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Narcissistic personality traits and sexual dysfunction in women: the role of body image self-consciousness
Abstract
Objectives
We aimed to evaluate the associations between self-reported pathological narcissistic traits, both grandiose and vulnerable, and sexual functioning in a large sample of nonclinical women. We also tested body image self-consciousness, which we hypothesized could have a mediating role in these associations.
Methods
Participants (N = 656 women) completed an online questionnaire. The self-reports included Female Sexual Function Index, Female Body Image Self-Consciousness Scale, and Pathological Narcissism Inventory. We carried out two mediation models, one for vulnerable narcissism, and the other for grandiose narcissism.
Results
The results highlight that vulnerable narcissistic traits are associated with lower sexual functioning, this association being mediated by higher levels of body image self-consciousness. The effect of vulnerable narcissism on the mediator and the effect of the mediator on the outcome variable were statistically significant (β = .35, t = 7.28, p < .001 and β = -.23, t = 4.48, p < .001, respectively).
Conversely, grandiose narcissistic traits are linked to lower body image self-consciousness: the higher the grandiose narcissism, the lower the concerns related to bodily appearance in sexual contexts (β = -.18, t = -3.14, p = .002). Body image self-consciousness partially mediates association with sexual functioning (β = -.21, t = -4.04 p < .001).he higher the grandiose narcissism, the lower the sexual self-consciousness, and consequently, the higher the sexual functioning.
Conclusions
Considering the link between body image self-consciousness and sexuality is of utmost importance in clinical practice with women, as well as in promoting positive body appreciation. Clinicians working with individuals presenting with pathological personality traits should consider including an assessment of their sexual functioning.
Conflicts of Interest
None
... Several variables may play a significant role in the promotion of sexual well-being, as well as in the development and treatment of sexual disorders (Brotto et al. 2016). One is body image (Gomes and Tavares 2019; Pavanello Decaro et al. 2021;Shepardson and Carey 2016;Nobre and Pinto-Gouveia 2008). The individual's perception of their own body may indeed influence both the behavioral (e.g., sexual avoidance) (La Rocque and Cioe 2011;Pascoal et al. 2019) and cognitive dimensions of sexuality (e.g., sexual esteem, sexual desire, and sexual satisfaction) (La Rocque and Cioe 2011). ...
... This may lessen the motivation to engage in subsequent sexual activity, and culminate in a pattern of sexual avoidance, sexual inadequacy, or diminished sexual esteem. As a consequence, the individual fails to derive the expected pleasure and fulfillment linked to sexual intimacy, and may opt for sexual abstinence (La Rocque and Cioe 2011;Pavanello Decaro et al. 2021). ...
... These may range from guided exercises and mindfulness practices, to virtual therapy sessions that aim to enhance body image and selfesteem (Navarro-Haro et al. 2017). Addressing body image concerns as part of sexual disorder treatment can significantly enhance overall therapeutic outcomes (Gomes and Tavares 2019; Pavanello Decaro et al. 2021). VR is an effective therapeutic tool for addressing this kind of concerns, as it can promote self-acceptance by providing individuals with a controlled and immersive environment to expose themselves to virtual representations of their bodies (Irvine et al. 2020). ...
Improving sexuality remains an unresolved issue within society, and virtual reality (VR) holds promise as a tool to provide accessible interventions that promote sexual health, treat sexual disorders, and improve sexual-related variables, such as body image, sexual self-esteem, sexual communication or cognitive schemas. This systematic review explores existing VR interventions in sexuality, identifies constraints, and proposes an innovative metaverse-based approach to overcome these limitations. We independently sourced data from PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science, yielding 11,873 non-duplicate articles. After rigorous screening, eight studies were included. The papers were all published within the previous 24 years and consisted of psychological interventions conducted mostly with adults. These studies demonstrate VR's efficacy in improving sexuality, highlighting its potential as an optimal delivery platform for psychological interventions. However, current VR interventions have notable limitations, including a lack of patient empowerment, the exclusion of partners from the intervention, and the omission of fundamental psychological components essential for sexual well-being, such as body image. Much research remains therefore to be done in the field of VR interventions and sexuality. The Metaverse emerges as a promising solution to these challenges. This innovative approach could revolutionize the treatment landscape for sexual dysfunctions, making therapy more accessible and tailored to individual needs.
Research on pathological narcissistic traits and sexuality are mainly focused on the dysfunctional aspects of sexuality. The present study aims to explore the relationship between narcissistic traits and sexual satisfaction in men, testing whether sexual self-esteem mediates this association. Participants included 212 men who completed measures of grandiose and vulnerable narcissistic traits, sexual self-esteem, and sexual satisfaction. Results highlight how vulnerable narcissistic traits are negatively associated with sexual satisfaction. This association is fully mediated by sexual self-esteem. On the contrary, grandiose narcissistic traits are not directly associated with sexual satisfaction, but with sexual self-esteem only, which explains the indirect effect of grandiose traits on sexual satisfaction. In conclusion, sexual self-esteem in personality configurations with high pathological narcissistic traits accounts for the relationship between narcissistic traits and sexual satisfaction.
Dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors are very common among women. Recent findings suggest that these attitudes are linked to traits of pathological narcissism. However, mechanisms underlying this association need to be elucidated. We investigated the relationship between traits of pathological narcissism and dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors in women, testing whether perfectionistic tendencies mediate this association. The study involved a community-based sample of women (N = 306) who completed measures of grandiose and vulnerable narcissistic traits, attitudes of perfectionistic discrepancy and perfectionistic self-presentation, and dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Results show that vulnerable narcissistic traits are linked to dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Moreover, discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self partially explains why women high in vulnerable narcissism engage in dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Grandiose narcissism was not uniquely associated with dysfunctional eating. The study suggests that the narcissistic need for being perfect, but not the narcissistic need for presenting oneself as perfect to others, promotes dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors in women.
Introduction
This study explored the role of body image dissatisfaction on orgasmic response during partnered sex and masturbation and on sexual relationship satisfaction. The study also described typologies of women having different levels of body image satisfaction.
Methods
A sample of 257 Norwegian women responded to an online survey assessing body image dissatisfaction, problems with orgasm, and sexual relationship satisfaction. Using structural equation modeling and factor mixture modeling, the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and orgasmic response was assessed, and clusters of sexual response characteristics associated with varying levels of body image dissatisfaction were identified.
Main Outcome Measure
Orgasmic function during partnered sex and masturbation, along with sexual relationship satisfaction, were assessed as a function of body image.
Results
Body image dissatisfaction, along with a number of covariates, predicted higher levels of “problems with orgasm” during both partnered sex and masturbation, with no significant difference in the association depending on the type of sexual activity. Varying levels of body image dissatisfaction/satisfaction were associated with differences in orgasmic incidence, difficulty, and pleasure during partnered sex; with one orgasmic parameter during masturbation; and with sexual relationship satisfaction.
Conclusion
Body image dissatisfaction and likely concomitant psychological distress are related to impaired orgasmic response during both partnered sex and masturbation and may diminish sexual relationship satisfaction. Women with high body image dissatisfaction can be characterized by specific sexual response patterns.
Horvath Z, Smith BH, Sal D, et al. Body Image, Orgasmic Response, and Sexual Relationship Satisfaction: Understanding Relationships and Establishing Typologies Based on Body Image Satisfaction. J Sex Med 2020;XX:XXX–XXX.
The PFQ-2 is a brief and widely used questionnaire assessing shame- and maladaptive guilt-proneness. As empirical literature suggests cultural differences in self-conscious emotions, the present study aimed at validating the PFQ-2 in an Italian community sample (N = 367; 258 females; M age = 33.67). In particular, we investigated the factor structure of the PFQ-2, its invariance across genders, and associations of the two scales with clinically relevant constructs. Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed that a modified two-factor model fitted our data and could be replicated fairly well across genders. Both guilt- and shame-proneness scales showed acceptable internal consistency, adequate test-retest reliability, and significant associations with criterion measures (e.g., personality pathology, narcissism, psychopathological symptoms). Specific concerns regarding potentially weak items and implications of our findings were discussed. Overall, results mirror previous studies on shame- and guilt-proneness, and provide a validated Italian version of the PFQ-2 for the assessment of their clinical correlates in community samples.
The present study examined the relationship of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism with dispositional anger and hostility. We investigated the roles of neuroticism, emotional intelligence, and gender in this relationship, using a sample of 405 participants. The results indicated that vulnerable narcissism was associated with a higher tendency toward anger and hostility, and that neuroticism accounted for a large part of this association. Poor emotion managing, known as strategic emotion regulation ability, also played a role in hostility related to vulnerable narcissism, especially among men. When emotional stability was controlled for, grandiose narcissism showed links to anger and hostility. We concluded that high neuroticism and poor emotion regulation abilities among vulnerable narcissists contribute to increased anger/hostility, whereas emotional stability likely protects grandiose narcissists against these internal aspects of aggression. The significant relationships between both forms of narcissism with aggression, remaining after neuroticism and emotion regulation were accounted for, suggest that there is another underlying source of this link. Finally, we found that controlling for interindividual differences in neuroticism significantly increased the relationship between vulnerable and grandiose narcissism, suggesting the existence of the common core of narcissism.
Introduction:
The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) is a patient-reported outcome measure measuring female sexual dysfunction. The FSFI-19 was developed with 6 theoretical subscales in 2000. In 2010, a shortened version became available (FSFI-6).
Aim:
To investigate the measurement properties of the FSFI-19 and FSFI-6.
Methods:
A systematic search was performed of Embase, Medline, and Web of Science for studies that investigated measurement properties of the FSFI-19 or FSFI-6 up to April 2018. Data were extracted and analyzed according to COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) guidelines. Evidence was categorized into sufficient, insufficient, inconsistent, or indeterminate, and quality of evidence as very high, high, moderate, or low.
Main outcome measures:
The Main Outcome Measure is the evidence of a measurement property, and the quality of evidence based on the COSMIN guidelines.
Results:
83 studies were included. Concerning the FSFI-19, the evidence for internal consistency was sufficient and of moderate quality. The evidence for reliability was sufficient but of low quality. The evidence for criterion validity was sufficient and of high quality. The evidence for structural validity was inconsistent of low quality. The evidence for construct validity was inconsistent of moderate quality. Concerning the FSFI-6, the evidence for criterion validity was sufficient of moderate quality. The evidence for internal consistency was rated as indeterminate. The evidence for reliability was inconsistent of low quality. The evidence for construct validity was inconsistent of very low quality. No information was available on structural validity of the FSFI-6, and measurement error, responsiveness, and cross-cultural validity of both FSFI-6 and FSFI-19.
Clinical implications:
Conflicting and lack of evidence for some of the measurement properties of the FSFI-19 and FSFI-6 indicates the importance of further research on the validity of these patient-reported outcome measures. We advise researchers who use the FSFI-19 to perform confirmatory factor analyses and report the factor structure found in their sample. Regardless of these concerns, the FSFI-19 and FSFI-6 have strong criterion validity. Pragmatically, they are good screening tools for the current definition of female sexual dysfunction.
Strength & limitation:
A strong point of the review is the use of predefined guidelines. A limitation is the use of a precise rather than a sensitive search filter.
Conclusions:
The FSFI requires more research on structural validity (FSFI-19 and FSFI-6), reliability (FSFI-6), construct validity (FSFI-19), measurement error (FSFI-19 and FSFI-6), and responsiveness (FSFI-19 and FSFI-6). Further corroboration of measurement invariance (both across cultures and across subpopulations) in the factor structure of the FSFI-19 is necessary, as well as tests for the unidimensionality of the FSFI-6. Neijenhuijs KI, Hooghiemstra N, Holtmaat K, et al. The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI)-A Systematic Review of Measurement Properties. J Sex Med 2019;16:640-660.
A growing body of research suggests the viability of the distinction between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Each subtype of narcissism reveals distinct associations with life satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-construal. The goal of the present study (N = 253) is to apply this distinction to replicate the results of previous studies with respect to life satisfaction and self-esteem and to extend the perspective by focusing on several components of self-construal: independent and interdependent (cf. Singelis, 1994). In addition, interdependent self-construal is either relational-interdependent or collective-interdependent (cf. Cross, Hardin, & Gercek-Swing, 2011). Specifically, four hypotheses are examined which have in common the assumption that grandiose and vulnerable narcissism diverge systematically in their implications for life satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-construal. Grandiose narcissism is expected to correlate positively with life satisfaction, self-esteem, independent self-construal, and collective-interdependent self-construal. In contrast, vulnerable narcissism is assumed to correlate negatively with self-esteem and life satisfaction and positively with interdependent and relational self-construal. The results, which confirm these hypotheses, underscore the necessity to differentiate between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Remarkably, both subtypes of narcissism are related to distinct dimensions of interdependent self-construal. Whereas grandiose narcissism is anchored in collective interdependence, vulnerable narcissism is embedded in relational interdependence.
People who self-objectify perceive their bodies as objects which exist for the pleasure of others. Personality traits are important factors that might moderate the pathway between self-objectification and body image concerns. In the present paper, we explore if narcissism moderates this relationship, and we do so by exploring the facets of grandiose narcissism (associated with an inflated sense of self-importance) and hypersensitive narcissism (a more defensive and insecure narcissism). A convenience sample of 277 young Australian women (Mage = 21.34 years, SD = 3.25, range = 18–30) completed an online battery comprising measures of self-objectification, subclinical grandiose and hypersensitive narcissism, and measures designed to capture concerns related to body image. We found that hypersensitive narcissism, but not grandiose narcissism, predicted higher levels of self-objectification. Grandiose narcissism scores predicted lower levels of body shame and less weight discrepancy, indicating more positive body image, and also moderated the relationship between self-objectification and body shame (i.e., women who report lower levels of narcissism are more vulnerable to body shame associated with self-objectification). In contrast, hypersensitive narcissism scores predicted higher levels of both body shame and discrepancies in actual-ideal weight. These findings suggest that grandiose narcissism may have a protective relationship regarding body image in this population, whereas hypersensitive narcissism may be a risk factor.
People who internalize an observer's perspective of their bodies are understood to experience 'self-objectifica-tion', a process which is associated with increased risk of poor body image, depression, and eating disorders. The aim of this paper is to systematically review the literature which has explored the relationship between trait self-objectification and personality traits. Five databases were searched and records were included for review if they: (a) used quantitative methodologies; (b) were published before March 2018, inclusive; (c) were published in a peer-reviewed journal, and; (d) were available in English language. The search yielded a total of 2636 unique articles: 16 studies within 15 articles met all inclusion criteria. The results were collated using narrative synthesis. Self-objectification was most consistently and positively associated with neuroticism, perfectionism, and narcissism across multiple studies. Insufficient research was available to draw conclusions regarding the relationship between self-objectification and other personality traits, and sex moderation effects were indeterminate. Clinical applications and theoretical implications are discussed.
There has been a surge in interest in and research on narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD). Despite or because of this increased attention, there are several areas of substantial debate that surround the construct, including descriptions of grandiose and vulnerable dimensions or variants, questions regarding the existence of a consensual description, central versus peripheral features of narcissism, distinctions between normal and pathological narcissism, possible etiological factors, the role of self-esteem narcissism, where narcissism should be studied, how it can be assessed, and its representation in diagnostic nosologies. We suggest that a failure to distinguish between grandiose (i.e., overtly immodest, self-centered, entitled, domineering) and vulnerable (e.g., self-centered, distrustful, neurotic, introverted) presentations of narcissism has led to a less cohesive and coherent literature and that trait-based models of personality and personality disorder can bring greater clarity to many of these important debates. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology Volume 13 is May 7, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The narcissism spectrum model synthesizes extensive personality, social-psychological, and clinical evidence, building on existing knowledge about narcissistic grandiosity and vulnerability to reveal a view of narcissism that respects its clinical origins, embraces the diversity and complexity of its expression, and reflects extensive scientific evidence about the continuity between normal and abnormal personality expression. Critically, the proposed model addresses three key, inter-related problems that have plagued narcissism scholarship for more than a century. These problems can be summarized as follows: (a) What are the key features of narcissism? (b) How are they organized and related to each other? and (c) Why are they organized that way, that is, what accounts for their relationships? By conceptualizing narcissistic traits as manifested in transactional processes between individuals and their social environments, the model enables integration of existing theories of narcissism and thus provides a compelling perspective for future examination of narcissism and its developmental pathways.
Objective: Whilst the relationship between narcissism and self-esteem has been studied for a long time, findings are still controversial. The majority of studies investigated narcissistic grandiosity (NG), neglecting the existence of vulnerable manifestations of narcissism. Moreover, recent studies have shown that grandiosity traits are not always associated with inflated explicit self-esteem. The aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between narcissistic traits and explicit self-esteem, distinguishing between grandiosity and vulnerability. Moreover, we consider the role of implicit self-esteem in qualifying these associations.
Method: Narcissistic traits, explicit and implicit self-esteem measures were assessed among 120 university students (55.8% women, Mage = 22.55, SD = 3.03).
Results: Results showed different patterns of association between narcissistic traits and explicit self-esteem, depending on phenotypic manifestations of narcissism. Narcissistic vulnerability (NV) was linked to low explicit self-evaluations regardless of one’s levels of implicit self-esteem. On the other hand, the link between NG and explicit self-esteem was qualified by levels of implicit self-views, such that grandiosity was significantly associated with inflated explicit self-evaluations only at either high or medium levels of implicit self-views.
Discussion: These findings showed that the relationship between narcissistic traits and explicit self-esteem is not univocal, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between NG and NV. Finally, the study suggested that both researchers and clinicians should consider the relevant role of implicit self-views in conditioning self-esteem levels reported explicitly by individuals with grandiose narcissistic traits.
Introduction: Research suggests that body image affects sexual functioning, but the relationship between specific types of body image (evaluative, affective, and behavioral) and domains of sexual functioning (desire, arousal, and orgasm) has not been investigated.
Aim: To determine whether, and to what degree, body image concerns (evaluative, affective, and behavioral) influence aspects of women’s sexual functioning (desire, arousal, and orgasm).
Methods: Eighty-eight sexually active women in heterosexual romantic relationships completed surveys assessing evaluative, affective, and behavioral body image and sexual functioning. Body composition data also were collected using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry.
Main Outcome Measures: Sexual functioning was assessed using the desire, arousal, and orgasm subscales of the Female Sexual Functioning Index.
Results: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that poor evaluative, affective, and behavioral body image were detrimental to women's sexual functioning. Specifically, dissatisfaction with one's body predicted decrements in desire (β = −0.31, P < .05) and arousal (β = −0.35, P < .01). Similarly, feeling that others evaluate one's body negatively predicted decrements in desire (β = 0.22, P < .05) and arousal (β = 0.35, P
Studies that have implicated facets of narcissism in women's body image have not differentiated between normal and pathological forms of narcissism. To rectify this omission, 404 British women completed measures of narcissism (normal and pathological, vulnerable and grandiose), drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and actual-ideal weight discrepancy. Multiple regressions indicated that pathological forms of narcissism, but not normal narcissism, significantly predicted negative body image. In addition, facets of pathological narcissism and normal-vulnerable narcissism significantly predicted weight discrepancy. Our findings suggest that, when measured concurrently, pathological but not normal narcissism is associated with negative body image.
The proliferation of social media in day-to-day life has raised numerous questions about how individuals present themselves in these arenas. The present study examined the associations of narcissism and self-esteem with the posting of self-photographs (“selfies”) on a popular photo sharing social networking site (i.e., Instagram). Participants were 128 undergraduate students (19 males, 109 females) ranging in age from 18 to 43 (M = 20.46, SD = 3.59). Selfies were coded according to their frequency relative to participants’ nonselfie posts and their apparent themes (i.e., physical appearance, activity/event/location, affiliation with others, collage, other/undifferentiated). The hypothesized relations of narcissism and self-esteem with the posting of selfies independent of theme were not significant. However, there was a significant relation between some dimensions of narcissism and specific categories of selfies (e.g., vulnerable narcissism with physical appearance selfies). The limitations of the present study, particularly in terms of sampling and other issues that may influence online presentations, as well as the implications for future research on social media photographic displays are discussed.
The Five-Factor Narcissism Inventory (FFNI) is a self-report measure of the traits linked to grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, as well as narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), from a five-factor model perspective (FFM). In the current studies, the factor structure of the FFNI was explored and the results supported the extraction of three factors: Antagonism (e.g., Arrogance), Neuroticism (e.g., Need for Admiration), and Agentic Extraversion (e.g., Authoritativeness). In Study 2, the FFNI factors manifested convergent validity with their corresponding Big Five domains and diverging relations with measures of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, NPD, and selfesteem. Ultimately, the FFNI factors help explicate the differences between various expressions of narcissism such that all are related to Antagonism but differ with regard to Neuroticism (relevant to vulnerable narcissism and NPD) and Agentic Extraversion (relevant to grandiose narcissism and NPD). The results also highlight the complex relation between self-esteem and the traits that comprise narcissism measures.
Studies that have examined associations between body image and well-being have used limited measures of the former or have utilised small convenience samples. Here, we report on data from 9,667 Western women (US residents n = 8,925, non-US residents n = 742) who completed the online YouBeauty Body Image Survey. Respondents completed measures of weight-based body dissatisfaction, body appreciation, and subjective happiness, and provided demographic data including their education, age, and body mass index (BMI). Preliminary analyses indicated that 89.0 % of women evidenced weight-based body dissatisfaction, with the majority (84.1 %) wanting to be thinner. Path analysis showed that body appreciation positively predicted subjective happiness. BMI was negatively associated with body appreciation, but showed a direct positive association associated with subjective happiness. Controlling for BMI, body dissatisfaction had no significant association with subjective happiness. In addition, older and non-US respondents had higher body appreciation. Implications of the present results for intervention studies aimed at promoting healthier body image are discussed in conclusion.
It is suggested that the two factors of narcissism identified by Wink (1991) – grandiose (overt) and vulnerable (covert) narcissism – represent different conceptualizations of narcissism, which are measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and the Narcissism Inventory, respectively. The focus of this research is on the divergent interpersonal consequences of both factors of narcissism. Results of two studies indicate that the nomological networks of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in terms of self-construal on the one hand and attachment and love on the other hand differ substantially. As predicted, grandiose narcissism was linked to high self-esteem and independent self-construal, whereas vulnerable narcissism was linked to low self-esteem and interdependent self-construal. In addition, high vulnerable narcissism implied higher attachment anxiety than low vulnerable narcissism, whereas high grandiose narcissism implied less attachment avoidance than low grandiose narcissism. In partial support of the hypotheses, Eros, Ludus, and Pragma correlated positively with the measure of grandiose narcissism, whereas Eros, Ludus, Pragma, Mania, and Agape were positively related to the measure of vulnerable narcissism. An intriguing pattern of results emerged because vulnerable narcissism turned out to be the more powerful predictor for love styles than grandiose narcissism.
Abstract This study examined the relationship between Internet pornography use and Narcissism. Participants (N = 257) completed an online survey that included questions on Internet pornography use and three narcissism measures (i.e., Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Pathological Narcissistic Inventory, and the Index of Sexual Narcissism). The hours spent viewing Internet pornography use was positively correlated to participant's narcissism level. Additionally, those who have ever used Internet pornography endorsed higher levels of all three measures of narcissism than those who have never used Internet pornography.
Narcissism is a complex phenomenon, involving a level of defensive self-enhancement. Narcissists have avoidant attachment
styles, maintain distance in relationships and claim not to need others. However, they are especially sensitive to others’
evaluations, needing positive reflected appraisals to maintain their inflated self-views, and showing extreme responses (e.g.
aggression) when rejected. The current study tested the hypothesis that narcissists also show hypersensitivity in brain systems
associated with distress during exclusion. We measured individual differences in narcissism (Narcissistic Personality Inventory)
and monitored neural responses to social exclusion (Cyberball). Narcissism was significantly associated with activity in an
a priori anatomically defined social pain network (anterior insula, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and subgenual anterior
cingulate cortex) during social exclusion. Results suggest hypersensitivity to exclusion in narcissists may be a function
of hypersensitivity in brain systems associated with distress, and suggests a potential pathway that connects narcissism to
negative consequences for longer-term physical and mental health—findings not apparent with self-report alone.
Introduction
Although several new measurements for female sexual dysfunction (FSD) have recently been developed, the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) remains the gold standard for screening and one of the most widely used questionnaires. The Italian translation of the FSFI has been used in several studies conducted in Italy, but a linguistic validation of the Italian version does not exist.
Aim
The aim of this study was to perform a linguistic validation of the Italian version of the FSFI.
Methods
A multicenter cross-sectional study conducted in 14 urological and gynecological clinics, uniformly distributed over Italian territory. We performed all steps necessary to determine the reliability and the test–retest reliability of the Italian version of the FSFI. The study population was a convenience sample of 409 Italian women.
Main Outcome Measures
The reliability of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach's alpha, which was considered weak, moderate, or high if its value was found less than 0.6, between 0.6 and 0.8, or equal to or greater than 0.8, respectively. The test–retest reliability was assessed for all women in the sample by calculating Pearson's concordance correlation coefficient for each domain and for the total score, both at baseline and after 15 days (r range between −1.00 to +1.00, where +1.00 indicates the strongest positive association).
Results
Cronbach's alpha coefficents for total and domain score were sufficiently high, ranging from 0.92 to 0.97 for the total sample. The test–retest procedure revealed that the concordance correlation coefficient was very high both for FSFI-I total score (Pearson's P = 0.93) and for each domain (Pearson's P always >0.92).
Conclusion
For the first time in the literature, our study has produced a validated and reliable Italian version of the FSFI questionnaire. Consequently, the Italian FSFI can be used as a reliable tool for preliminary screening for female sexual dysfunction for Italian women.
This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body.
In Western cultures, women's bodies are objectified more so than men's, and other writers have noted the multiple ways that such objectification may negatively impact women's lives. As women's sexual desirability is often equated with physical attractiveness and thinness, it is surprising that previous investigations have not included women's body image self‐consciousness during physical intimacy with a partner. In the current set of studies, a 15‐item measure of the construct was developed and shown to have excellent psychometric properties. Approximately one third of college student women indicated experiencing body image self‐consciousness during physical intimacy with a heterosexual partner at least some of the time. Even after statistically controlling for actual body size, measures of general body image, general sexual anxiety, and general well‐being, scores on the new measure were predictive of heterosexual experience, sexual esteem, sexual assertive‐ness, and avoidance of sexual activity. Results are discussed with regard to implications and directions for future research.
The Five-Factor Narcissism Inventory (FFNI) is a new self-report measure that was developed to assess traits associated with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), as well as grandiose and vulnerable narcissism from a five-factor model (FFM) perspective. In the current study, the FFNI was examined in relation to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) NPD, DSM-5 (http://www.dsm5.org) NPD traits, grandiose narcissism, and vulnerable narcissism in both community (N = 287) and clinical samples (N = 98). Across the samples, the FFNI scales manifested good convergent and discriminant validity such that FFNI scales derived from FFM neuroticism were primarily related to vulnerable narcissism scores, scales derived from FFM extraversion were primarily related to grandiose scores, and FFNI scales derived from FFM agreeableness were related to both narcissism dimensions, as well as the DSM-IV and DSM-5 NPD scores. The FFNI grandiose and vulnerable narcissism composites also demonstrated incremental validity in the statistical prediction of these scores, above and beyond existing measures of DSM NPD, grandiose narcissism, and vulnerable narcissism, respectively. The FFNI is a promising measure that provides a comprehensive assessment of narcissistic pathology while maintaining ties to the significant general personality literature on the FFM. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
There is theoretical reason to believe narcissism is associated with a number of sexual behaviors and outcomes that affect both sexual and relationship satisfaction. Nevertheless, research on the association between personality and behavior demonstrates that personality traits, such as narcissism, only predict behavior in domains that activate the components of the personality system. Given that global assessments of narcissism do not capture the extent to which the components of narcissism are activated in the sexual domain, we examined the extent to which the facets of a domain-specific measure of sexual narcissism accounted for the trajectories of own and partner sexual and marital satisfaction over the first five years of 120 new marriages. Three of the four facets of sexual narcissism (sexual exploitation, sexual entitlement, and low sexual empathy) were negatively associated with both trajectories. The fourth facet (sexual skill) was positively associated with both trajectories. Notably, sexual satisfaction mediated the effect of every facet of sexual narcissism on marital satisfaction. A global assessment of narcissism was not associated with either trajectory of satisfaction. These findings highlight (1) the importance of narcissistic tendencies for sexual processes, (2) the benefits of using domain-specific measures of personality in research on sexual behavior, and (3) the importance of examining the implications of the specific facets of personality constructs.
This study provides convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity data for a new measure of narcissistic personality traits created from the perspective of the Five-factor model (FFM) of general personality structure. Fifteen scales were constructed as maladaptive variants of respective facets of the FFM (e.g., Reactive Anger as a narcissistic variant of angry hostility), with item selection made on the basis of a criterion-keying approach using results from 167 undergraduates. On the basis of data from 166 additional undergraduates, the convergent validity of these 15 scales was tested with respect to 8 established measures of narcissism (including measures of both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism) and the respective facets of the FFM. Discriminant validity was tested with respect to facets from other FFM domains. Incremental validity was tested with respect to the ability of the FFM narcissism trait scales to account for variance in 2 alternative measures of narcissism, after variance accounted for by respective NEO PI-R facet scales and other established measures of narcissism were first removed. The findings support the validity of these new scales as measures of narcissistic personality traits and as maladaptive variants of the FFM.
The empirical literature on narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is quite sparse with only a small number of studies singularly devoted to this important construct. Of the published articles on NPD, the majority (approximately 80%) are either of a theoretical nature or present data from a case study perspective. There is, however, a thriving and growing literature on trait narcissism. In comparison to NPD, trait narcissism is viewed as a continuous construct in which no attempt is made to make dichotomous decisions of a clinical nature. Recent data suggest that research on trait narcissism is relevant to NPD as self-report scores are substantially correlated with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., American Psychiatric Association, 1994) interviews of NPD and generate a five-factor model personality profile that is congruent with expert ratings of prototypical NPD. We review the literature on trait narcissism in relation to implicit and explicit aspects of self-esteem, self-presentation, decision making, relationships, work performance, and externalizing behavior (e.g., aggression). Ultimately, we argue that this literature might be used as a stepping stone toward the development of a better empirical understanding of NPD and its nomological network.
We review the literature on pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) and describe a significant criterion problem related to four inconsistencies in phenotypic descriptions and taxonomic models across clinical theory, research, and practice; psychiatric diagnosis; and social/personality psychology. This impedes scientific synthesis, weakens narcissism's nomological net, and contributes to a discrepancy between low prevalence rates of NPD and higher rates of practitioner-diagnosed pathological narcissism, along with an enormous clinical literature on narcissistic disturbances. Criterion issues must be resolved, including clarification of the nature of normal and pathological narcissism, incorporation of the two broad phenotypic themes of narcissistic grandiosity and narcissistic vulnerability into revised diagnostic criteria and assessment instruments, elimination of references to overt and covert narcissism that reify these modes of expression as distinct narcissistic types, and determination of the appropriate structure for pathological narcissism. Implications for the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the science of personality disorders are presented.
The construct of narcissism is inconsistently defined across clinical theory, social-personality psychology, and psychiatric diagnosis. Two problems were identified that impede integration of research and clinical findings regarding narcissistic personality pathology: (a) ambiguity regarding the assessment of pathological narcissism vs. normal narcissism and (b) insufficient scope of existing narcissism measures. Four studies are presented documenting the initial derivation and validation of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI). The PNI is a 52-item self-report measure assessing 7 dimensions of pathological narcissism spanning problems with narcissistic grandiosity (Entitlement Rage, Exploitativeness, Grandiose Fantasy, Self-sacrificing Self-enhancement) and narcissistic vulnerability (Contingent Self-esteem, Hiding the Self, Devaluing). The PNI structure was validated via confirmatory factor analysis. The PNI correlated negatively with self-esteem and empathy, and positively with shame, interpersonal distress, aggression, and borderline personality organization. Grandiose PNI scales were associated with vindictive, domineering, intrusive, and overly-nurturant interpersonal problems, and vulnerable PNI scales were associated with cold, socially avoidant, and exploitable interpersonal problems. In a small clinical sample, PNI scales exhibited significant associations with parasuicidal behavior, suicide attempts, homicidal ideation, and several aspects of psychotherapy utilization.
Relationships between body image variables and sexuality have been found among several groups of women. However, research has largely focused on generalized experiences of sexuality. With the exception of two studies which focused on specific medical populations, to our knowledge there has been no investigation of the relationship between body image and acute measures of sexual response. In the current study, we investigated the relationships between body esteem, sexual response to erotica in a laboratory-setting, and self-reported sexual functioning in a non-clinical sample of 85 college women. Women participated in one study session, during which mental sexual arousal, perceptions of physical arousal, and sexual desire were assessed. Results showed that higher body esteem was significantly positively related to sexual desire in response to erotica in the laboratory setting. Similarly, higher body esteem was positively related to self-reported measures of sexual desire, as assessed by a validated measure of sexual function. The sexual attractiveness and weight concern subscales of the Body Esteem Scale, which relate to body characteristics that are most likely to be under public scrutiny, were particularly linked to sexual desire. This is the first study to show that body esteem is related to sexual responses to a standardized erotic stimulus in a laboratory setting.
Past research on the role of cognitive distraction in sexual dysfunction typically has focused on males and has been conducted in the laboratory using artificial stimuli. In the current study, young adult women (N = 74) with coital experience completed questionnaires regarding cognitive distraction and their sexuality. Those women who reported greater cognitive distraction during sexual activity with a partner also reported relatively lower sexual esteem, less sexual satisfaction, less consistent orgasms, and higher incidence of pretending orgasm even after the women's general affect, sexual desire, general self-focus, general sexual attitudes, and body dissatisfaction were statistically controlled. Results are discussed with regard to directions for future research and implications for sex therapy.
This article presents the development of a brief, self-report measure of female sexual function. Initial face validity testing of questionnaire items, identified by an expert panel, was followed by a study aimed at further refining the questionnaire. It was administered to 131 normal controls and 128 age-matched subjects with female sexual arousal disorder (FSAD) at five research centers. Based on clinical interpretations of a principal components analysis, a 6-domain structure was identified, which included desire, subjective arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain. Overall test-retest reliability coefficients were high for each of the individual domains (r = 0.79 to 0.86) and a high degree of internal consistency was observed (Cronbach's alpha values of 0.82 and higher) Good construct validity was demonstrated by highly significant mean difference scores between the FSAD and control groups for each of the domains (p < or = 0.001). Additionally, divergent validity with a scale of marital satisfaction was observed. These results support the reliability and psychometric (as well as clinical) validity of the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) in the assessment of key dimensions of female sexual function in clinical and nonclinical samples. Our findings also suggest important gender differences in the patterning of female sexual function in comparison with similar questionnaire studies in males.
The Female Sexual Functioning Index (FSFI; Rosen et al., 2000) is a self-report measure of sexual functioning that has been validated on a clinically diagnosed sample of women with female sexual arousal disorder. The present investigation extended the validation of the FSFI to include women with a primary clinical diagnosis of female orgasmic disorder (FOD; n = 71) or hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD; n = 44). Internal consistency and divergent validity of the FSFI were within the acceptable range for these populations of women. Significant differences between women with FOD and controls and between women with HSDD and controls were noted for each of the FSFI domain and total scores.
A substantial body of research has documented that grandiose narcissists are characterized by high self-esteem, a sense of personal superiority and entitlement, overconfidence, a willingness to exploit others for self-gain, and hostility and aggression when challenged. We report two studies (N = 452) that explore how these dispositions affect their decision making. We show that grandiose narcissists' overconfidence, impulsivity, and a willingness to ignore expert advice results in a higher likelihood of making a bad decision. In addition, after getting the wrong answer, grandiose narcissists are more likely to blame others and remain self-confident in their judgment.
The “psychodynamic mask model” of narcissism posits that narcissists' self-esteem is inherently fragile. Available research provides inconsistent and ambiguous support for this model. In light of weaknesses associated with some previous tests, we provided novel evidence on whether narcissism dimensions relate to an indicator of “contingent self-esteem;” here, contingent self-esteem was operationally defined as the literal relation between self-esteem and self-reported satisfaction in various life domains. Using a sample of 450 MTurk participants, we examined whether several narcissism constructs moderate the relation between self-esteem and self-reported satisfaction in various life domains. In general, relations between self-esteem and satisfaction in various life domains decreased as a function of two different indicators of grandiose narcissism; by contrast, relations between self-esteem and satisfaction in various life domains were generally enhanced (albeit weakly and non-significantly) as a function of a vulnerable narcissism indicator. In sum, grandiose narcissism appeared related to reduced contingent self-esteem and vulnerable narcissism appeared mostly unrelated to contingent self-esteem. We discuss these findings in relation to previous evidence on narcissism and contingent self-esteem and evaluating the mask model.
This study investigated the association between narcissism and shame, considering different measures of narcissism, different levels of analysis, and different situational conditions. Nonclinical participants (N = 196) completed baseline measures, followed by daily questionnaires for 28 days. Multilevel models indicated that trait and daily vulnerable narcissism, as well as trait neuroticism, were positively associated with daily shame. When controlling for vulnerable narcissism, trait grandiose narcissism was unrelated to shame, and daily grandiose narcissism was mostly negatively related to it. As for situations, social stress and workload were related to increased shame, especially in those high in trait neuroticism, or narcissism scales with neurotic content. Results highlight the key role of shame in pathological narcissistic functioning.
Theories on narcissism are traditionally closely related to sexuality. Most research on the association between narcissism and sexual behavior, however, has focused on harmful/maladaptive outcomes. The aim of the present two studies was to examine the possible health-promoting influence of both global and sexual narcissism on sexual function and genital self-image. In Study 1, sexual narcissism was positively associated with sexual functioning in both women and men (N = 505, online-recruited German participants). In the women's sample, sexual narcissism was related to a positive genital self-image. The facet sexual skill was identified as the most important predictor for sexual function and positive genital self-image in both women and men. Study 2 re-plicated and extended this association in an online sample of US Americans (N = 588) by including quality of life measures. Underscoring the benign nature of the sexual skill facet, this subscale was associated with quality of life in both women and men. The idea of a possible beneficial influence of sexual narcissism on sexuality related outcomes is discussed.
Clinicians have noted that narcissistic individuals fluctuate in levels of grandiosity and vulnerability. The present study is the first to examine narcissistic states assessed during interpersonal situations. Perceptions of others’ warmth and dominance, momentary grandiosity and vulnerability, and one’s own warm and dominant behavior were assessed across situations in daily life (person N = 286; occasion N = 6,837). Results revealed that more grandiose individuals perceived others as colder and behaved more dominant and colder, on average. But in the moment, higher grandiosity was associated with perceiving others as warmer and more submissive, resulting in more dominant and warm behavior. Trait vulnerability was associated with perceptions of coldness and cold behavior, and this was amplified in the moment.
During the last decades, empirical interest in narcissism has steeply increased, leading to controversial findings. Its investigation has been conducted predominantly with self-report measures, which could distort empirical findings on narcissism and its correlates due to narcissists’ need to maintain a positive and inflated self-view. In the present work,
we summarize studies that use alternative research designs for the investigation of narcissism. First, we briefly describe studies examining psychophysiological correlates of narcissistic phenomena, such as hostility, empathic dysfunctions, and stress sensitivity. Then, we review current literature on the investigation of narcissism in a neuroscientific
perspective, both in clinical and non clinical samples. Because studies in this field are very recent, we focus on those brain regions whose involvement in narcissistic functioning has received by now the strongest empirical support. In particular, we underline the role of the anterior insula and of the pre-frontal regions, discussing their implications in narcissistic dysfunctions, such as empathy deficits, emotion dysregulation, heightened sensitivity to rejection, and self-enhancing tendencies. Rather than considering brain activity as the cause of narcissism, our aim is to highlight the
importance of personality neuroscience for the development of a more complete view over narcissism, due to the ability of brain research to dig into the emotional and cognitive mechanisms underlying personality functioning.
This study examined the relationship between narcissism, sexual motives, and sexual satisfaction from a dyadic perspective. One hundred twenty-eight heterosexual couples (N = 256) completed questionnaires regarding their narcissism, sexual motives, and sexual satisfaction and functioning. Actor-Partner Interdependence Model analyses revealed two actor-effects on men's sexual satisfaction, intimacy during intercourse and orgasmic responsivity and one partner-effect on men's sexual satisfaction and intimacy during intercourse. Self-affirmation was identified as the main motive for engaging in sex for narcissistic individuals. Recommendations for further research and additional clinical implications are discussed.
This study systematically reviewed the evidence for personality as a correlate of body image. Electronic databases and reference lists were searched in May 2016 for studies reporting an association between at least one dimension of personality and at least one component of negative body image. Twenty-six studies (33 discrete samples) met inclusion criteria. Sixteen samples were coded as medium-high quality. The results indicated that negative body image was associated with higher levels of Neuroticism and lower levels of Extraversion. Agreeableness was not related to body image, and findings for Conscientiousness and Openness were indeterminate. After taking study quality into account, negative body image was also associated with lower levels of Conscientiousness. Neuroticism was associated with negative body image in both women and men. Sex moderation effects for Extraversion, Openness, and Conscientiousness were indeterminate. Large-sample, prospective studies of personality and body image are recommended.
Introduction:
Dysfunctional beliefs about body appearance and cognitive distraction from body appearance during sexual activity have been associated with sexual problems, particularly in women. However, there are no studies examining the interplay between these dimensions and the mechanisms by which they affect sexual functioning.
Aim:
To examine the mediating role of cognitive distraction with body appearance on the relation between beliefs about appearance and sexual functioning.
Methods:
The study sample consisted of 426 heterosexual participants (129 men and 297 women) involved in an exclusive dyadic committed relationship who answered an online questionnaire.
Main outcome measures:
The Body Appearance Cognitive Distraction Scale, the Beliefs About Appearance Scale, the International Index of Erectile Function, and the Female Sexual Function Index.
Results:
The findings indicated that cognitive distraction with body appearance fully mediated the relation between beliefs about appearance and sexual functioning in men and women.
Conclusion:
The results support the role of beliefs about appearance and cognitive distraction based on body appearance in predicting sexual functioning, reaffirming the role of cognitive models in explaining sexual functioning in men and women.
Distraction or interference in the cognitive processing of erotic stimulus plays an important role in the development of sexual dysfunctions or difficulties (Geer and Fuhr, 1976). The aim of this study was to evaluate negative automatic thoughts presented during sexual activity. A total of 191 women from the general population answered to a set of questionnaires assessing orgasm function, automatic thoughts during sexual activity and cognitive distraction. The orgasm function was measured by the Female Sexual Function Index (IIEF, Rosen et al., 2000), automatic thoughts were measured by the Sexual Modes Questionnaire (Nobre and Pinto-Gouveia, 2008), and cognitive distraction by the Cognitive Distraction Scale (Dove and Wiederman, 2000). Findings indicated that lack of erotic thoughts during sexual activity was the best predictor of women's sexual difficulties. Sexual abuse thoughts, failure and disengagement thoughts, partner's lack of affection, sexual passivity and control, and lack of erotic thoughts were significantly higher in women with orgasm difficulties compared to sexually healthy women. The results are supported by the literature indicating that cognitive distraction from the erotic thoughts is strongly associated with orgasmic dysfunction.
This study examined the connections that the facets of narcissism captured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI; Raskin & Hall, 1979) and the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI; Pincus et al., 2009) have with self-esteem. This was accomplished by asking 372 participants to complete measures of narcissism and self-esteem level as well as daily diary measures concerning their state self-esteem and daily experiences. Our analyses found that the facets of narcissism differed in their associations with average level of self-esteem, fluctuations in state self-esteem over time, and self-esteem reactions following daily events. These results suggest that it is important to consider specific facets of narcissism when examining feelings of self-worth rather than relying on broader composite measures of narcissistic personality features. Implications of these results for our understanding of the dynamics of the narcissistic personality are discussed.
Problems related to negative body image are very common among young women. In this study, we examined the relationship between women's body image and their sexual functioning over and above the effects of physical exercise and body mass index (BMI) in a sample of 214 university women. Low situational body image dysphoria and low body dissatisfaction were associated with high sexual assertiveness and sexual esteem, low sexual anxiety, and fewer sexual problems. Positive body image was significantly associated with better sexual functioning, even after controlling for BMI and exercise. Although related to body image, BMI and exercise did not predict sexual functioning. These results were interpreted as indicating that a woman's subjective body image is significantly related to her sexual functioning beyond the effects of actual body size and level of physical exercise.
A key aim of social psychology is to understand the psychological processes through which independent variables affect dependent variables in the social domain. This objective has given rise to statistical methods for mediation analysis. In mediation analysis, the significance of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables has been integral in theory testing, being used as a basis to determine (1) whether to proceed with analyses of mediation and (2) whether one or several proposed mediator(s) fully or partially accounts for an effect. Synthesizing past research and offering new arguments, we suggest that the collective evidence raises considerable concern that the focus on the significance between the independent and dependent variables, both before and after mediation tests, is unjustified and can impair theory development and testing. To expand theory involving social psychological processes, we argue that attention in mediation analysis should be shifted towards assessing the magnitude and significance of indirect effects.
Objectification theory posits internalization of an observer's gaze may negatively impact women's feelings about their bodies, which may subsequently affect their sexual function. Subjective body image and body size (i.e., body mass index [BMI]) have mixed relationships to women's sexuality, but assessment of positive body image as a sign of resistance to objectification has not been researched. This study explored relations between body appreciation and sexual function in women and assessed whether body size impacted this relationship. Cross-sectional data were collected online from 247 women, ages 18 to 58. Body appreciation scores were modestly negatively correlated with BMI, while BMI was not related to sexual function scores. After controlling for sexual orientation, partner status, and age, body appreciation predicted the arousal, orgasm, and satisfaction aspects of sexual function. Practitioners' encouragement of body appreciation may improve sexual function in a way that encouraging a reduction in body size may not.
The current study sought to examine the relationships between two facets of narcissism (vulnerable and grandiose) and eating disorder symptoms. Based upon previous research (Davis, Claridge, & Cerullo, 1997), it was predicted that the vulnerable narcissism facet would be more strongly associated with eating disorder symptoms because of the tendency for vulnerable narcissists to base their self-worth on their appearance (Zeigler-Hill, Clark, & Picard, 2008). The hypotheses were tested cross-sectionally in a sample of 355 male and female undergraduate students. Results generally conformed to prediction, in that vulnerable narcissism tended to be positively correlated with eating disorder symptoms, and this relationship was partially mediated by self-worth that is contingent upon physical appearance. Our findings are consistent with the notion that vulnerable narcissism is a risk factor for eating disorder symptoms because it is associated with a drive to improve self-worth through the enhancement of physical appearance.
Extant body image research has provided a rich understanding of negative body image but a rather underdeveloped depiction of positive body image. Thus, this study used Grounded Theory to analyze interviews from 15 college women classified as having positive body image and five body image experts. Many characteristics of positive body image emerged, including appreciating the unique beauty and functionality of their body, filtering information (e.g., appearance commentary, media ideals) in a body-protective manner, defining beauty broadly, and highlighting their body's assets while minimizing perceived imperfections. A holistic model emerged: when women processed mostly positive and rejected negative source information, their body investment decreased and body evaluation became more positive, illustrating the fluidity of body image. Women reciprocally influenced these sources (e.g., mentoring others to love their bodies, surrounding themselves with others who promote body acceptance, taking care of their health), which, in turn, promoted increased positive source information.