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Behavior and Social Issues
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-022-00107-0
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Climate Change andSix Americas: What Can Behavior
Analysts Do?
ElizabethMeshes1 · LincolnZ.Kamau2 · MichaelSummers3·
KimberlyBenjaminHoppin1
Accepted: 7 October 2022
© Association for Behavior Analysis International 2022
Abstract
Climate change, directly impacted by human behavior, has been investigated and
evaluated across disciplines. The Six Americas was developed as a segmentation
tool to communicate effectively with the United States population about climate
change (Leiserowitz etal., 2021) across a spectrum from those likely to act in oppo-
sition to climate change mitigation strategies to those actively seeking to remediate
the climate change effects. Behavior analysts offer unique skills to intervene at the
individual level effectively. Behavior analysts will benefit from learning about this
conceptual model and its tools, particularly to inform intervention across the spec-
trum of the Six Americas. This paper will cover a background of the Six Americas
and suggestions on how to intervene for these different segments at the individual
level, followed by a brief review of the existing effective literature, particularly
regarding changing behavior in the food, energy, and transportation sectors. Specifi-
cally, behavior analytic interventions will be suggested for a population concerned
about climate change who may also be posed for action. Finally, we will provide
suggestions to guide behavior analysts to intervene with those disengaged or actively
dismissive of the threats posed by climate change.
Keywords Climate change· Six Americas· Sustainability· Pro-environmental
behavior
* Elizabeth Meshes
emeshes@thechicagoschool.edu
1 The Chicago School ofProfessional Psychology, Southern California, 707 Wilshire Blvd,
LosAngeles, CA90017, USA
2 Behavior Consultants ofConnecticut, Watertown, CT, USA
3 Cortica, SanDiego, CA, USA
Behavior and Social Issues
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Introduction
The debate on climate change is settled, with a consensus that the Earth has gotten
warmer in the past 50 years (Chance & Heward, 2010; Pörtner etal., 2022). The
global temperature has resulted in a mean increase of 1 °C above pre-industrial lev-
els (Pörtner etal., 2022). This anthropogenic warming has largely been a result of
the increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (i.e., carbon dioxide (CO2), meth-
ane, nitrous oxide, and other GHG) resulting from human activity over the twentieth
century (Pörtner etal., 2022).
Humans consume more resources than can be regenerated by the Earth within
a year. Earth Overshoot Day marks the date when humanity’s demand for ecolog-
ical resources and services in a given year exceeds what Earth can regenerate in
that year. It has been calculated since 1970, at which point it was December 30th,
and has fallen earlier each year except for 2020. In 2022, it was on July 28th (Earth
Overshoot Day, n.d.-a). Furthermore, high-income countries consume more natural
resources than low-income countries (IRP, 2019). As such, Earth Overshoot Day is
also calculated by country. For example, the United States’ Earth Overshoot Day
was calculated for March 13, 2022, whereas Jamaica utilizes the least resources and
fell on December 20th (Earth Overshoot Day, n.d.-b). Therefore, the main focus
of this paper will be on wealthy countries, particularly the United States, which is
responsible for significantly higher GHG emissions.
The threat to our present and future is real (Pörtner etal., 2022). However, imme-
diate actions can lessen the effects of climate change (known as mitigation) and
build resilience to reduce the impact on future generations’ health (known as adap-
tation; Pörtner et al., 2022). Moreover, many of these actions can simultaneously
yield benefits for health, the environment, the economy, and society (Pörtner etal.,
2022). As such, there is an urgent need for behavior analysts to use the tools of our
trade to reduce the current burden of climate change on humans and prevent future
threats (Heward & Chance, 2010) at the micro- and macro-levels (i.e., at the indi-
vidual level and larger scale or population level, respectively; Alavosius etal., 2015;
Alavosius & Houmanfar, 2020; Biglan, 2016). Successful climate change mitigation
and adaptation strategies will require aggressive efforts from every profession. Tak-
ing action is the next step (Caggiano, 2021).
Successful application of effective mitigation and adaptation strategies will result
in enormous changes in behavior related to the consumption of natural resources.
Specifically, behavior interventions must reduce the overconsumption of the planet’s
resources and influence sustainable consumption patterns of individuals and commu-
nities, particularly in the United States. If behavior analysis is going to create effec-
tive climate change interventions, wide-scale implementation is needed and quickly.
Knowing theTarget Population: theSix Americas
We believe Six Americas offers a foundation for tailoring interventions to individu-
als. The Six Americas is a segmentation of the United States population based on
survey responses about global warming regarding reported beliefs, behaviors, policy
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preferences, and engagement on issues (Maibach et al., 2011). Yale and George
Mason University researchers developed this tool in 2008 and have tracked survey
responses twice a year to establish effective, focused campaigning and governmental
and non-governmental organization communication around climate change (Leis-
erowitz etal., 2021). The initial tool was a 36-item survey (Maibach etal., 2011). It
has also been developed into a readily available four-question survey known as the
Six Americas Short Survey, Yay! (SASSY!; Chryst etal., 2018; available at https://
clima tecom munic ation. yale. edu/ visua lizat ions- data/ sassy/). In the publicly available
SASSY!, respondents self-rate across a Likert-type scale in the areas of importance
of climate change to one personally, how worried one is about climate change, how
much one believes one will be harmed personally by climate change, and the harm
of climate change to future environments. The respondent is placed into one of six
distinct groups based on their responses.
The six distinct groups, Alarmed, Concerned, Cautious, Disengaged, Doubt-
ful, and Dismissive, differ across a range of beliefs about global warming or cli-
mate change (current group demographic information is available, see Leiserowitz
etal., 2021). Taylor etal. (2018) summarized Roser-Renouf and colleagues’ (2014)
descriptions of the six categories (see Taylor etal., 2018, p. 218, Table1). In a brief
overview, the Alarmed group believes the scientific community’s consensus that
global warming is real and is impacted by human behavior. This group is the most
concerned and the most involved. Those who are less concerned than the Alarmed
group but still believe the scientific community are categorized as Concerned; how-
ever, they are less likely to be involved and view the threats posed by global warm-
ing as less imminent. The Cautious group believes that global warming is occurring
but does not think it will harm them or future generations. The Disengaged group
does not think about global warming and is unaware of the information and the sci-
entific consensus on climate change. As such, they are not involved in mitigation
efforts. The Doubtful group either believes global warming is part of the planet’s
natural cycle or is doubtful that global warming is a threat. The final group, labeled
as Dismissive, is certain that global warming is not real (Roser-Renouf etal., 2014;
Taylor etal., 2018). Two groups on the opposing ends of the spectrum, the Alarmed
and the Dismissive, are the least likely to change their opinions and believe that they
do not need more information to form an opinion (Roser-Renouf etal., 2014). How-
ever, the composition of these groups is not static.
Since the initial 2008 surveys, there have been changes in the percentage of
the population that falls within each group. Initial surveys yielded that the largest
group was categorized as Concerned (31%), followed by Alarmed (17%), Cautious
(16%), Disengaged (15%), Doubtful (10%), and then Dismissive (9%; Leiserowitz
etal., 2021). Data, as of 2021, indicated that the Alarmed group was the most rap-
idly increasing group, comprising 33% of the population; the Concerned group com-
prises 25% of the population (Leiserowitz etal., 2022). This suggests that 58% of the
population is informed about climate change and may be more likely to take action.
In contrast, the Doubtful and Dismissive groups have been shrinking in recent years
(a decrease of 4% since 2017) and currently comprise 19% of the population (i.e.,
10% and 9%, respectively), although similar to 2008 levels. The changing catego-
rizations are promising because this suggests that the United States’ population is
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increasingly aware of climate change. However, this does not mean it will translate
to increased climate mitigation behavior.
Six Americas respondents answered what question they would most like posed
to a climate scientist (Roser-Renouf etal., 2014); these responses can inform behav-
ior analysts. Their answers were categorized as seeking information about evidence,
causes, consequences, and actions. Information about evidence, causes, and conse-
quences can be viewed as educational, whereas information about actions may be
Table 1 Mitigation behavior targets and levels of intervention
This table is adapted from Williamson etal.’s (2018) thirty solutions for reducing GHG emissions across
four economic sectors
Behavior Targets for Climate Mitigation Level of Interven-
tion
Sector Target behavior Target direction Individual Policy
Food Wasting food decrease X
Eating plant-based food increase X
Clean cookstove use increase X
Composting increase X
Agriculture and
Land Management
Adding silvopasture increase X
Planting tropical staple trees increase X
Tree intercropping increase X
Restoring farmland increase X
Managing grazing increase X
Producing rice with low- methane method increase X
Conservative agriculture use increase X
Fertilizer use on farms decrease X
Using energy/water-saving farm irrigation increase X
Transportation Electric vehicle use increase X
Using rideshare increase X
Using mass transit increase X
Using tele-conferencing increase X
Hybrid vehicle use increase X
Using bikes/creating bike infrastructure increase X X
Walking/creating walking infrastructure increase X X
Electric bike availability/use increase X X
Energy or Materials Installing rooftop solar panels increase X
Using solar water heating increase X
Using methane digesters increase X
Using energy-efficient lighting increase X
Using smart thermostats increase X X
Recycling increase X X
Installing micro wind turbines increase
Water use in the home decrease X X
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considered seeking interventions to mitigate climate change. All groups, except
Dismissive, had questions categorized across all four areas. The Dismissive group,
not surprisingly given their denial of climate change, did not have questions catego-
rized as consequences or actions. This group had questions on evidence followed by
causes. Once again, it is important to note that the Dismissive group reported that
they did not need any more information to form an opinion and were not likely to
change their opinion about climate change. The Doubtful group’s questions were
concentrated primarily on causes followed by evidence. Further, the Doubtful group
is more likely to be persuaded by individuals within the Dismissive group (Roser-
Renouf etal., 2014). In addition, both the Doubtful and Dismissive groups reported
that they did not want to read or hear about the issue of global warming (Roser-
Renouf et al., 2014). However, Roser-Renouf et al. suggest “that communicating
about climate change in more value-congruent ways may increase engagement”
(p. 27). The Alarmed and Concerned groups overwhelmingly responded to want-
ing information about actions. The Cautious group was somewhat evenly divided
amongst evidence, causes, and actions, whereas the Disengaged group was reported
to pose questions about evidence followed by consequences, causes, then actions.
Overall, the Alarmed and Concerned groups may benefit from knowing what to or
how to change, whereas the Cautious and Disengaged group may require educa-
tional support before moving toward action, and the Doubtful and Dismissive may
require actions or information that are directly tied to their values.
In summary, the Six Americas research focuses on communication and messag-
ing; however, changing human behavior is required to mitigate the effects of climate
change. Academic settings and other climate change drivers (Hanus et al., 2018;
Neumann etal., 2022; Taylor etal., 2018) have adopted the Six Americas approach.
In addition, numerous climate change influencers (e.g., government agencies, not-
for-profit organizations, private corporations, the news, and media; Campbell etal.,
2020) use the Six Americas to target audiences and tailor their work and communi-
cation content for climate change interventions. Finally, behavior analysts may ben-
efit from using this framework. The SASSY! tool is free, quick, and easy to admin-
ister. Behavior analysts can use this tool to categorize individuals within the Six
Americas and proceed with change strategies aligned with the categorization, which
we will outline in the following sections.
Behavior Analysis andClimate Change
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) has the technologies to inform, incentivize, influence,
and motivate individual, institutional, and public audiences to recognize the threat of
climate change and promote significant behavioral changes toward solving this exis-
tential threat (Williamson etal., 2018). This is not new information as research in this
area has been published in behavior analytic journals in the last 50-year span, with an
increased interest in the past 5 years (Gelino etal., 2021). In addition, special sections
of peer-reviewed journals, such as the present one, have been dedicated to this effort
(e.g., Heward & Chance, 2010). However, climate change continues to present both a
challenge and an opportunity for behavior analysis to rise to the occasion. As such, we
Behavior and Social Issues
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believe it is important to provide practical suggestions to impact reducing GHG emis-
sions directly.
It is not challenging to know where to begin. It is well known that the main
contributing activities to GHG within the United States are transportation (27%),
electricity (25%), industry (e.g., burning fossil fuels for energy or developing raw
materials into goods; 24%), commercial and residential (e.g., producing heat or
handling of waste; 13%), and agriculture (e.g., livestock; 11%; Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, n.d.-c). Further, Williamson etal. (2018) identified 30 behavioral
solutions for climate mitigation across four areas (i.e., food, agriculture and land
management, transportation, and energy), which we will refer to as the Big Four.
ABA can advance research for these Big Four. We will provide direction toward
possible intervention at a suggested level (Table1).
We recommend approaches across the Six Americas categories. No action is too
small, especially when taken by millions. Individual interventions can have a collec-
tive effect, which could be captured by measurements of CO2 emissions at the popu-
lation level (see Bonner & Biglan, 2021, for a model for multisector community
interventions). Specifically, we believe behavior analysts can provide interventions
starting at the individual level for food consumption (i.e., food waste, plant-rich
diets, and composting), energy use (e.g., decreasing electricity use and recycling),
and transportation (e.g., using rideshare, using mass transit, using bikes, and walk-
ing). It is most important to do something. If the Six Americas is correct, the
Alarmed and Concerned groups may be the most likely to take action and, as such,
could serve as the targeted population for interventions actively working to decrease
GHG emissions. We will primarily focus on targeting the Alarmed and Concerned
groups; we will also provide some suggestions for the Cautious and Disengaged
groups as well as the Doubtful and Dismissive as another group.
What Can Behavior Analysts Do fortheAlarmed andConcerned?
Behavior analysts can begin by referencing the extant behavior-analytic research.
Gelino et al. (2021) reviewed several peer-reviewed behavior analytic journals and
yielded 50 articles targeting sustainability. As related to the 30 behavioral solutions,
these studies targeted the food sector (i.e., composting), the transportation sector (e.g.,
efficient driving behavior [i.e., miles per gal and tire pressure] and decreased driving
[miles driven and carpooling]), and the energy sector (e.g., recycling, reusable dish-
ware, kWh usage, thermostat use, lights off, and average device usage). There has been
limited research published within those journals since Gelino and colleague’s review
(i.e., Atkinson etal., 2022; Newsome etal., 2021). However, this does not cover all
behavior analytic sustainability research. Behavioral interventions have been published
outside traditional behavior analytic journals (e.g., DeLeon & Fuqua, 1995; Kim etal.,
2005; Wang, Shreedhar, etal., 2022a) and used in coordination with other psychologi-
cal approaches (e.g., Aitken etal., 1994; Kallbekken & Saelen, 2013; see Composto &
Weber, 2022; Grilli & Curtis, 2021; Harguess etal., 2020; Kwasny etal., 2022; Wynes
etal., 2018 for reviews). The behavior analytic approaches fall within the categories
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outlined by Gelino et al. (2021), which include incentives, feedback, punishment,
prompting and education, response, effort, self-monitoring, modeling, and commitment
and goal setting. Behavior analysts can also look toward some research on community-
based social marketing that compares different strategies used within behavior analysis
(e.g., prompts and incentives) and considers benefits and barriers (see McKenzie-Mohr
& Schultz, 2014; Schultz, 2014).
Food Sector The food sector includes the food we eat, how it is cooked, and its
disposal, which all impact GHG emissions (Edenhofer etal., 2014). According to
Williamson etal. (2018), global adoption of reducing food waste could plausibly
reduce CO2 emissions by 70.5 Gigaton (Gt), and adopting a plant-rich diet can fur-
ther reduce CO2 emissions by 66.1 GtCO2 (i.e., one billion metric tons of CO2).
For reference, a typical gas-powered passenger vehicle emits 4.6 metric tons of CO2
annually (Environmental Protection Agency, 2022a). As such, the two solutions of
modifying what we eat and how we dispose of it are the most impactful for climate
mitigation as compared to Williamson etal.’s other solutions. Unfortunately, behav-
ior analytic research in the food sector area is sparse, though there are some excep-
tions (i.e., Sussman & Gifford, 2013; Szczucinski et al., 2020). Nevertheless, we
believe that behavior analysts can expand known effective interventions to this area.
Adopting a plant-based diet is considered a long-hanging fruit for reducing GHG
emissions. Animal agriculture releases methane and nitrous oxide, which traps about
25 times and 300 times more heat than CO2, respectively (Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, n.d.-b); the cooking practices for animal-based food emit higher lev-
els of GHG than those of plant-based food (Frankowska etal., 2020). Given that
Americans consume meat above the national Dietary Guidelines (Zeng etal., 2019),
shifting to a 100% plant-based diet may be challenging. While this area has been
researched (e.g., Harguess etal., 2020), behavior analysts have not targeted it.
Behavior analysts have many opportunities for effective intervention in this area.
They may want to utilize shaping procedures to reduce animal consumption. For
example, promoting Meatless Mondays may allow an individual to contact rein-
forcement by learning to prepare and consume alternative plant-based meals that
may replace animal-based meals and decrease consumption of animals and ani-
mal byproducts (e.g., eggs and milk) over time. In addition, meat consumption is
decreased when a vegetarian meal is the default option or when a default serving
size is provided (Wynes etal., 2018). Procedures, including stimulus equivalence,
have targeted identifying accurate portion sizes (Hausman etal., 2014, 2017; Regan
etal., 2018; Trucil etal., 2015; Vladescu etal., 2021). These procedures can be uti-
lized at a household level to reduce portion sizes to the recommended serving. Fur-
ther, behavior analysts can work with individuals using common self-management
strategies that have been used with other populations (e.g., autism; Erhard etal.,
2022) or organizational behavior management (Ferguson & Rivera, 2022). This can
include targets, such as meal planning for nutritionally well-balanced meals and pur-
chasing readily available fruits and vegetables. This may reduce response effort (Fri-
man & Poling, 1995), making fresh produce a more likely choice. Behavior analysts
can also refer to Rafacz (2019) for an overview of behavior analytic research pro-
moting healthy food selection. However, shifting from an omnivore to a plant-based
Behavior and Social Issues
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diet is only one step as the decomposition of wasted food contributes to GHG emis-
sions, particularly by way of methane.
In the United States, an estimated 30% of food is thrown out yearly (United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), n.d.). This is of particular concern
because “about half of the water used to produce this food also goes to waste since
agriculture is the largest human use of water” (United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme, n.d.). One such reason for food waste is inaccurate knowledge of food labe-
ling dates (Yu & Jaenicke, 2020). For example, consumers will waste food when it
has reached the “best by” date, confusing it with the “use by” date. In such a case,
describing these differences may be the only needed step. However, if a prompt is
required, behavior analysts can consult the most updated Food and Drug Admin-
istration standards (U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection
Service, 2019). In such cases, we recommend a written prompt, similar to the date
labeling, placed on the consumer’s refrigerator where it is likely to be most appli-
cable and relevant to the consumer. Food waste also results from over-purchasing
items, improper storage, and disposing of edible food due to its visual appearance.
As stated, the EPA suggests meal planning to decrease purchasing excess food. They
also provide tips on best storage practices and alternative recipes (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2022b).
Behavior analysts should start with an assessment similar to the Performance
Diagnostic Checklist (PDC; Austin, 2000). The questions could be adapted to the
following: Does the consumer know how to store items properly/make the alterna-
tive recipe? Do they need reminders to store items/make alternative recipes? Do
they have sufficient materials for storage or food preparation? Do they need feed-
back on storing items/ recipe preparation? Do they see the effects of this? Is this
too effortful or difficult for them? Finally, do other tasks take precedence over these
tasks? Responses to these questions can inform behavior analysts on the best step to
proceed with intervention.
Interventions informed by the PDC-HS include training, task clarification and
prompting, resources, materials, and processes, and finally, performance conse-
quences, effort, and competition (Carr etal., 2013). For example, if consumers can
accurately report how to appropriately store items and identify alternative recipes
(e.g., use an overripe banana for bread or a smoothie), behavior analysts should
assess further. The behavior analyst can ask to look at stored items or have the con-
sumer demonstrate how they would make a recipe. The behavior analyst can also
assess if the consumer has the necessary materials. If all these skills are present,
the behavior analyst can determine how to modify response effort, apply reinforce-
ment, or provide feedback. Feedback will be discussed further. However, it is worth
noting that Wang, Shreedhar, etal. (2022a) found that in reducing food waste, pro-
environmental feedback was more effective than no feedback but not as effective as
anthropomorphized feedback. This will need further research.
It is important to acknowledge that not all food waste can be avoided. Further-
more, if food waste goes to a landfill, it decomposes anaerobically and produces
methane. It is best, in that case, to divert from landfills through composting.
Composting enables the conversion of organic waste into stable soil carbon with-
out generating methane; the converted organic waste can then be used as fertilizer to
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improve soil health while further sequestering carbon (Lou & Nair, 2009). If all coun-
tries reached the composting rates standard in the European Union (i.e., 57% of all
organic waste), there would be a significant global reduction of municipal waste-gen-
erated methane by 2050 (Hawken, 2017). People report not composting because they
do not have enough space (Statista, 2022b); however, consumers can compost indoors
using vermicomposters, aerobic composting, or an electronic composter (e.g., Meade,
n.d.). Many more resources are available through an online search. Behavior analysts
could promote and reinforce sustainable composting solutions that convert biodegrad-
able waste (e.g., food scraps and plant material) into soil fertilizer instead of sending it
to landfills.
Limited behavior analytic research has been conducted on composting. It gener-
ally targets a community level, which behavior analysts may feel is out of reach.
However, the interventions and measures can be used at the individual level. For
example, Szczucinski etal. (2020) effectively utilized procedures similar to those
used to promote recycling to increase composting and decrease contamination.
These procedures targeted decreasing response effort by manipulating the distance
to the receptacle (e.g., Brothers etal., 1994; Ludwig etal., 1998; O’Connor etal.,
2010), clearly distinguishing the receptacle (e.g., Austin etal., 1993), and posting
signage that indicates what can be included or should be excluded (e.g., Andrews
etal., 2013). Similar to recycling, reduced effort increases the likelihood of com-
posting (DiGiacomo etal., 2018). These interventions, bin placement and signage,
could be used separately or in conjunction. Behavior analysts can manipulate the
placement and types of receptacles to identify optimal individualized variables.
Further, individuals are more likely to compost if they observe others composting
(Sussman & Gifford, 2013). Therefore, behavior analysts should model and rein-
force this behavior when observed at the household and community level (e.g., in
restaurants and public places).
Energy Sector Carbon emissions from the energy sector are expected to at least
double by 2050 in the business-as-usual scenario (Edenhofer etal., 2014). As such,
there is an emphasis on developing city-wide interventions to mitigate climate
change (Castan Broto & Bulkeley, 2013). For example, most of the largest metropol-
itan areas have a program focused on Low-Income Energy Efficiency Program Plus
(LEEP Plus), saving electricity by 7% in the winter and summer months (Hancevic
& Sandoval, 2022). While behavior analytic research in sustainability has been lim-
ited, energy is the most researched area, particularly concerning decreasing elec-
tricity use and increasing recycling on the individual level. Common interventions
include education, prompting, goal setting, modeling, feedback, incentive, rewards,
and product review (see Gelino etal., 2021 for more detail). In addition to recy-
cling and decreasing electricity use, including efficient lighting and smart thermo-
stats, behavior analysis can also advance research and practice on other important
energy targets, such as water use, as well as expand to a larger scale, such as city-
wide interventions.
Wastes such as metals, plastic, glass, and other materials are now generated faster
than any other environmental pollutant, including GHG (Hoornweg et al., 2013).
These are categorized as solid waste. The EPA identifies solid waste as “any garbage
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or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or
air pollution control facility and other discarded material, resulting from industrial,
commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and community activities” (Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, n.d.-d). In 2018, the United States created approxi-
mately 292 million tons of municipal solid waste daily, an increase of 231.9% from
the 88.1 million tons of municipal solid waste recorded in 1960 (Environmental
Protection Agency, n.d.-b). Effective waste management strategies, such as waste
reduction, diversion, and reuse can reduce emissions by saving the energy needed
to process waste and manufacture new materials (Environmental Protection Agency,
2021).
Behavior analysts can promote recycling all materials, including paper, metal,
plastic, and glass. Recycling is an energy-efficient behavior, resulting in less water
wastage (Franklin Associates, A Division of Eastern Research Group (ERG),
2018). Ten of the 50 articles reviewed by Gelino etal. (2021) focused on recycling
(i.e., Austin etal., 1993; Brothers etal., 1994; Fritz etal., 2017; Geller etal., 1977;
Jacobs etal., 1984; Keller, 1991; Ludwig etal., 1998; Miller etal., 2016; O’Connor
etal., 2010; Witmer & Geller, 1976). Six of these counted the number of recyclable
items in a recycling bin, trash bin, or both to assess the effectiveness of their inter-
vention. These items are easy to measure as they result in a permanent product. In
addition, Bolanos etal. (2020) showed promising results in establishing accurate
responding in a sorting task for recycling, trash, and compostable materials that
caregivers reported generalizing to the home setting. Accurate sorting of materials
could be extended to naturalistic stimuli or other settings. Behavior analysts can
reference the studies mentioned above for suggestions on measurement and inter-
vention for recycling.
As mentioned, behavior analysts have focused on decreasing electricity (i.e., 17
of the 50 articles reviewed by Gelino etal., 2021). Much of this research may seem
inaccessible to the practicing behavior analyst as it may require usage reports (i.e.,
utility bills), costly materials, or long participation that fluctuates across meteoro-
logical seasons. It is likely that those within this Six America category, Alarmed and
Concerned, would have adopted energy-efficient lighting, as adoption has increased
within the past two decades (Dreyfus & Gallinat, 2015). Adopting light-emitting
diodes (LED) in residential use can reduce emissions by 7.8–8.7 gigatonnes of CO2
equivalent (GtCO2 eq) over this time (Hawken, 2017) compared to conventional
lighting solutions (e.g., compact fluorescent lamps, halogen lamps, and incandescent
lamps). While LED bulbs have a higher upfront cost (about 5 times more), they last
about 20 times longer and use about 7% of the energy than an incandescent lightbulb
(Eartheasy, n.d.). In addition, consumers can purchase smart lightbulbs and set and
control lighting remotely. As a result, consumers will pay less overall by switching
to more energy-efficient solutions (Attia etal., 2017; Vanage etal., 2022). Of course,
natural lighting should be promoted where possible because utilizing natural light
does not produce GHG. As such, it is possible that additional interventions, such as
prompting and feedback, will be needed.
Feedback has been a well-researched effective intervention for the reduction of
electricity use. Hayes and Cone (1977) examined the effects of monthly feedback
in reducing use. This has since been extended and modified by other researchers
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looking to make an impact in the area of sustainability at the individual level, within
college dorms and applied to a widespread consumer level (Bekker etal., 2010;
Gelino etal., 2021; Hayes & Cone, 1981; Winett etal., 1982). Feedback in the form
of social comparisons has increased as the energy sector continues to look for ways
to reduce electricity usage. For example, many energy companies across the United
States implement a monthly home energy report comparing energy use to surround-
ing households. Ayres etal. (2013) analyzed the use of home energy reports as feed-
back to consumers and found that energy use decreased on average by 2%; additional
studies have found similar effects (Allcott, 2011; Costa & Kahn, 2013). However,
this feedback does not strictly adhere to behavior analytic principles that suggest
that immediate and accurate feedback is the most effective (Karlin etal., 2015).
With technological advancements, the emergence of smart devices has provided
immediate and accurate feedback opportunities. For example, behavior analysis
can promote smart thermostats, which are devices that reduce heating and cooling
demand through sensors and settings in homes and apartments. Behavior analysts
can implement reinforcement to increase the likelihood of installing such devices
and use self-management strategies such as self-monitoring so that consumers can
identify the monetary and GHG emissions impact of their current appliances versus
the energy-saving ones. In addition, smart water monitors can detect and report leaks
and water usage by connecting to one’s water meter. For instance, behavior analysts
can promote the adoption of smart home monitors through feedback or reinforce-
ment and provide specific and immediate information to the concerned consumer.
A rise in GHG is associated with a temperature rise; locations worldwide are
experiencing severe drought conditions (Fielding etal., 2012; National Integrated
Drought Information System; NIDIS, n.d.; Vörösmarty etal., 2000). For example,
California is in a “megadrought” (Williams etal., 2022), and as of July 2021, 50
of the 58 counties remain in emergency drought conditions as declared by the gov-
ernor. This has prompted state officials to draft legislation to establish total water
budgets of 55 gal per person per day (gal/person/day) by 2022 and 50 gal/person/
day by 2030 (Weiser, 2018). In addition, researchers have examined various inter-
ventions to save water at the household level. This includes education campaigns
(Appelboom, 2009; Chan, 2021; Heiman, 2002; Hodges etal., 2021; Syme etal.,
2000), manipulating pay structures (Agras etal., 1980; Lu et al., 2019; Ratnasiri
etal., 2018; Rosenberg, 2009), integrating water-efficient appliances (Bennear etal.,
2013; Perez-Urdiales & Baerenklau, 2019), and feedback (Brent etal., 2015; Comi-
nola etal., 2021; Geller etal., 1983; Otaki etal., 2020). These studies have demon-
strated some impact on reducing water consumption. Still, there are many limita-
tions, including the participant response effort, relying on self-report, lack of data
transparency, and study duration. Above all, these studies lack behavioral principles
for long-term change.
In the last 40 years, behavior analytic research on water conservation has been
less researched. For example, Gelino etal. (2021) identified only one study focused
on water conservation (Agras et al., 1980). In 1983, Geller et al. attempted to
address water conservation utilizing the same interventions (e.g., feedback, installa-
tion of water-saving fixtures, and information) used in electricity-saving studies and
had limited success. Research has also used antecedent strategies (e.g., information
Behavior and Social Issues
1 3
campaigns that begin at the onset of drought or installation of high-efficiency appli-
ances or fixtures; Appelboom, 2009; Bennear et al., 2013; Chan, 2021; Heiman,
2002; Hodges etal., 2021; Perez-Urdiales & Baerenklau, 2019; Syme etal., 2000)
or punishment in the form of fines or increasing pay structures (Agras etal., 1980;
Lu etal., 2019; Ratnasiri etal., 2018; Rosenberg, 2009). These studies, however, are
not strictly behavior analytic. The field of study is currently wide open as there has
not been sufficient intervention to continue water conservation long term. Behavior
analysts can start by selecting interventions for study and applying behavior analytic
principles.
Behavior analysts can work with consumers and local governments in various
ways to promote the management of resources, such as adopting high- and low-
tech replacements to support energy conservation. For example, many energy and
water use rebates and incentives are available through companies and local and
state governments to incentivize purchases. Retrofitting homes with high-efficiency
appliances has shown to be an effective intervention for immediate savings (e.g.,
high-efficiency toilets, washing machines, etc.; Bennear etal., 2013; Pérez-Urdiales
& Baerenklau, 2019). In addition, rooftop small-scale solar systems can provide
household energy. Wide-spread adoption could reduce GHG emissions by 155% of
2005’s emissions by 2050 (Solar Energy Technologies Office, n.d.). Behavior ana-
lysts can work with local governments to effectively disseminate existing incentives
(e.g., Rosenfeld, 2021) or work with electric companies and consumers about rent-
ing their roofs for solar power or selling it back to the grid (e.g., Pickerel, 2020).
Transportation Sector Transportation is the leading cause of GHG in the United
States. Between 1990 and 2019, GHG emissions in the transportation sector
increased more than in any other sector (Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.-a).
There are many options for alternative transportation other than single-occupancy
vehicles. If one is to utilize a gas-powered or hybrid vehicle, ecodriving can also
maximize fuel efficiency or ridesharing. There is also an opportunity to utilize many
low emissions technologies, such as increasing use of public transportation and pro-
moting other cost-effective transportation modalities, such as electric vehicles and
bicycles.
Eco-driving encompasses a class of behaviors to maximize energy (i.e., fuel) effi-
ciency. There can be static interventions, such as the “Golden Rules,” or dynamic
interventions, such as the in-vehicle monitors that provide real-time feedback,
including miles per gallon used (MPG; Tu & Xu, 2022). The Golden Rules include:
(1) consider excess use (e.g., turn off electrical equipment if not needed, minimize
air conditioning, avoid aerodynamic drag, and avoid carrying excess weight), (2)
maintain a steady speed (e.g., braking and accelerating smoothly), (3) maintain the
vehicle (e.g., tire pressure, oil changes, etc.), and (4) anticipate the flow of traffic
(Ecodrive.org, 2022; Tu & Xu, 2022). Newsome etal. (2021) showed that fuel effi-
ciency increased in proportion to the rate drivers created novel verbal rules about the
digital numeric feedback display in their vehicles. They found that all participants
showed improvements in fuel efficiency, but those who generated fewer novel rules
also demonstrated less improvement in fuel efficiency. In addition, behavior ana-
lysts can prompt self-monitoring and feedback. Many newer vehicles will provide
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Behavior and Social Issues
feedback on fuel efficiency. However, behavior analysts can also use low-tech meas-
ures, such as monitoring fuel receipts and miles driven and then comparing changes
in MPG or duration between refills if mileage remains relatively constant.
Ridesharing apps are already popular, and have been used by over a third of the
United States population (Statista, 2022a); they are also associated with reductions
in GHG (Wang, Liu, etal., 2022b). The Covid-19 pandemic resulted in passenger
restrictions (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2021). However, there
was a decrease in transportation use and GHG emissions during this period (Ras-
mussen, 2021). As restrictions around the world ease and GHG emissions increase,
behavior analysts should prompt ridesharing and carpooling apps that match driv-
ers and passengers headed in the same direction. This reduces the likelihood that
the ridesharing app functions as a taxi service. Instead, the carpooling app, like
GoCarma® carpooling, connects neighbors and provides a maintenance payment
rather than a profit-based payment (Carson, 2014). Promoting and utilizing similar
carpooling apps will reduce GHG congestion in urban areas.
Similar to ridesharing, mass transit (i.e., bus, metro, tram, and commuter rail)
reduces travel in personal vehicles. However, many rely heavily on vehicles and
use public transportation at relatively low rates (Richter, 2022). The lack of access
to public transit and reliance on vehicles for long distances creates inequity across
populations regarding access to quality employment, recreation, and educational
opportunity. The Urban Institute provides recommendations for guiding federal
policy on planning public transit (Freemark & Tregoning, 2022) and may serve as
a good resource.
Promoting the use of electric bicycles or scooters (e-bike and e-scooter, respec-
tively) or shared transportation can significantly reduce GHG emissions in urban
settings. McQueen et al. (2020) modeled data from a North American study on
e-bike use and projected that 15% regional adoption in Portland, OR would reduce
CO2 emissions by 1000 metric tons per day, primarily from transitioning away from
car use. Bike sharing systems can use smart bikes that track GPS or utilize a smart
dock, and riders return the bikes to a specific location. The smart dock produces
more GHG emissions in production, but it may be preferable for higher-density cit-
ies, particularly in bike-friendly areas (Bonilla-Alicea etal., 2020). This would have
significant impacts if adopted across major cities and suburbs of those major cities
across the US. Behavior analysts can advocate for e-bike and e-scooter sharing pro-
grams, promote city planning that supports dedicated traffic lanes, and collaborate
with companies to incentivize use to shape behaviors such as biking to destinations
instead of using cars in cities.
Behavior analysis can also work with electric vehicle (EV) manufacturers’ and
states’ incentives and consumers to promote purchasing battery and plug-in vehi-
cles instead of conventional gas-powered vehicles. Research also shows that EVs
are easier to maintain than conventional vehicles, which would be an added financial
reward for adopters of these behaviors (Williamson etal., 2018). The Biden–Harris
Administration is seeking to shift to 50% EV sales by 2030 and has invested in a
wide network of EV charging stations (The White House, 2021). Likewise, Califor-
nia’s Adoption of EVs will dramatically decrease GHG as 60% of the transportation-
related emissions comes from the transportation section (Tonachel, 2015). Further,
Behavior and Social Issues
1 3
behavior analysts can reference Executive Order N-79-20 in California as a model
which discontinues the sale of gas-powered vehicles in the state by 2035 (Newsom,
2020). The enforcement of this legislation may increase the sales of electric and
alternative-powered vehicles while decreasing gas-powered vehicle sales before
2035. Finally, behavior analysts need to advocate and apply for grant and foundation
funding. Specifically, we need to recognize that effective single-subject research can
serve as pilot research for government-funded grants.
Policy Across all sectors, behavior analysts can also advocate for public policy and
educate consumers to do the same. We propose that behavior analysts can organize
using existing state and international organizations, including special interest groups
(SIGS) focused on these areas (e.g., Behaviorists for Social Responsibility (BFSR)
and Behavior Analysis for Sustainable Societies (BASS)). Macura etal. (2022) may
be a good reference; they reviewed public policy interventions on food sustain-
ability and included only studies that directly or indirectly measured environmental
outcomes. However, they did not include behavior analytic interventions. This is
not surprising given that Biglan et al. (2020) reported a lack of experimental data
on community interventions for reducing GHG emissions. Subsequent research also
showed a lack of funding for behavior analytic interventions for reducing GHG emis-
sions (Bonner etal., 2021). In addition, behavior analysts can look to the successes
and strategies for the public policy mandating ABA as medically necessary treatment
(Association of Professional Behavior Analysts, n.d.). However, there is an urgent
need to influence people’s behaviors on a large-scale population basis, specifically by
influencing the consumption patterns of individuals and communities, which can, in
part, affect the actions of communities, businesses, and governments. As such, it is
recommended that behavior analysts advocate by providing model legislation.
Legislators may benefit from model bills when the legislators lack the knowledge,
resources, or time to craft legislation (e.g., Hertel-Fernandez, 2014). In addition,
because policy design and framing can influence public support (Stokes & Warshaw,
2017), behavior analysts can also look to other municipalities, states, and countries
to provide approved legislation to serve as a draft. For example, senate-approved
California legislation limits methane emissions (see Senate Bill 1383; California
Legislative Information, 2016). Likewise, Switzerland banned landfilling composta-
ble waste in 2000, requiring citizens to dispose of organic matter by composting
(Wäger, 2007). Behavior analysts can look toward successful legislation and modify
it for their state’s needs.
In addition, behavior analysts should be aware of their representatives’ stances on
climate change. Depending on their geographical location within the United States,
they may affect more change. Politicians that have published website stances on cli-
mate change may be more amenable to supporting pro-environmental legislation
(e.g., Rublee etal., 2022). However, many states least prepared but most vulnerable
to climate change (Trust for America’s Health, n.d.) may be less likely to support
pro-environmental legislation. In these cases, it might be helpful to draft legisla-
tion that highlights social, environmental, and economic policies to increase support
(Bergquist etal., 2020). Behavior analysts in these areas may also need to establish
grassroots support to persuade their elected officials. The Indivisible Team provides
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Behavior and Social Issues
a structure for organizing from the grassroots to local advocacy (Levin etal., 2016).
Advocating for public policies in the United States is an important step in interven-
ing on a broader level, and if legislated, it would impact wide-scale change across all
levels of the Six Americas.
What Can Behavior Analysts dofortheCautious andDisengaged?
The Cautious and Disengaged comprise 23% of the population and are not con-
cerned about climate change. In addition, these individuals had questions in all
four categories, evidence, causes, and consequences of climate change, as well
as what actions to take. These groups would benefit from educational interven-
tions and are not likely to take action to mitigate climate change effects. Thus,
we suggest testing the merit of the SASSY! as an assessment tool.
The SASSY! asks questions that can guide educational interventions. As pre-
viously stated, the questions are about (1) the importance of climate change to
one personally, (2) how worried one is about climate change, (3) how much one
believes one will be harmed personally by climate change, and (4) the harm of
climate change to future environments. Behavior analysts can administer the
SASSY! and record the responses to each of the four questions and educate in
targeted areas. Behavior analysts can administer the SASSY! on multiple occa-
sions to see if responses change resulting from contacting educational materials.
For example, if consumers do not move toward Concerned or Alarmed, this may
suggest that the SASSY!, at least within this instance, does not prove useful.
We recommend educating on the climate crisis and disseminating practical
behavior analytic technology to increase pro-environmental action. Getting peo-
ple to change their consumption can be daunting. It requires massive informa-
tion efforts and public speaking skills. According to Dilling and Moser (2011),
climate change science is experiencing a lackluster performance for four main
reasons: lack of information, motivation by fear, lack of diversity in framing
issues to diverse audiences, and utilization of mass media. Much of the current
climate change message is anxiety-provoking or what climate change commu-
nicators call “apocalypse fatigue” (Nordhaus & Shellenberger, 2009). Behav-
ior analysis has much to offer climate change science (Wille & Lange, 2022).
Behavior analysis can offer a guiding light here, and dissemination will be a
critical component. Persuasive narratives might be necessary to communicate
the urgency and solutions for climate change (Bloomfield & Manktelow, 2021;
Gustafson et al., 2020; Jones & Peterson, 2017). Behavior analysts have also
stressed the importance of public speaking and communicating effectively to
your audience (e.g., Bailey & Burch, 2010; Detrich, 2018; Friman, 2014; Hein-
icke etal., 2022). Behavior analysts would benefit from honing the skill of craft-
ing a compelling accurate narrative and communicating it effectively.
Behavior and Social Issues
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What Can Behavior Analysts dofortheDoubtful andDismissive?
Those in the Dismissive group and the Doubtful group comprise the smallest por-
tion at 19% of the population. These individuals are more likely to identify as
Republican or conservative (Leiserowitz et al., 2021). In addition, those in the
Dismissive group may actively work against initiatives to mitigate the climate cri-
sis, and those in the Doubtful group are more prone to listen to the evidence con-
trary to climate change. However, connecting the desired behavior to individuals’
values may prove beneficial.
The outcomes of mitigation strategies can be the same even if the reasons
(i.e., values) to engage in these strategies differ. Behavior analysts can pro-
vide brief Acceptance and Commitment Therapy-based exercises to identify
the values of individuals within this group. Many values-identifying exercises
can be found through the Association for Contextual Behavior Sciences (conte
xtual scien ce. org). Further, Wolsko etal. (2016) evaluated the effects of specific
word choice on intentions, attitudes, and donations to environmental organiza-
tions for liberals and conservatives. Liberals were supportive regardless of the
wording choice. However, conservatives were more likely to support environ-
mental organizations when they emphasized duty, protection, American pride,
patriotism, civic duty, respect, and defense. In addition, individuals may unin-
tentionally engage in energy-efficient behavior due to adopting more cost-effi-
cient alternatives. Therefore, behavior analysts should educate about rebates and
incentives available to reduce costs and mediate climate change’s effects. Fur-
ther, a plant-rich diet or exercise using alternative transportation, such as walk-
ing or biking nearby, can be advantageous for a healthier lifestyle and associ-
ated with lower GHG emissions. Unfortunately, associating health with climate
change is generally counterproductive for this group (Maibach et al., 2010).
Therefore, when working toward climate change action with individuals, it is
important to identify and emphasize social and economic benefits rather than
environmental benefits.
Conclusion
Individuals faced with the enormous problem of climate change may feel hope-
less about affecting change on a scale that matters (Soutar & Wand, 2022). These
feelings can take someone from anxiety to action (Bright & Eames, 2022). How-
ever, no matter how minimal, individual behavior can make a decisive difference
when taken up by millions of people, as evidenced by mask-wearing, distancing,
and hand hygiene during the Covid-19 pandemic (Di Ciaula etal., 2021). No one
has a monopoly on climate change. We all contribute to and are responsible for
combatting it. Applied behavior analysts offer a unique set of skills in effectively
assessing and intervening in human behavior.
Toward this goal, behavior analysis can employ assessment tools to identify
successful mitigation and adaptation factors. In addition to the behavior analysts’
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Behavior and Social Issues
current assessment tools, we believe that behavior analysts can use the 4-item Six
Americas assessment, SASSY!, to rapidly categorize individuals and match them
to effective behavior analytic interventions for their category. Further, behav-
ior analysts can evaluate if the SASSY! can serve as a useful assessment tool
by evaluating if educational interventions are effective in moving an individual
toward a category associated with an action (e.g., from Cautious to Concerned)
or to assess if the categorization is useful. (e.g., Is the Alarmed group more likely
to act?) Then, informed by assessment, behavior analysts can educate, motivate,
and influence individuals toward successful adaptation and mitigation pathways
built on the science of behavior toward climate change interventions (Heward &
Chance, 2010; Williamson etal., 2018).
Commonplace behavior analytic applications could have profound outcomes
when collaboration with other fields and stakeholders is also embraced. Previous
research has well-established dependent measures and interventions across the food,
energy, and transportation sectors. We offered directions and suggestions for tak-
ing actions where effective interventions have not been applied. Behavior analysts
are called on to expand the existing sustainability research, collaborate with others
working toward this important cause, and take action today.
Data availability Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed
during the current study.
Declarations
Conflict of interest We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
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