcomes of the procedure
as it has boosted their self-esteem, social
condence, and sexual relationships. This is
also consistent with the ndings of studies
such as Sharp (2018) and Brown, et al (2007)
which noted that women largely indicated
satisfaction with their procedures. However,
as Agullo, Palladino and Sozer (2011) found,
some women also expressed dissatisfaction
with their new body on realization that the
procedure did not make them exceptional.
On the perception of men about cosmetic
surgeries and courtship behavior, the
survey reveals that whereas some men were
disposed to cosmetic surgery, a majority
of the respondents indicated that they
do not approve of such body beautifying
procedures including liposuction and BBL.
The survey also shows that most men agree
that liposuction and BBL done to beautify
the body only make the recipient appear
articial or unnatural, and they would
prefer their partners without cosmetic
surgery. A publication by Hindustan Times
(2014) equally noted that most men express
a preference for natural beauty even though
some are aracted to women with cosmetic
modications. Additionally, ndings of this
study reveal that most men see women that
are interested in or have had liposuction and
BBL cosmetic surgeries as lacking self-esteem,
having low self-worth, and not content with
their natural bodies. In comparison, previous
studies by Sharp (2018) and Vartanian (2012)
equally reveal a relationship between self-
discrepancies in women and the preference
for cosmetic surgery. Interestingly, the study
also shows that liposuction and BBL surgeries
impact how men perceive women and the
objectication of women as sex symbols.
Above all, most men agree that whereas men
may nd women who have had cosmetic
body surgeries aractive, they would not
consider them for a commied relationship
(including marriage). While dierent
studies have shown similar correlations,
studies by Sun (2018) particularly arm
that materialism, self-objectication, and
capitalization of sexual aractiveness were
signicantly positively correlated with
cosmetic surgery consideration. This is
observed in this study to equally contribute
to men seeing women mainly as sex symbols
and less t for commied relationships.
The outcomes of this study nd meaning
in the Self Discrepancy Theory and the Theory
of Value which in adjunct explains how
the value people place on their appearance
kindles the need to seek body modication
surgeries, as well as how society perceives
the modication of what is deemed valuable.
The Self Discrepancy Theory, as developed
by Edward Tory Higgins in 1987, illustrates
how internal disagreement and awareness
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 29–42
39
of one’s appearance aws causes emotional
and psychological disorders. For Higgins
(1989), the theory provides a basis for
assessing how the discrepancies between
self-beliefs or self-state representation
are related to dierent kinds of human
emotional vulnerabilities and the tendency
to seek a camouage to conceal perceived
aws. Self-discrepancies play an important
role in the context of body image (Rodgers
& Rousseau, 2022; Heidarzadeh, et al, 2019;
Maroiu & Maricutoiu, 2017; Vartanian,
2012), and can also have implications for
appearance-related behaviors including
body dysmorphic disorder (Heidarzadeh, et
al, 2019; Sharp, 2018; Phillips, et al, 2010).
This means that a perceived discrepancy
in the real and ideal acts as a stimulus for one
to pursue xing or changing their physical
appearance in an aempt to reach their
goal of an ideal appearance. The Theory of
Value, on the other hand, is concerned with
the nature of goodness in general and the
processes that determine the value of things.
Commonly used in philosophy, economics
and sociology, the theory provides the
rationale for understanding how, why, and
to what degree humans value things and how
this perception of ‘value’ inuences choices,
acceptance, investments, or satisfaction. The
theory can be traced to the works of early
scholars such as Thomas Aquinas, Carl
Menger, Eugen von Boehm-Bawerk, and
other economists and thinkers of the 19th
century (New World Encyclopedia, 2020;
Hurka, 2010), as a way to explain the concept
of ‘worth’ in the society. Within philosophy,
the concept of value is studied in axiology
as ethics or what is morally good, while in
early Economic thought, it was considered
to be synonymous with “importance”. In
sociology, value refers to the intangible
qualities of what is accepted and endorsed
by society as good, worthwhile or benecial.
As an abstract noun, ‘value’ indicates
goodness, desirability, or worth. Funk (1999)
noted that value is that property of a thing
(either intrinsic to it or ascribed to it by
someone) that makes it worthy of realizing
or, by extension to the negative, worthy
of avoiding or eliminating. How society
determines ‘value’ and the degree to which
the perception of value inuences human
behavior remains in the purview of social
research. Funk (1999) and Anderson (1993)
in their works have argued that value is
created by its relation to what is considered
original, real or useful. In this work, the
Value Theory is used to explain how society
traditionally denes what is desirable about
womanhood, and how cosmetic surgeries
and body modications might be aecting
these ideals. If the society perceives what is
modied as counterfeited or substandard, or
at least false, the question then is, will it elicit
the same acceptance as what is considered
real or valued?
Conclusion
Courtship behavior is a key component
of human social behavior and plays a key role
in mate selection and marriage. In courtship
behavior, humans, especially males, dene
and nd a mate, and thereafter proceed into
behavioral rituals that end in intimacy and
other levels of commitment. Courtship is the
traditional dating period before engagement
and marriage (Community Research and
Development Information Service, 2017;
Acitelli, et al, 2001). Courtship in humans,
although similar to that of other animals and
directed at the same goals, is largely molded
by societal values and ideals commonly
thought of in terms of custom rather than
instinct. As such, courtship behavior or the
human mating process encompasses the
social and cultural processes that dene
how a person assesses the suitability of the
opposite sex for intimate relationships and
marriage. In recent times, and with the new
trends in body modication, body shape and
40
Emmanuel Nwakanma
appearance are highly considered criteria in
mate selection and courtship. While many
men are likely to be aracted to a perfectly
shaped cosmetic body, some studies have
noted that some men may be averse to
articial beauty and cosmetic surgery (Epie,
2019; Hindustan Times, 2014).
According to ndings of this study,
whereas women have dierent psychosocial
reasons for opting for cosmetic surgery
(especially liposuction or BBL), this new
trend unintendedly impacts the perception
of men about women and courtship behavior.
Except in life-threatening situations, most
men, as shown in this study, indicate a strong
preference for women without cosmetic
surgeries. Understanding this correlation
and its implications for society, marriage,
and intimate relationships is especially
benecial for women who have body image
issues and are considering cosmetic surgery.
This study emphasizes that beyond the
health implications of cosmetic surgeries,
there are varying social implications which
departs from previously known information
as demonstrated in many studies. As a result,
this study recommends that the association
of experts in the eld of cosmetic surgery
should be encouraged to regularly notify the
public of the implications and ramications
of cosmetic surgeries beyond the allure on
social media. Also, there is a need to introduce
psychological screening in the procedures
for cosmetic surgeries in Nigeria. This will
help women address some psychosocial
issues that prompt women in Nigeria to opt
for body beautifying procedures.
The author thank the research team for their
assistance and diligence throughout all
aspects of this study.
This article is my original work.
There is no conict of interest to declare in
this article.
Ethical Clearance
This study adhered strictly to all ethical
considerations as recommended by Nigeria’s
National Code of Health Research (NCHR)
and the Helsinki Declaration of 1964, which
governs the handling of participants in
human-related research.
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