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British'Journal'of'Healthcare'and'Medical'Research'-'Vol.'9,'No.'5'
Publication'Date:'October,'25,'2022'
DOI:10.14738/jbemi.95.13335.!
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District
of Lesotho. British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
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!
Occurrence'and'Distribution'of'16'Human'Morphogenetic'Traits'
in'the'Maseru'District'of'Lesotho'
'
Asita'Okorie'Asita'
Professor!!
Department!of!Biology,!National!University!of!Lesotho!
!
Khahliso'Ntsane!
Student!Demonstrator!!
Department!of!Biology,!National!University!of!Lesotho!
!
Matsepo'Motselisi'Taole!
Senior!Lecturer!!
Department!of!Biology,!National!University!of!Lesotho!
!
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'
a5D=-,081' Inheritance* patterns,* Human* Mendelian* characters,* Hardy-Weinberg*
assumptions.**
'
INTRODUCTION'
Populations!of!living!things!are!composed,!in!general,!of!individuals!who!differ!in!many!genetic!
and! morphological! traits! generally! referred! to! as! morphogenetic! or! anthropogenetic! traits.!!
Morphogenetic! traits! are! a! source! of! variation! in! every! population! which! enables! the!
identification!of!individual!members!of!a!population![1,!2].!Examples!of!morphogenetic!traits!
are!ear!lobe,!cheek!dimples,!widow’s!peak,!`tongue!rolling,! chin! cleft,! and! handedness! [3,! 4].!!
The!frequencies!of!the!alternative!forms!of!some!morphogenetic!traits!have!been!found!to!differ!
between!populations,!ethnic! groups!and!sometimes!between!males! and!females!in!studies!in!
Europe!and!America![5,!6],!India![7,!4]!Africa![8,!2,!9]!and!Pakistan![10].!The!differences!in!the!
occurrence! and! distribution! of! morphogenetic! traits! in! and! between! populations! have! been!
attributed! to! several! factors! including! genetics! and! environment! together! with! other!
evolutionary!influences!such!as!migration,!genetic!drift,!assortative!mating,!natural!selection,!
mutation!and!inbreeding![11,!12].!
!
The!reasons! for! the! study! of! human! genetics! are! many! and! include! the! desire! to! better!
understand!variation!in!human!populations,!the!sources!and!mechanisms!of!transmission!of!
the!variations! and! the! practical! value! of! such! knowledge! for! human! welfare!and! for! tracing!
human!evolutionary!history.!Genetic!contribution!to!many!human!diseases!have!been!gleaned!
from!association!studies.![13,14].!!
!
The!mechanisms!of!transmission!of!morphogenetic!traits!are!still!not!very!clearly!understood!
in!all! cases.!Conflicting!mechanisms!are!presented!by!different!sources!for!some!of!the!traits,!
yet!some!of!the!studies!of!the!morphogenetic!traits!referenced!in!this!study!were!carried!out!on!
the!assumption!the!traits!are!controlled!by!a!dominant!and!a!recessive!allele.!The!traits!include!
cheek! dimples,! ear! lobe! attachment,! tongue! rolling,! tongue! folding,! bent! little! finger,! ring!
finger/index! finger,! cleft! chin,! hair! line,! eyebrow! shape,! thumbs! crossing,! arm! folding,!
blaze/white!hair!streak,!preauricular!sinus/pit,!handedness,!2nd!toe/!big!toe,!and!gap!between!
front!teeth![12,!2,!15,!10,!16,!17,!18].!While!dimples,!and!other!facial!features!such!as!widow’s!
peak,!unattached!(free)!earlobe,!white!forelock/streak,!tongue!rolling!are!mostly!believed!to!be!
controlled!by!dominant!genes![19,!12,!2,!18],!there!is!no!such!agreement!on!the!characterization!
of!some!other!traits.!For!instance,!some!people!consider!cleft!chin!as!recessive!to!smooth!chin!
[17],! but! others! regard! a! cleft! chin! as! an! inherited! dominant! trait! to! smooth! chin! [3,! 20].!
Similarly,!whereas,!some!geneticists!believe!the!widow's! peak!is!a!dominant! trait!that!comes!
from!a! specific! gene,!others! feel! more! research! is! needed! to!be! sure! [17].!Carrière! [21]! and!
Hilden![22]!were!among!the!first!to!study!the!genetics!of!earlobes!but,!they!reached!opposite!
conclusions! [3].! Powell! and! Whitney![5]!studied! one! family! and! concluded! that! attached!
earlobes! were! recessive.! With! regard! to! the! “gap! tooth”! however,! a! specific! gene! has! been!
located!that!is!responsible!for!the!trait!and!the!gene!is!a!dominant!gene![23].!In!a!Genome-Wide!
Association! Studies! (GWAS)! of! 6,630! people! in! Latin! America,! one! gene! called! PAX3—was!
associated!with!the!unibrow![24]!and!the!separated!brows!allele!is!believed!to!be!dominant!to!
the!unibrow!allele![17,!24].!Some!morphogenetic!traits!appear!to!be!controlled!by!a!single!gene!
!
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405#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
and!inherited!in!a!Mendelian!fashion!as!either!autosomal!dominant!or!autosomal!recessive,!and!
are!therefore!convenient!for!teaching!basic!genetics!because,!the!basic!principles!of!Mendelian!
genetics! can! still! prov!ide! a! guide! for! understanding! the! inheritance! patterns! of! such! traits.!
Some!traits!such!as!height,!hair!and!skin!colour!are!however,!polygenic,!being!affected!by!more!
than!one!gene![3,!12].!The!characterization!of!most!morphogenetic!traits!as!simple!Mendelian!
traits! that! are! controlled! by! a! single! gene! with! two! alternate! alleles! has! however,! been!
disproved!in!twin!and!family!studies![25,!3,!26].!Many!morphogenetic!traits!are!also!known!to!
be!inherited!with!‘variable!expression’![3,!20],! which!means!that!a!cleft,! for!instance,!may!be!
smaller,!or!the!dimple!may!be!in!a!different!spot,!or!not!appear!at!all!until!the!next!generation.!
Therefore,!according!to!!Winchester![27],!purely!Mendelian!traits!are!a!tiny!minority!of!all!traits,!
since!most!phenotypic!traits!exhibit!incomplete!dominance,!codominance,!and!are!polygenic.!
Many!morphogenetic!traits,!especially!eye,!hair!and!skin!pigmentation!and!facial!features!such!
as!eyebrow!shape,!chin!dimple,!facial!dimples,!hairy!ears,!earlobe!attachment,!widow’s!peak!
and!freckles!have!been! a! major! part! of!the!conventional!methods!of! human! identification! in!
forensic!investigations!when!seeking!and!identifying!suspects![28].!!
!
The!morphogenetic!traits!are!thus!very!important!and!relevant!in!the!physical!identification!of!
individuals,!are!widely!used!in!teaching!basic!or!Mendelian!genetics!principles,!have!complex!
mode!of!transmission!and!more!recently,!specific!traits!are!associated!with!the!likelihood!of!
certain!human!conditions.!There! is! however,! the!need!to!dispel!the!misconception!that!most!
morphogenetic! traits! are! Mendelian! phenotypes! through! activities! planned! for! both! the!
classroom!and!the!laboratory!which!will!help!students!better!understand!the!many!factors!that!
influence!inheritance! patterns! of! morphogenetic! traits! including! genetics,! lifestyle! and! the!
environment.!These!factors!are!probably!the!causes!of!the!racial,!ethnic!and!gender!differences!
observed!in!some!of!the!traits![26].!!
!
The! significance! of! traits! in! any! society! can! begin! to! be! understood! by! first! studying! their!
occurrence!and!distribution.!We! are! not! aware! of!any!such!study!haven! been! undertaken! in!
Lesotho.!!
!
This! aim! of! the! study! therefore! was! to! analyse! the! occurrence! and! distribution! of! sixteen!
morphogenetic!traits!among!male!and!female!students!of!the!National!University!of!Lesotho!in!
Maseru,!for! association!between!gender!and!traits,!conformity!with!the!simple!genetic! model!
of!one-gene! with! two-allele! mode! of! inheritance,! suitability! for!teaching! Mendelian! genetics!
principles,! and! whether! the! population! was! in! Hardy-Weinberg! equilibrium! with! respect! to!
each! trait.! The! second! aim! was! to! analyse! the! distribution! of! the! dominant! and! recessive!
phenotypes!of!the!16!traits!among!offspring!of!three!possible!parental!mating!types!(H!X!H,!H!
X!N! and! N!X! N)!in! Maseru!District,! Lesotho,! to! determine!whether! the! traits!are! monogenic!
(controlled!by!one!gene)!or!polygenic!(controlled!by!many!genes)!and!any!association!between!
parents!and!offspring.!!
'
MATERIALS'AND'METHODS.'
Location,'participants'and'traits'
This!research!was!undertaken! in! the!Maseru!district!of!Lesotho,!which!includes! the! National!
Universtity! of! Lesotho,! in! 2018.! Maseru! is! Lesotho's! capital! city! with! a! population! of!
approximately!253,000!and!with!the!gps!coordinates!of!29°!21'!47.5884''!S!and!27°!30'!51.696''!
!
!
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E.!The!elevation!of!Maseru!is!1597.557!m.!!The!University!is!located!in!Roma,!a!town!that!is!15!
miles!(24!km)!southeast!of!Maseru,![29!Country!Coordinate,!2021].!
!
The! analysis! involved! 46! families! (46! couples! plus! their! 114! children)!and! 505! randomly!
selected!students!of!the!National!University!of!Lesotho!between!the!ages!of!19!and! 30!which!
comprised! of! 233! males! and! 272! females.! The! sample! population! used! in! the! study! was!
therefore!92!+!114!+!505!=!711.!!
!
All! participants! were! observed! for! the! expression! of! sixteen! (16)! physical! traits,! shown! in!
Figure! 1.! Observed! differences! in! individuals! in! the! 16! traits! were! assigned! dominant! and!
recessive! respectively! according! to! published! classification! [30,! 10,! 16,! 31].! The! 16! traits!
surveyed! were:! Cheek! dimple,! Earlobe,! Tongue! rolling,! Tongue! folding,! Little! finger,! Index!
finger! and! Ring! finger! lengths,! Chin,! Hair! line,! Eyebrow! shape,! Hand! clasping,! Arm! folding,!
White!forelock!/White!streak,!Ear!pit,!Handedness,!Second!toe!to!Big!toe!length!and!gap!tooth.!!
!
Ethical'considerations'
'A!project!proposal!and!consent!form!(which!detailed!the!information!about!the!project,!risks!
and!discomfort!to!volunteers,!unintended!purpose!of!the!study,!potential!benefits!of!the!study,!
assurance! of! protection! of! confidentiality! for! participants,! the! voluntary! nature! of! the!
participation,!contact!information!of!the!principal!investigator!and!a!consent!form!to!be!signed!
by! participant! after! reading! through! the! information,! which! was! also! translated! into! the!
Sesotho!language)!together!with!a!formal!application!form!was!sent!to!the!Ministry!of!Health!
for!ethical!approval!of!the!study.!Approval!was!given!in!2017.!!
!
Method'
The!consent!form!would!be!read!and!interpreted!to!participants!or!members!of!a!house!hold!
after! which! the! head! of! the! house! hold! signed! the! consent! form.! A! picture! chart! (Figure! 1)!
showing!the!different!traits!was!shown!and!discussed!with!the!participants.!The!results!for!each!
family!were!entered!into!a!prepared!data!collection!table.! The!table!included!the! individual’s!
name,! sex! and! trait! and! whether,! for! each! individual,! the! trait! was! dominant! or! recessive.!
Individuals!were!observed!for!the!expression!of!the!sixteen!different!morphogenetic!traits.!!
1. Analysis!of!Results:! The!following!three!analytical!procedures!were! carried!out!on!
the!data.!!
2. The!data!collected!from!the!505!students!were!analysed!to!determine,!for!each!trait,!
frequencies! and! percentages! of! distribution!of! the! dominant! and! recessive!
phenotypic! forms,! in! the! sample! population.! Association! analysis! to! compare! the!
prevalence! of! the! expression! of! the! traits! between! gender! and! population! was!
determined!by!using!chi-square.!Values!were!considered!significant!at!p<!0.05.!The!
analyses! were! carried! out! using! the! IBM! SPSS! version! 20! software! (IBM! Corp.,!
Armonk,!NY,!USA).!P-values!less!than!0.05!(p!<!0.05)!were!considered!significant.!
3. The!Hardy-Weinberg!principle!was!applied!to!the!data!that!was!collected!from!the!
505!students!to!determine!the!alleles!and!genotypes!frequencies.!In!determining!the!
alleles! and! genotypes! frequencies,! the! null! hypothesis! that! the! population! was! in!
Hardy–Weinberg! equilibrium! (the!alternative! hypothesis! is! that! the! population! is!
not!in!Hardy–Weinberg!proportions)!was!assumed.!In!the!simplest!case!of!a!single!
locus,! as! assumed! here,! with! two! alleles!denoted!A!and!a!with! frequencies! or!
proportions!f(A)! =!p!and!f(a)! =!q,! respectively,! the! expected! genotype! frequencies!
!
!
!
407#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
under! random! mating! are!f(AA)! =!p2!for! the! AA! homozygotes,!f(aa)! =!q2!for! the! aa!
homozygotes,!and!f(Aa)!=!2pq!for!the!heterozygotes,!so!that!p2!+!2pq!+!q2!=!1.!Since!
the! heterozygotes! of! the! traits! could! not! be! distinguished! from! the! homozygous!
dominants!by!visual!inspection,!the!proportion!of!the!recessive!allele!of!each!trait,!q,!
was!first!determined!as!the!square!root!of!the!percentage!of!the!recessive!phenotype!
(ƒ(qq,!i.e.!q2)!and!the!proportion!of!the!dominant!allele!p,!was!obtained!by!subtracting!
the! proportion! q,! from! 1! since! p! +! q! =! 1.! The! expected! numbers! of! the! different!
phenotypes! for! each! trait,! were! obtained! by! multiplying! the! proportions! of! their!
genotypes,!in!the!equation,!p2!+!2pq!+!q2!=!1,!by!the!sample!population!size!of!505.!
[11].! The! significance! tests! for! deviation! from! the! HWP! was! performed!
using!Pearson’s!chi-squared!(χ2)!using!the!observed!genotype!frequencies!obtained!
from! the! data! and! the! expected! genotype! frequencies! obtained! using! the! Hardy!
Weinberg! Proportions! (HWP).!For! a! one-gene! with! two! alleles,! the! degree! of!
freedom!(df)!is!1,!where!df!for!test! for!Hardy–Weinberg!proportions!=!numbers!of!
genotypes!(3)!–!number!of! alleles! (2).! The! 5%!significance!level!for!1!df!is!3.84.! If!
computed!χ2!value!was! less! than! the! 3.84,!the!null! hypothesis! that! the! population!
was!in!Hardy–Weinberg!equilibrium!was!accepted,!but!if!computed!χ2!value!>!3.84,!
then!the!null!hypothesis!was!rejected![11].!
4. The! data! of! the! 46! couples! and! their! 114! children! were! analyzed! to! determine!
whether!a!single!genetic!locus!or!multiple!genetic!loci!determined!the!phenotype!of!
a!particular!trait,!i.e.!whether!a!trait!is!monogeneic!or!polygenic.!!This!was!done!by!
pooling!all!the!offspring!of!the!families!of!the!three!mating!types!and!analysing!the!
total,!according!to!the!methods!of!Beckman!and!Böök![32].!
• Trait!Present!(H)!X!Trait!Present!(H)!
• Trait!Present!(H)!X!Trait!Absent!(N)!
• Trait!Absent!(N)!X!Trait!Absent!(N)!!
!
Where!H!stood!for!the!dominant!phenotype!and!N!for!the!recessive!phenotype,!respectively,!of!
each!trait.!!
' '
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RESULTS'
Figure'1.'In'figure'one'is'presented'the'pictures'of'the'different'traits'that'were'surveyed.'!
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8.,;5D50'
'
Key!Assumptions:!Cheek!dimple!(Dimple!dominant!to!no!dimple);!!Earlobe!(Free!is!dominant!
to! attached);! Tongue! rolling! (Rolling! is! dominant! to! no! rolling);! Tongue! folding! (Folding! is!
dominant!to!no!folding);!Little!finger!(Bent!is!dominant!to!straight);!Index!finger!and!Ring!finger!
lengths!(Longer!Index! finger! is! dominant!to!longer!ring!finger);!Chin!(Cleft! chin! dominant!to!
smooth! chin);! Hair! line! (Widow's! peak! dominant! to! straight! hair! line);! Eyebrow! shape!
(Unconnected!is!dominant!to!connected);!Hand!clasping!(left!thumb!on!top!is!dominant!to!Right!
thumb!on!top);!Arm!folding!(Right!forearm!on!top!is!dominant!to!Left!forearm!on!top);!White!
forelock!/White!streak!(white!streak!presence! is! dominant! to! no! white!streak);!Preauricular!
sinus/pit! (Ear! pit! presence! is! dominant! to! pit! absence);! Handedness! (Right! handedness! is!
dominant!to!Left!handedness);!Second!toe!to!Big!toe!length!(Second!toe!is!longest!is!dominant!
to!big!toe!is!longest);!Gap!between!upper!incisor!teeth!(gap!tooth)!(Gap!presence!is!dominant!
to!no!gap).!!![30,!10,!16,!31].!
!
!
!
'
!
!
!
409#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
Table'1.!In!table!1!is!presented!the!data!on!the!occurrence!and!frequency!distributions!of!the!
alternative!forms!(dominant!and!recessive)!of!the!traits!in!the!sample!population!of!505!male!
and!female!students.!!
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!
The! distribution! of! the! 16! morphometric! traits! in! the! sample! population! of! 505! students! is!
presented!in!Table!1.!!
!
The! results! were! as! follows:! 31.09%! had! dimples,! composed! of! 15.84%! males! and! 15.25%!
females,!while! 68.91%!had!no! dimples,!composed!of! 30.30%!males!and! 38.61%!females.!The!
ratio! of! people! with! dimple! to! people! with! no! dimple! was! 0.45.! 59.01%! had! free! earlobes,!
composed! of! 27.52%! males! and! 31.49%! females,! while! 40.99%! had! attached! earlobes,!
composed! of! 18.61%! males! and! 22.38%! females.! The! ratio! of! people! with! free! earlobes! to!
people!with!attached!earlobes!was!1.44.!76.63%!could!roll!their!tongues,!composed!of!35.45%!
males!and!41.199%!females,!while!23.37%!could!not!roll!their!tongues,!composed!of!10.69%!
males!and!12.67%!females.!The!ratio!of!people!who!could!roll!to!people!who!could!not!roll!their!
tongues!was!3.28.!53.27%! could! fold! their! tongues,! composed! of!25.15%!males!and!28.12%!
females,!while!46.737%!could!not!fold!their!tongues,!composed!of!20.79%!males!and!25.94%!
females.!The!ratio!of!people!who!could!fold,!to! people! who! could! not! fold! their! tongues! was!
1.14.!53.07%! had! bent!little! fingers,! composed!of! 23.76%! males!and! 29.31%! females,!while!
46.93%!had!straight!little!fingers,!composed!of!22.38%!males!and!24.55%!females.!The!ratio!of!
people!with!bent,!to!people!with!straight!little!fingers!was!1.13.!72.28%!had!their!index!fingers!
longer!than!their!ring!fingers,!composed!of!34.65%!males!and!37.62%!females,!while!27.72%!
had!their!index!fingers!shorter!than!their!ring!fingers,!composed!of!11.49%!males!and!16.24%!
females.!The!ratio!of!people!with!longer!index!fingers,!to!people!with!shorter!index!fingers!to!
their!ring!fingers!was!2.61.!11.68%!had!cleft!chin,!composed!of!4.75%!males!and!6.93%!females,!
!
!
!
411#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
while!88.32%!had!smooth!chin,!composed!of!41.39%!males!and!46.93%!females.!The!ratio!of!
people! with! cleft! chin! to! people! with! smooth! chin! was! 0.13.! 57.43%! had! widow’s! peak!
composed!of!27.13%!males!and!30.30%!females,!while!42.57%!had!straight!hair!line,!composed!
of!19.01%!males! and! 23.56%!females.!The!ratio!of!people! with! widow’s!peak!to!people!with!
straight!hair!line!was!1.35.!96.24%!had!unconnected!eyebrows,!composed!of!44.16%!males!and!
52.08%!females,!while!3.76%!had!connected!eyebrows,!composed!of!1.98%!males!and!1.78%!
females.!The!ratio!of!people!with!unconnected!to!people!with!connected!eyebrows!was!25.58.!
48.12%! had! their! left! thumb! on! top! of! their! right! thumb! when! they! clasped! their! hands,!
composed!of!20.40%!males!and!27.72%!females,!while!51.88%!had!their!right!thumb!on!top!of!
their! left! thumb! when! they! clasped! their! hands,! composed! of! 25.74%! males! and! 26.14%!
females.!The! ratio!of!people! with!their!left!thumb!on!top!to!people!with!their!right!thumb!on!
top!when! they! clasped! their! hands!0.93.!49.31%! had! their! right!forearm! on! top! of!their! left!
forearm!when!they!folded!their!hands,!composed!of!21.78%!males!and!27.52%!females,!while!
50.69%!had!their!left!forearm!on!top!when!they!folded!their!hands,!composed!of!24.36%!males!
and!26.34%!females.!The!ratio!of!people!who!had!their!right!forearm!on!top!to!people!who!had!
their!left!forearm!on!top!of!their!right!forearm!when!they!folded!their!hands!was!0.97.!26.14%!
had!white!forelock,!composed!of!13.66%!males!and!12.48%!females,!while!73.86%!did!not!have!
a! white! forelock,! composed! of! 32.48%! males! and! 41.39%! females.! The! ratio! of! people! with!
white!forelock!to!people!who!lacked!a!white!forelock!was!0.37.!!6.73%!had!ear!pit,!composed!
of!2.77%!males! and! 3.96%!females,!while!93.27%!did!not! have!ear!pit,!composed!of!43.37%!
males!and!49.90%!females.!The!ratio!of!people!with!ear!pit!to!people!without!ear!pit!was!0.07.!!
82.38%! were! right-handed,! composed! of! 36.83%! males! and! 45.54%! females,! while! 17.62%!
were! left-handed,! composed! of! 9.50%! males! and! 8.12%! females.! The! ratio! righthanded! to!
lefthanded!people!was!4.67.!!27.52%!had!their!second!toes!longer!than!their!big!toes,!composed!
of!12.08%!males!and!15.45%!females,!while!72.48%!had!their!big!toes!longer!than!their!second!
toes,!composed!of!34.06%!males!and!38.42%!females.!The!ratio!of!people!with!longer!second!
toe!to!people!with!big!toe!longer!than!the!second!toe!was!0.38.!!27.74%!had!a!gap!between!their!
upper!incisor!teeth,!composed!of!13.27%!males!and!12.48%!females,!while!74.26%!lacked!the!
gap!between!the!upper!incisor’s!teeth,!composed!of! 32.87%! males! and! 41.39%! females.! The!
ratio!of!people!with!gap!teeth!to!people!without!gap!teeth!was!0.35.!!!
!
In!summary:!!
i. All!the!traits!were!found!in!both!males!and!females.!!
ii. For! 8! traits,! the! dominant! phenotype! occurred! at! a! lower! frequency! in! the! sample!
population!than!the!recessive!phenotype!namely,!preauricular!sinus!or!ear!pit!was!the!
rarest!at!6.73%,!followed!by!cleft!chin!at!11.68%,!gap!tooth!at!25.74%,!white!forelock!at!
26.14%,!longest!2nd!toe!at!27.52%,!dimple!at!31.09%,!left!thumb!on!top!of!right!thumb!
when!hands!are!clasped!at!48.12%!and!right!forearm!on!top!of!left!forearm!when!arms!
are! folded! at! 49.31%.! For! the! remaining! 8! traits,! the! dominant! phenotype! was! more!
prevalent! namely,! free! ear! lobe! (59.01%),! tongue! rolling! (76.63%),! tongue! folding!
(53.27%),! bent! little! finger! (53.07%),! index! finger! longer! than! ring! finger! (72.28%),!
widow's! peak! (57.43%),! unconnected! eyebrow! (96.24%)! and! right! handedness!
(82.38%).!!
iii. For!3!traits,!the!dominant!phenotype!was! more! prevalent! among! males! than! females,!
namely;!cheek!dimple,!white!forelock!and!gap!tooth.!However,!at!15.84%!and!15.25%;!
13.66%!and!12.48%!and!13.27%!and!12.48%!for!males!and!females!respectively,!the!
differences!were!not!significant.!For!the!remaining!13!traits,!the!dominant!phenotypes!
!
!
!
412#
6*7(89(:''/"(;9(<&0*="#(>(?@??(
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!
!"#$%&"'()*#(!&%"+&"(,+-(.-/&,0%*+(1(2+%0"-(3%+4-*5!
were! more! prevalent! among! females! than! males.! However,! a! chi-square! test! of!
independence!showed!that!there!was!no!significant!association!between!gender!and!any!
of!the!traits,!X2!(1,!N!=!505)!<!3.48,!p!>!0.05.!
'
Figure'2!is!the!graphical!presentation!of!the!data!in!Table!1!!
!
'
In' Table' 2! is! presented! the! analysis! of! the! distributions! of! the! dominant! and! recessive!
phenotypes!of!the!traits!for!whether!-:!
a. they! fit! the! simple! genetic! model! of! one-gene! with! two-allele! (dominant! and!
recessive)!mode!of!inheritance!and!!
b. the!population!was!in!Hardy-Weinberg!equilibrium!with!respect!to!each!trait.!!
!
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Prevalence (%)
Trait
Figure 2: Differences in prevalence in the sample
population, in percentages, between dominant and
recessive phenotypes of the traits in males and
females
Dominant Males Dominant Females Dominant Total
Recessive Males Recessive Females Recessive Total
!
!
!
413#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
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a5D1'n'V'&-93.650'&47G8H.(,50'IP2)L';(>.58'=5,5'47+45,'64(/'645'6(<.>(650'),767)(>';(>.5'-:'
X?YN@':-,'C?CB'3,-<(<7>76D'(6'@'05+,558'-:':,550-9'I0?:L?'&-/85H.5/6>D'645'(88.9367-/'=(8'
,5o5)650?'$45'6,(768'(,5'/-6'-/5G+5/5G6=-G(>>5>5')-/6,->>50'6,(768'(/0'645'(>>5>58'(,5'/-6'7/'OG['
5H.7>7<,7.9'7/'645'3-3.>(67-/?''
!
!
!
414#
6*7(89(:''/"(;9(<&0*="#(>(?@??(
A#%0%'B(C*/#+,7(*)(D",70B&,#"(,+-(E"-%&,7(F"'",#&B(GACDEFH(
!
!"#$%&"'()*#(!&%"+&"(,+-(.-/&,0%*+(1(2+%0"-(3%+4-*5!
The!results!of!the!analysis!of!the!distribution!of!the!traits!to!determine!whether!the!traits!were!
simple!Mendelian!traits,!controlled!by!one!gene!with!two!alleles,!with!one!dominant!over!the!
second!recessive! allele!and! whether! the! population! had!achieved! the! H-W!equilibrium! with!
respect! to! the! traits! is! presented! in! Table! 2.! ! The! calculated! Chi-squared! values! from! the!
determination! of! the! goodness! of! fit! between! the! observed! and! expected! numbers! for! the!
following!7!traits!were!higher!than!the!tabulated!critical!value!of!3.841!for!0.05!probability!at!
1! degrees! of! freedom! (d.f)! namely;! cheek! dimple,! cleft! chin,! hair! line,! white! forelock,!
preauricular!sinus/!ear!pit,!2nd!toe!and!big!toe!length!and!gap!between!the!upper!incisor!teeth.!
Consequently,!the!assumptions!that!they!were!controlled!by!a!single!gene!with!two!alleles,!with!
the! alleles! in! H-W! equilibrium! in! the! population! was! rejected.! The! calculated! Chi-squared!
values! from! the! determination! of! the! goodness! of! fit! between! the! observed! and! expected!
numbers!for!the!following!9!traits,!on!the!other!hand,!were!less!than!the!tabulated!critical!value!
of! 3.841! for! 0.05! probability! at! 1! degrees! of! freedom! (d.f)! namely;! ear! lobe,! tongue! rolling,!
tongue!folding,!bent!little!finger,!index!finger/ring!finger!length,!eyebrow!shape,!hand!clasping,!
arm!folding!and!handedness.!!Consequently,!the!assumptions!that!they!were!controlled!by!a!
single!gene!with!two!alleles,!with!the!alleles!in!H-W!equilibrium!in!the!population!was!accepted.!!!
Very!importantly,!examination!of!the!columns!for!the!expected!numbers!of!the!two!phenotypes,!
specifically!column!17,!showed!that,!for!14!of!the!16!traits,!the!heterozygotes!(pq)!outnumbered!
the! homozygotes! (pp)! by! at! least! 2! to! 1! among! the! dominant! phenotypes.! For! Handedness!
however,!it!was! 1.4:1.!It!was!only!in! the!eyebrow!shape!that!the! homozygous!dominant!(pp)!
genotype! outnumbers! the! heterozygous(pq)! genotype! among! the! dominant! phenotypes! by!
1:0.5.!This!observation!suggests!that,!for!many!traits,!the!recessive!alleles!are!protected!in!the!
heterozygous!dominants.!
!
In! Table! 3! is! presented! the! analysis! of! the! distribution! of! the! dominant! and! recessive!
phenotypes!among!the!114!offspring!of!the!three!possible!parental!mating!types!to!determine!
whether!the!traits!are!monogenic!(controlled! by!one!gene)!or! polygenic!(controlled!by!many!
genes).!!
! !
!
!
!
415#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
$(<>5'X1'f786,7<.67-/'-:'345/-6D358'(9-/+'-::83,7/+'-:'645'64,55'3-887<>5'07::5,5/6'3(,5/6(>'
9(67/+'3(7,8'
$,(76'
^(,5/6(>'
9(67/+'
^(7,8'
d::83,7/+'(/0'6457,'345/-6D358'
^(,5/6(>'
9(67/+'3(7,8'
=4-'
)-/6,7<.650'
O''
Q''
$-6(>'
^5,)5/6'
O'
^5,)5/6'
Q'
f793>5'
H*x*H*
10*
4*
14*
71.43*
28.57*
6*
H*x*N*
17*
33*
50*
34.00*
66.00*
19*
N*x*N*
5*
45*
50*
10.00*
90.00*
21*
Total*
32*
82*
114*
115*
185*
46*
](,'>-<5'
H*x*H*
28*
9*
37*
75.68*
24.32*
15*
H*x*N*
39*
28*
67*
58.21*
41.79*
27*
N*x*N*
2*
8*
10*
20.00*
80.00*
4*
Total*
69*
45*
114*
154*
146*
46*
$-/+.5'
,->>7/+'
H*x*H*
72*
9*
81*
88.90*
11.10*
33*
H*x*N*
14*
9*
23*
60.87*
39.13*
11*
N*x*N*
5*
5*
10*
50.00*
50.00*
2*
Total*
91*
23*
114*
200*
100*
46*
$-/+.5'
:->07/+'
H*x*H*
21*
6*
27*
77.78*
22.22*
13*
H*x*N*
42*
27*
69*
60.87*
39.13*
26*
N*x*N*
1*
17*
18*
5.56*
94.44*
7*
Total*
64*
50*
114*
144*
156*
46*
"5/6' e766>5'
b7/+5,'
H*x*H*
9*
6*
15*
60.00*
40.00*
13*
H*x*N*
25*
36*
61*
40.98*
59.02*
26*
N*x*N*
7*
31*
38*
18.42*
81.58*
7*
Total*
41*
73*
114*
119*
181*
46*
%7/+'
b7/+5,T'
c/05S'
b7/+5,'
H*x*H*
58*
7*
65*
89.23*
10.77*
27*
H*x*N*
22*
14*
36*
61.11*
38.89*
15*
N*x*N*
1*
12*
13*
7.69*
92.31*
4*
Total*
81*
33*
114*
158*
142*
46*
&>5:6')47/'
H*x*H*
4*
1*
5*
80.00*
20.00*
2*
H*x*N*
9*
19*
28*
32.14*
67.86*
12*
N*x*N*
1*
80*
81*
1.25*
98.75*
32*
Total*
14*
100*
114*
113*
187*
46*
O(7,'>7/5'
H*x*H*
19*
0*
19*
100.00*
0.00*
9*
H*x*N*
39*
44*
83*
46.99*
53.01*
32*
N*x*N*
3*
9*
12*
25.00*
75.00*
5*
Total*
61*
53*
114*
172*
128*
46*
!
'
'
'
!
!
!
416#
6*7(89(:''/"(;9(<&0*="#(>(?@??(
A#%0%'B(C*/#+,7(*)(D",70B&,#"(,+-(E"-%&,7(F"'",#&B(GACDEFH(
!
!"#$%&"'()*#(!&%"+&"(,+-(.-/&,0%*+(1(2+%0"-(3%+4-*5!
$(<>5'X1'I&-/67/.50L1'f786,7<.67-/'-:'345/-6D358'(9-/+'-::83,7/+'-:'645'64,55'3-887<>5'
07::5,5/6'3(,5/6(>'9(67/+'3(7,8'
$,(76'
^(,5/6(>'
9(67/+'
^(7,8'
d::83,7/+'(/0'6457,'345/-6D358'
^(,5/6(>'
9(67/+'3(7,8'
=4-'
)-/6,7<.650'
O''
Q''
$-6(>'
^5,)5/6'
O'
^5,)5/6'
Q'
]D5<,-='
84(35'
H*x*H*
93*
2*
95*
97.89*
2.11*
39*
H*x*N*
16*
3*
19*
84.21*
15.79*
7*
N*x*N*
0*
0*
0*
0.00*
0.00*
0*
Total*
109*
5*
114*
182*
18*
46*
$4.9<'
),-887/+'
H*x*H*
6*
6*
12*
50.00*
50.00*
4*
H*x*N*
41*
43*
84*
48.81*
51.19*
34*
N*x*N*
4*
14*
18*
22.22*
77.78*
8*
Total*
51*
63*
114*
121*
179*
46*
!,9':->07/+'
H*x*H*
5*
2*
7*
71.43*
28.57*
4*
H*x*N*
47*
37*
84*
55.95*
44.05*
35*
N*x*N*
8*
15*
23*
34.78*
65.22*
7*
Total*
60*
54*
114*
162*
138*
46*
[4765'
:-,5>-)*''
H*x*H*
4*
8*
12*
33.33*
66.67*
4*
H*x*N*
17*
42*
59*
28.81*
71.*19*
24*
N*x*N*
0*
43*
43*
0.00*
100.00*
18*
Total*
21*
93*
114*
62*
238*
46*
^,5(.,7).>(,'
87/.8'376'
H*x*H*
11*
2*
13*
84.62*
15.38*
4*
H*x*N*
1*
5*
6*
16.67*
83.33*
3*
N*x*N*
1*
94*
95*
1.05*
98.95*
39*
Total*
13*
101*
114*
102*
115*
46*
O(/050/588'
H*x*H*
80*
7*
87*
91.95*
8.05*
33*
H*x*N*
16*
5*
21*
76.19*
23.81*
10*
N*x*N*
1*
5*
6*
16.67*
83.33*
3*
Total*
97*
17*
114*
185*
115*
46*
K/0'
$-5T"7+'6-5'
H*x*H*
44*
6*
50*
88.00*
12.00*
19*
H*x*N*
31*
19*
50*
62.00*
38.00*
22*
N*x*N*
1*
13*
14*
7.14*
92.86*
5*
Total*
76*
38*
114*
157*
143*
46*
j(3'6--64''
H*x*H*
3*
6*
9*
33.33*
66.67*
4*
H*x*N*
14*
37*
51*
27.45*
72.55*
19*
N*x*N*
3*
51*
54*
55.56*
44.44*
23*
Total*
20*
94*
114*
116*
184*
46*
!
The! analysis! of! the! distribution! of! the! dominant! and! recessive! phenotypes! of! the! 16! traits!
among!offspring!of!the!three!possible!parental!mating!pairs!of!the!data!of!the!46!couples!and!
their!114!children!to!determine!whether!a!single!genetic!locus!(i.e!monogenic)!with!two!alleles,!
!
!
!
417#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
or!multiple!genes!(i.e!polygenic)!is!involved!in!a!phenotype,!is!presented!in!Table!3.!In!all!cases,!
the!dominant!phenotype!is!represented!by!H!and!the!recessive!phenotype!represented!by!N.!!!
!
Examination!of!Table!3!shows!that,! with! the! exception! of! hair! line! where!H!X!H!mating!pair!
produced!only!H!offspring!and!white!forelock!where!N!X!N!produced!only!N!offspring,!for!the!
other! 14! traits,! all! three! types! of! mating! pairs! produced! both! H! and! N! offspring,! albeit! at!
different!proportions.!There!was!no!N!X!N!mating!for!eyebrow!shape.!
!!
Offspring!of!the!H!X!H!mating!pair!for!13!(81.25%)!traits!were!60%!or!more!also!H!phenotype!
namely,! cheek! dimples! (71.43),! earlobe! (75.68%),! tongue! rolling! (88.90%),! tongue! folding!
(77.78%),!bent! little!finger!(60.00),!index/ring!finger!(89.23%),!cleft!chin!(80.00%),!hair!line!
(100%),! eyebrow! shape! (97.89%),! arm! folding! (71.43%),! ear! pit! (84.62%),! handedness!
(91.95%)!and!2nd/!big!toe!lengths!(88.00%).!For!hand!clasping,!the!H!X!H!parental!mating!pairs!
produced!50%!H!and!50%!N!offspring.!Offspring!produced!for!white!forelock!or!gap!tooth!H!X!
H!parental!mating!pairs!were!33.33%!N!and!66.67%!H.!!
!
For!H!X!N!mating,!more!H!offspring!were!produced! for!8!traits,!while! more!N!offspring!were!
produced! for! the! other! 8! traits.! Higher! percentage! of! H! offspring! were! produced! for! H! X! N!
mating! pairs! for! ear! lobe! (58.21%),! tongue! rolling! (60.87%),! tongue! folding! (60.87%),!
index/ring! finger! (61.11%),! eyebrow! shape! (84.21),! arm! folding! (55.95%),! handedness!
(76.19%)!and!2nd/!big!toe!lengths!(62%).!More!N!offspring!were!produced!to!the!H!X!N!mating!
pairs! for! the! other! 8! traits! namely,! dimple! (66%),! bent! little! finger! (59.02%),! cleft! chin!
(67.86%),! hair! line! (53.01%),! hand! clasping! (51.19%),! white! forelock! (71.19%),! ear! pit!
(83.33%)!and!gap! tooth! (72.55%).! The! observation! suggests! that!the!recessive!N! alleles! are!
hidden!and!protected!in!the!heterozygote!HN!dominant!phenotype.!!
!
For! N! X! N! mating,! more! N! offspring! were! produced! for! 13! (81.25%)! traits! namely,! dimple!
(90%),! ear! lobe! (80.00%),! tongue! folding! (94.44%),! bent! little! finger! (81.58%),! index/ring!
finger!(92.31%),!cleft!chin!(98.75%),!hair!line!(75.00%),!hand!clasping!(77.78%),!arm!folding!
(65.22%),! white! forelock! (100%),! ear! pit! (98.95%),! handedness! (83.33%)! and! 2nd/! big! toe!
lengths!(92.86%).!Equal!percentage! (50:50!%)!of!H!and!N!offspring! were! produced!to!N!X!N!
mating!pair!for!tongue!rolling,!but!more!H!offspring!were!produced!for!N!X!N!offspring!for!only!
one!trait,!gap!tooth!(55.56%!H!offspring).!There!was!no!N!X!N!mating!pair!for!eyebrow!shape.!
!
In!summary,!
i. The!H!X!H!mating!pairs!of!13!traits!(81.25%)!produced!more!H!offspring!than!N!offspring!
and!N!X!N!mating!pairs!of!13!traits!(81.25%)!also!produced!more!N!offspring!than!H!
offspring.!H!X!N!mating!pairs!of!8!traits!(50%!of!traits)!produced!more!H!offspring!than!
N!offspring,!the!H!X!N!parental!mating!pairs!of!8!other!traits!(50%!of!traits),!produced!
more!N!offspring!than!H!offspring.!!!
ii. When! two! parents,! expressing! the! recessive! phenotype! (N! X! N)! of! a! trait! produce!
offspring! who! express! the! dominant! phenotype! (H),! it! suggests! that! the! trait! is! not!
controlled!by!one!gene!having!two!alleles!with!one!allele!dominant!to!a!recessive!allele.!!
iii. !The!production!of!offspring!having!the!H!and!N!phenotypes!by!H!X!H!and!N!X!N!parental!
mating!pairs!suggest!that!such!parents!are!not!homozygous.!
!
!
!
!
!
418#
6*7(89(:''/"(;9(<&0*="#(>(?@??(
A#%0%'B(C*/#+,7(*)(D",70B&,#"(,+-(E"-%&,7(F"'",#&B(GACDEFH(
!
!"#$%&"'()*#(!&%"+&"(,+-(.-/&,0%*+(1(2+%0"-(3%+4-*5!
DISCUSSION'
The!present! study! analyzed! the! occurrence! and! frequency! distribution! of!the!dominant! and!
recessive!forms!of!16!morphogenetic!traits!among!505!(233!males!and!272!female)!students!of!
the!National!University!of!Lesotho,!presented!in!Table!1!and!Figure!2.!!!
!
This!study!found!differences!in!the!16!selected!traits!in!both!the!distribution!of!their!dominant!
and!recessive!phenotypes!and!the!occurrence!of!these!phenotypes!in!males!and!females!in!the!
sample!population!of!505!students!in!Table!1!and!Figure!2.!Such!differences!in!the!distribution!
of! dominant! and! recessive! phenotypes! of! different! traits! in! the! same! population,! between!
different!populations!and!between!males!and!females,!have!been!shown!for!dimples,!earlobes,!
widow’s!peak,!bent!little!finger,!cleft!chin,!handedness,! hand! clasping,! tongue! rolling,! tongue!
folding!in!studies!in!Nigeria![2],!Pakistan! [10,! 33]! and! India![4,18].!!In!table!1!in!the!present!
study,! association! evaluation! between! gender! and! the! evaluated! traits! showed! that! all! the!
studied! traits! did! not! significantly! relate! with! gender! (p>! 0.05)! and! both! dominant! and!
recessive! phenotypes! of! the! 16! traits! were! found! in! both! males! and! females.! The! lack! of!
association!between!trait!and!gender!were!observed!for!tongue!folding!(χ2!=!0.104<!3.84)!and!
face!dimple!(p=0.596)!in!a!study!in!Pakistan![10]!and!for!cheek!dimple,!earlobe,!hand!clasping,!
cleft! chin,! arm! folding,! tongue! rolling,! widow’s! peak,! handedness! [4,! 34,! 9].! Tongue! rolling!
(p=0.010)!and!cleft!chin!(p!=!0.00)!were!associated!with!gender,!with!more!males!able!to!roll!
their!tongues!and!having!cleft!chin!than!females![10]!and!the!presence!or!absence!of!dimpled!
cheeks!was!also!significantly!related!to!gender!type![9].!!
!
For! 8! traits,! as! shown! in! table! 1! and! figure! 2,! the! dominant! phenotype! occurred! at! a! lower!
frequency!in!the!sample!population!than!the!recessive!phenotype!namely,!preauricular!sinus!
(6.73%),! cleft! chin! (11.68%),! gap! tooth! (25.74),! white! forelock! (26.14%),! longest! 2nd!toe!
(27.52%),!cheek!dimple! (31.09%),!left!thumb!on!top!of! right!thumb!when!hands!are!clasped!
(48.12%)! and! right! forearm! on! top! of! left! forearm! when! arms! are! folded! (49.31%).! These!
results!agree!with!results!of!other!studies!that!found!the!dominant!phenotypes!of!these!traits!
to!be!less!prevalent!in!the!study!population!than!the!recessive!phenotype;!ear!pit![35],!cleft!chin!
[10,!4,!9],!white!forelock![36]!gap!tooth![37,!38]!longest!2nd!toe![39],!cheek!dimple![10,!4,!9],!left!
thumb!on! top!of!right!thumb!when!hands!are!clasped![4,!16)!and!right!forearm!on!top!of!left!
forearm!when!arms!are!folded![40].!!
!
For!the!remaining!8!traits!in!table!1,!the!dominant!phenotype!was!more!prevalent!in!the!sample!
population! than! the! recessive! phenotype! namely,! free! ear! lobe! (59.01%),! tongue! rolling!
(76.63%),!tongue!folding!(53.27%),!bent! little! finger! (53.07%),! index! finger!longer!than!ring!
finger! (72.28%),! widow's! peak! (57.43%),! unconnected! eyebrow! (96.24%)! and! right!
handedness!(82.38%).!The! results!of!the!present!study! on!higher!prevalence!of!free! ear!lobe!
than!attached!ear!lobe!and!tongue!rollers!than!non-rollers!agree!with!the!results!of!a!study!in!
Nigeria![9].!However,!the!results!contradict!the!results!of!the!study!of!2000!people!in!Pakistan!
which!found!the!dominant!phenotype!occurring!less!frequently!in!the!sample!population!than!
the!recessive!phenotype!namely,!the!ability!to!roll!the!tongue!(46%),!ability!to!fold!the!tongue!
(36.45%)![10].!
!
In!Table!2!is!presented!the!results!of!the!analysis!of!the!observed!numbers!of!the!phenotypes!
of!the! traits! among! the! 505!students! on! the!assumption! that! the! traits! are!Mendelian! traits!
!
!
!
419#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
controlled!by!a!single!gene!with!two!alleles!and!that!the!alleles!are!in!Hardy-Weinberg!(H-W)!
equilibrium!in!the!population.!
!
The!calculated!p-values!for!the!following!7!traits!were!0!(p<0.05)!namely;!cheek!dimple,!cleft!
chin,!hair!line,!white!forelock,!preauricular!sinus/!ear!pit,!2nd!toe/big!toe!length!and!gap!tooth.!
Consequently,!the!assumptions!that!they!were!controlled!by!a!single!gene!with!two!alleles,!with!
the!alleles!in!H-W!equilibrium!in!the!population!was!rejected.!It!was!concluded!that!the!7!traits!
are!not!one-gene-two-allele!controlled!traits!and!the!alleles!are!not!in!H-W!equilibrium!in!the!
population.!!
!
The!calculated!p-values!for!the!following!9!traits,!on!the!other!hand,!were!=!1!(p>0.05)!namely;!
ear! lobe,! tongue! rolling,! tongue! folding,! bent! little! finger,! index! finger/ring! finger! length,!
eyebrow!shape,!hand!clasping,!arm!folding!and!handedness.!!Consequently,!the!assumption!that!
they!are!controlled!by!a!single!gene!with!two!alleles,!with!the!alleles!in!H-W!equilibrium!in!the!
population! was! accepted.! In! a! similar! study! of! 909! male! and! female! individuals! in! Punjab,!
Pakistan,!tongue!rolling!(X2!=!109.72,!d.f!=!1)!and!dimple!(X2!=!1322,!df!=!1)!did!not!fit!the!H-W!
assumptions! of! one-gene-two-alleles! controlled! traits! with! the! alleles! in! equilibrium! in! the!
population.!In!the!same!study!however,!ear!lobe!(X2"=2.842,! df!=!1)!fit!the!H-W!assumptions!
[33].!The!results!of!the!present!study!agree!with!the!results!of!Rehman!et!al.![33]!that!dimple!is!
not!a!one-gene-two-allele!controlled!trait,!but!disagree!on!tongue!rolling,!which!did!not!fit!the!
H-W!assumptions!and!ear!lobe,!which!fit!the!H-W!assumptions.!In!the!same!study!of!Rehman!et!
al.![33],!the!ABO!blood!group,!Rh!factor!and!nature!of!hair!did!not!fit!the!H-W!assupmtions!and!
were!therefore!regarded!as!not!one-gene-two-alleles!controlled!traits![33].!!
!
Examination!of!the!columns!for!the!expected!numbers!of!the!dominant!phenotypes,!specifically!
column! 17,! showed! that,! for! 14! of! the! 16! traits,! the! heterozygotes! (pq)! outnumbered! the!
homozygotes!(pp)!by!at!least!2!to!1.!For!Handedness!however,!it!was!1.4:1.!It!was!only!in!the!
eyebrow! shape! that! the! homozygous! dominant! (pp)! genotype! outnumbered! the!
heterozygous(pq)! genotype! among! the! dominant! phenotypes! by! 1:0.5.! This! observation!
suggests!that,!for!many!traits,!the!recessive!alleles,!with!selective!disadvantage,!are!protected!
in!the!dominant!phenotype.!
!
In! Table! 3! is! presented! the! result! of! the! analysis! of! the! distribution! of! the! dominant! and!
recessive!phenotypes!of!the!16!traits!among!114!offspring!of!46!H!X!H,!H!X!N!or!N!X!N!parental!
pairs!to!determine!whether!a!single!genetic!locus!(i.e!monogenic)!with!two!alleles,!or!multiple!
genes!(i.e!polygenic)!controlled!each!trait.!
!
Examination!of!Table!3!shows!that!for!13!trats,!all!three!mating!pairs!produced!both!H!and!N!
offspring,!albeit!at!different!proportions.! However,! for! hair! line! H! X! H! mating!pair!produced!
only!H!offspring!and!for!white!forelock,!N!X!N!pair!produced!only!N!offspring.!There!was!no!N!
X!N!mating!for!eyebrow!shape.!
!
The!H!X!H!parental!mating!pairs!also!produced!N!offspring.!At!least!60%!of!the!offspring!of!the!
H!X!H!parental!pairs!were!also!H!phenotype!for!13!traits!namely,!cheek!dimples,!earlobe,!tongue!
rolling,!tongue!folding,!bent!little!finger,!index/ring!finger,!cleft!chin,!hair!line!(100%),!eyebrow!
shape,! arm! folding,! ear! pit! (preauricular! sinus),! handedness! and! 2nd/big! toe! lengths.! H! X! H!
!
!
!
420#
6*7(89(:''/"(;9(<&0*="#(>(?@??(
A#%0%'B(C*/#+,7(*)(D",70B&,#"(,+-(E"-%&,7(F"'",#&B(GACDEFH(
!
!"#$%&"'()*#(!&%"+&"(,+-(.-/&,0%*+(1(2+%0"-(3%+4-*5!
mating!pair!for!hand!clasping!produced!50%!H!and!50%!N!offspring,!while!H!X!H!mating!pair!
for!white!forelock!and!gap!tooth!produced!more!N!than!H!offspring.!!
!
For!H!X!N!parental!mating!pairs,!more!H!than!N!offspring!were!produced!for!8!traits!namely!ear!
lobe!(58.21%),!tongue!rolling!(60.87%),!tongue!folding!(60.87%),!index/ring!finger!(61.11%),!
eyebrow!shape!(84.21),!arm!folding!(55.95%),!handedness!(76.19%)!and!2nd/!big!toe!lengths!
(62%).!More!N!offspring!were!produced!by!the!H!X!N!parental!mating!pairs!for!the!8!other!traits.!
The! observation! suggests! that! the! N! recessive! allele! is! hidden! and! protected! in! the!
heterozygotes.!!
!
The!N!X!N!parental!mating!pairs!also!produced!H!offspring.!More!H!offspring!were!produced!to!
N!X!N!parental!pairs!for!13!(86.67%)!of!the!traits.The!N!X!N!parental!pairs!for!!tongue!rolling!
produced! equal! percentage! (50:50)! of! H!and! N! offspring! .! There! was! no! N! X! N! mating! for!
eyebrow! shape.! It! was! only! for! the! gap! tooth! trait! that! more! H! offspring! (55.56%)! than! N!
offspring!(44.44%)!were!produced!to!N!X!N!parental!mating!pairs.!!
!
Wiener!in!1932![30]!was!the!first! to! examine! the! genetic! basis! of! arm! folding!by!comparing!
parents!and!offspring,!with!the!following! results!for!the!percentage! of!R!offspring!among!the!
offspring!of!the!three!different!parental!mating!pairs:!R!X!R!(38%!R),!R!X!L!(45%!R)!and!L!X!L!
(45%!R).!!Wiener![30]!observed!that!each!of!the!three!kinds!of!matings!had!about!the!same!
proportion!of!R!and!L!offspring,!therefore!Weiner![30]!concluded!that!there!is!no!genetic!basis!
for!arm!folding!preference!because!two!L!parents!could!not!have!an!R!child,!but!close!to!half!of!
the!children!of!Lx!L!matings!were!R.!Arm!folding!studies!involving!12!families!by!Reiss!and!Reiss!
[41]!found!the!following!results!for!R!offspring!among!offspring!of!the!three!different!parental!
mating!pairs:! R! X!R! (52%! R),! R!X! L! (45%!R)! and! L!X! L! (38%! R).!Some! association! between!
parents!and!offspring!was! thus! observed,! in! that!R!x!R!parents!had!a!higher!proportion!of! R!
offspring!than!do!L!x!L!parents.!All!the!12!studies!that!were!included!in!a!summary!found!many!
R!offspring!of!L! x! L!parents!and!L!offspring!of!R! x! R!parents![41].!Some!association!between!
parents!and!offspring!was!also!observed!in!the!present!study,!in!that!H!x!H!parents!for!13!traits!
(81.25%)!had!a!higher!proportion!of!H!offspring!than!N!offspring!and!N!X!N!parents!for!13!traits!
produced!a!higher!proportion!of!N!offspring!than!H!offspring.!The!H!X!N!mating!pairs!of!8!traits!
(50%!of!traits)!produced!more!H!offspring!than!N!offspring!whereas!the!H!X!N!parental!mating!
pairs!of!8!other!traits!(50%!of!traits),!produced!more!N!offspring!than!H!offspring.!!!
!
Regarding!the! arm! folding,! when! data! from! twin!studies! were! considered! together!with! the!
family!studies!data!above,!it!was!concluded!that!there!is!little!genetic!influence!on!arm!folding,!
and! it! certainly! is! not! the! simple! one-gene,! two-allele! trait! described! in! the! myth! [41].! The!
production!of!offspring!having! the! H! and!N!phenotypes!by!H!X!H! and! N! X!N!parental!mating!
pairs!suggest!also!that!such!parents!are!not!homozygous!and!could!even!result!from!"paternal!
discrepancy",!which!was!found!to!be!about!4!%!of!all!children!in!European!and!North!American!
populations![42].!!
!
In!another!study! by!Lai!and!Walsh![43],! they!recorded!the!following!data! on!families!in!New!
Guinea!for!earlobe:!F!X!F!(35%!F),!F!X!A!(39%!F)!and!A!X!A!(29%!F).!Mohanraju!and!Mukherjee!
[13]!performed!a!similar!study!on!earlobe!in!India!and!found!similar!results:!F!X!F!(93%!F),!F!X!
A!(50%!F)!and!A!X!A!(15%!F).!In!1960,!Beckman!et!al.![44]!report!data!from!Swedish!families!
where! they! found! the! following! percentage! of! C! offspring! among! offspring! of! the! different!
!
!
!
421#
Asita, A. O., Ntsane, K., & Taole, M. M. (2022). Occurrence and Distribution of 16 Human Morphogenetic Traits in the Maseru District of Lesotho.
British Journal of Healthcare and Medical Research, 9(5). 403-425.
2FIJ(B00KJLL-MN-*%N*#4LO@NOPQRSLT="5%N8;NORRR;(
!
mating!pairs:!C!X!C!(91%!C),!C!X!S!(46%!C)!and!S!X!S!(11%!C),!given!that!C!is!cleft!and!S!is!smooth.!
They!concluded!that,!while!there!is!definitely!a!strong!genetic!influence,!as!parents!with!cleft!
chins!have!a!higher!proportion!of!cleft-chin!offspring!than!do!parents!without!cleft!chins,!the!4!
cleft-chinned! offspring! from! smooth! X! smooth! parents! do! not! fit! the! myth! that! cleft! chin! is!
determined!by!a!dominant!allele.!
!
In!1965,!Dutta![45]!found!two!extended!families!with!bent!little!fingers!(B)!where!six!children!
of!S!x!S!parents!were!all!S,!while!22!out!of!34!children!of!B!x!S!parents!were!B.!The!results!fitted!
the! model! of! bent! little! finger! being! caused! by! a! single! dominant! allele,! but! the! number! of!
families!was!very!small.!In!2003,!Leung!and!Kao![46]!found!another!extended!family!in!which!
bent! little! fingers! were! common! and! concluded! that! it! fit! the! model! of! B! being! caused! by! a!
dominant!allele,!but!the!data!also!fit!a!model!in!which!it!is!recessive.!The!presence!of!dimples!
may!change!during!an! individual's! lifetime,! and! there!is!no!published!evidence! for! a! genetic!
basis!for!dimples![3].!!
!
Family!and/or!twin!studies!that!found!offspring!of!both!phenotypes!produced!to!parents!of!the!
three!parental!mating!pairs!have!been!reported!for!tongue!rolling!as!a!character![47]!and!hand!
clasping![48].!With!regard!to!widow’s!peak,!McDonald![3]!and!Genetic!Science!Learning!Center!
[16]!conclude!that!there’s!not!enough!research!to!conclude!that!a!widow’s!peak!is!the!result!of!
a!single! dominant! gene.!A! study! in! Oman!by! Kumar! in!2017on! the! prevalence! of!synophrys!
(connected!eyebrows)!among!927!participants!found!synophrys!in!one!hundred!and!ten!cases!
(11.87%)!but!could!not!identify!any!genetic!association!in!any!of!the!cases![49].!He!concluded!
that!the!inheritance!of!the!appearance!of!the!eyebrows!is!polygenic![!49].!
!
A!study!in!2011!by!Holmes!and!Ruff![!50]!found!that!jaw!size!is!highly!correlated!with!genetics,!
and!jaw!size!is!a!determining!factor!when!it!comes!to!teeth!alignment.!
!
The!incidence!of! piebaldism! is!estimated!to!be!less!than!1:20000! and!affects!both!males!and!
females!and!all!races![51].!The!major!characteristic!of!piebaldism!is!a!white!forelock!(a!patch!of!
white!hair!directly!above!the!forehead)!of!hair!which!may!be!the!only!manifestation!in!80-90%!
of!cases![52].!The!first!record!of!a!white!forelock!was!published!by!Rizzoli!in!1872!when!he!
reported!on!49!individuals!in!6!generations![!53].!!In!2012,!Agarwal!and!Ojha![54]!reported!a!
family! with! piebaldism! affecting! three! successive! generations! and! stated! that! it! is! a! rare!
autosomal!dominant!disorder!due!to!mutations!of!the!c-kit!gene!located!on!Chromosome!4q12,!
which!affects!the!differentiation!and!migration!of!melanoblasts!from!the!neural!crest!during!the!
embryonic!life![55].!Because!many!family!studies!do!not!fit!the!myth! that! many! of! the! traits!
studied!are!caused!by!a!dominant!allele,!McDonald![3]!suggested!that!traits!such!as!dimple,!cleft!
chin,!bent!little!finger,!attached!ear!lobe,!arm!folding!etc! should! not! be! used! to! demonstrate!
basic! genetics.! The! use! of! morphogenetic! traits! to! teach! the! basic! principles! of! Mendelian!
genetics!can,!however,!still!provide!a!guide!for!understanding!the!inheritance!patterns!because!
of!the!qualitative!approach!(presence!or!absence)!usually!adopted!in!such!demonstrations.!The!
complex!mode!of!their!transmission!should!however,!be!explained!to!students!in!order!to!dispel!
the!misconception!that!they!are!simple!Mendelian!phenotypes.!
!
CONCLUSION'
Analysis!of!the!occurrence!and!distribution!of!the!16!traits!in!the!505!male!and!female!students!
showed!that!the!dominant!phenotype!was!more!prevalent!(in!%)!for!ear!lobe!(59.01),!tongue!
!
!
!
422#
6*7(89(:''/"(;9(<&0*="#(>(?@??(
A#%0%'B(C*/#+,7(*)(D",70B&,#"(,+-(E"-%&,7(F"'",#&B(GACDEFH(
!
!"#$%&"'()*#(!&%"+&"(,+-(.-/&,0%*+(1(2+%0"-(3%+4-*5!
rolling! (76.63),! tongue! folding! (53.27),! bent! little! finger! (53.07),! index! finger/! ring! finger!
(72.28),!widow's!peak!(57.43),!eyebrow!(96.24)!handedness!(82.38).!The!recessive!phenotype!
was!more!prevalent!for,!dimple!(68.91),!cleft!chin!(88.32),!hands!clasping!(51.88),!arms!folded!
(50.69),!white!forelock!(73.86),!ear!pit!(93.27),!2nd!toe!longer!toe!(72.48)!gap!tooth!(74.26).!!
There!was! no! significant!association! between! gender!and! any! of!the! traits,!X2!(1,!N!=! 505)!<!
3.48,!p!>!0.05.).!From!the!X2!results,!the!assumption!of!one-gene-two-alleles!with!the!alleles!in!
H-W!equilibrium!was! accepted! for! cheek! dimple,!cleft!chin,!hair! line,! white! forelock,! ear!pit,!
longer!2nd!toe!and!gap!tooth!but!rejected!for!ear!lobe,!tongue!rolling,!tongue!folding,!bent!little!
finger,!index//ring!finger!length,!eyebrow!shape,!hand!clasping,!arm!folding!and!handedness.!
Analysis!of!the!occurrence!and!distribution!of!the!16!traits!among!the!114!offspring!of!the!three!
different!parental!pairs!in! table! 3,! showed! that,!with!the!exception! of! hair! line! where! H!X!H!
mating!pair!produced!only!H!offspring!and!white!forelock!where!N!X!N!parental!pair!produced!
only! N! offspring,! all! three! types! of! mating! pairs! produced! both! H! and! N! offspring,! albeit! at!
different!proportions.!There!was!no!N!X!N!mating!pair!for!eyebrow!shape.!Some!association!
between!parents!and!offspring!was!observed,!in!that!H!x!H!parents!for!13!traits!(81.25%)!had!
a!higher!proportion!of!H!offspring!than!N!offspring!and!N!X!N!parents!for!13!traits!produced!a!
higher!proportion!of!N!offspring!than!H!offspring.!The!H!X!N!mating!pairs!of!8!traits!produced!
more!H!than!N!offspring!and!the!H!X!N!mating!pairs!of!8!other!traits!produced!more!N!than!H!
offspring.!!
!
Only!Hair!line!and!white!forelock!were!considered!as! monogenic! traits! in! the! two! analytical!
approaches.!!
!
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