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Masonry in the Context of Sustainable Buildings: A Review of the Brick Role in Architecture

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Abstract

The process of combining various parts to create a structure is called building. The most effective and significant component of any construction is masonry. The Colosseum, buildings from ancient Greece and Rome, Central American buildings, and Mycenaean structures all used this material as one of their primary building elements. The oldest form is dry masonry of irregularly shaped stones. The ecological qualities of masonry, as a restorative material with a low impact on the environment, as well as the environmental control capacity of the massive wall, bring masonry back to attention as a suitable material for sustainable building in the context of current concerns for sustainable architecture. This article takes the form of a review of the journey of masonry as the primary construction material—from prehistoric structures to modern-day edifices. This article will go through the fundamentals of masonry construction to support its usage in structures throughout history and in many architectural styles, as a crucial representation of human construction in architectural history. This article aims to create a historical review, presenting masonry as an essential building material and assessing its role in the history of building materials.
Citation: Almssad, A.; Almusaed, A.;
Homod, R.Z. Masonry in the Context
of Sustainable Buildings: A Review
of the Brick Role in Architecture.
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
su142214734
Academic Editor: Jozef Švajlenka
Received: 18 September 2022
Accepted: 30 October 2022
Published: 9 November 2022
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4.0/).
sustainability
Review
Masonry in the Context of Sustainable Buildings: A Review of
the Brick Role in Architecture
Asaad Almssad 1, * , Amjad Almusaed 2and Raad Z. Homod 3
1Faculty of Health, Science and Technology, Karlstad University, 651 88 Karlstad, Sweden
2Department of Construction Engineering and Lighting Science, Jonkoping University,
551 11 Jonkoping, Sweden
3The Department of Oil and Gas Engineering, Basrah University for Oil and Gas, Basrah 61004, Iraq
*Correspondence: asaad.almssad@kau.se; Tel.: +46-73-619-2019
Abstract:
The process of combining various parts to create a structure is called building. The most
effective and significant component of any construction is masonry. The Colosseum, buildings from
ancient Greece and Rome, Central American buildings, and Mycenaean structures all used this
material as one of their primary building elements. The oldest form is dry masonry of irregularly
shaped stones. The ecological qualities of masonry, as a restorative material with a low impact on
the environment, as well as the environmental control capacity of the massive wall, bring masonry
back to attention as a suitable material for sustainable building in the context of current concerns
for sustainable architecture. This article takes the form of a review of the journey of masonry
as the primary construction material—from prehistoric structures to modern-day edifices. This
article will go through the fundamentals of masonry construction to support its usage in structures
throughout history and in many architectural styles, as a crucial representation of human construction
in architectural history. This article aims to create a historical review, presenting masonry as an
essential building material and assessing its role in the history of building materials.
Keywords: contemporary architecture; bricks; masonry; sustainable building materials
1. Introduction and Background
Adobe is the name given to the earliest-used bricks in the western hemisphere, initially
by the Aztecs [
1
,
2
]. Durand and colleagues [
3
] affirm that the precipitation of calcium
carbonate is common in soils (especially those in arid regions) and regolith’s. Calcareous
porous clay is also found in arid regions of the world, and is commonly mined in Central
America, Mexico, and the southwestern United States. Manzanilla and co-authors [
4
] have
concluded that the Pyramid of the Sun, which has stood the test of time, was created from
adobe in the fifteenth century. Unlike modern bricks, the ancient one—adobe in other
words—was square and flat (sides 30–60 cm, thickness only 3–9 cm).
Brick walls are typically used to create the outside walls of structures, parapets, interior
partitions, freestanding walls, retaining walls, and other vertical construction elements (see
Figure 1). One may define masonry simply as the art of building with bricks. It implies that
there are two types of masonry—one of which is brick. It can be further sub-categorized as
clay-work and cement work, with clay and cement used to fill up the joints and build walls.
The strength of masonry is simply its ability to support the load imposed by the structural
elements above it.
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142214734 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 2 of 18
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18
the thickness and density of the mortar layers together determine the strength of the ma-
sonry.
Figure 1. Brick different forms and structures.
Over the many centuries, brick has retained all its advantages. Technological pro-
gress has only improved the valuable natural properties of this material, making it harder
and more robust [5]. Over the long period of its existence, brick-making techniques have
remained the same. Clay was quarried by hand and kneaded with feet (it was referred to
as ‘underfoot’); molding was carried out by hand. Brick was dried under a canopy or in
open areas only in summer and fired in temporary outdoor ovens lined with raw material.
While it will be difficult to do adequate justice to the history of masonry in Persia, China,
India, Indochina, and the Islamic world in a short chapter, it can be mentioned however
that Islamic culture has achieved a level of mastery in the ornamental, creative and aes-
thetic use of bricks that has not been paralleled. When recalling Islamic architecture, one
first imagines glazed-colored faience, which was used to cover onion domes and soaring
minarets. However, glazed bricks and onion domes are later inventions. Early Islamic ar-
chitecture drew on older traditions. Not far from the Iraqi capital of Baghdad today, there
was a palace built of burnt bricks, which was ranked among the world’s seven wonders.
The art of brickwork by the Central Asian masters is evidenced both by the buildings
themselves and by their domes, which, covering significant spans, existed for a long time
in the seismic conditions of Central Asia. In many monumental buildings of that time, the
only building material for walls, ceilings, and decorative patterned masonry was brick;
plaster and cladding were not used. Ornamental masonry made up of large planes on the
facade (for example, arched niches, friezes, tympanums) sometimes carried out with re-
lief. Often, the reserve was created by cutting geometric (rhombuses, rings, parallelo-
grams, etc.) or arbitrary curvilinear figures on the front surface of the brick. Today, only
fragments of this monumental structure have survived near Baghdad, but even they make
a stunning impression because there is the world’s largest vault of baked bricks, spanning
25.3 m. Where there was a lot of natural stone in the form of building material, it was used
in early Islamic architecture; in other cases, the builders resorted to the technologies of
Sasanian and Byzantine masons. The most significant monuments of brick architecture of
that time are the desert palace of the Omahids, namely Mshatta, built in Jordan 743744
AC; the Ushaidir palacea fortress in Iraq constructed about 750–800 AC, and the Great
Mosque, built by Caliph al-Mutawwaki in Samarra 848–852 AC. Following Byzantine and
Sasanian patterns, the bricks of these structures were most often square. Thick, beautifully
decorated walls were built from unbaked and fired bricks [6]. In the world, traditional
unreinforced brick architecture is no longer used in new construction. However, ma-
sonry’s architectural history must be conserved; this necessitates structural study, because
masonry has been the primary construction material in architecture from antiquity to the
present [7].
Figure 1. Brick different forms and structures.
In contrast, its ability to maintain its position under horizontal loading is referred to as
its stability. The application of loads to masonry creates internal stresses and deformations.
The brand of mortar and brick, the shape and size of the masonry materials, and the
thickness and density of the mortar layers together determine the strength of the masonry.
Over the many centuries, brick has retained all its advantages. Technological progress
has only improved the valuable natural properties of this material, making it harder and
more robust [
5
]. Over the long period of its existence, brick-making techniques have
remained the same. Clay was quarried by hand and kneaded with feet (it was referred
to as ‘underfoot’); molding was carried out by hand. Brick was dried under a canopy
or in open areas only in summer and fired in temporary outdoor ovens lined with raw
material. While it will be difficult to do adequate justice to the history of masonry in Persia,
China, India, Indochina, and the Islamic world in a short chapter, it can be mentioned
however that Islamic culture has achieved a level of mastery in the ornamental, creative and
aesthetic use of bricks that has not been paralleled. When recalling Islamic architecture, one
first imagines glazed-colored faience, which was used to cover onion domes and soaring
minarets. However, glazed bricks and onion domes are later inventions. Early Islamic
architecture drew on older traditions. Not far from the Iraqi capital of Baghdad today, there
was a palace built of burnt bricks, which was ranked among the world’s seven wonders.
The art of brickwork by the Central Asian masters is evidenced both by the buildings
themselves and by their domes, which, covering significant spans, existed for a long time
in the seismic conditions of Central Asia. In many monumental buildings of that time, the
only building material for walls, ceilings, and decorative patterned masonry was brick;
plaster and cladding were not used. Ornamental masonry made up of large planes on the
facade (for example, arched niches, friezes, tympanums) sometimes carried out with relief.
Often, the reserve was created by cutting geometric (rhombuses, rings, parallelograms, etc.)
or arbitrary curvilinear figures on the front surface of the brick. Today, only fragments of
this monumental structure have survived near Baghdad, but even they make a stunning
impression because there is the world’s largest vault of baked bricks, spanning 25.3 m.
Where there was a lot of natural stone in the form of building material, it was used in early
Islamic architecture; in other cases, the builders resorted to the technologies of Sasanian
and Byzantine masons. The most significant monuments of brick architecture of that time
are the desert palace of the Omahids, namely Mshatta, built in Jordan 743–744 AC; the
Ushaidir palace—a fortress in Iraq constructed about 750–800 AC, and the Great Mosque,
built by Caliph al-Mutawwaki in Samarra 848–852 AC. Following Byzantine and Sasanian
patterns, the bricks of these structures were most often square. Thick, beautifully decorated
walls were built from unbaked and fired bricks [
6
]. In the world, traditional unreinforced
brick architecture is no longer used in new construction. However, masonry’s architectural
history must be conserved; this necessitates structural study, because masonry has been the
primary construction material in architecture from antiquity to the present [7].
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 3 of 18
2. History—The Evolution from BC to AD
2.1. Ancient Civilizations—Rome, Mesopotamia, Greece, and China
Thirty centuries ago, humans were already familiar with processing (hewing, grinding)
unfired bricks and building various structures using them. At the same time, there was a
transition from laying “dry” to laying on clay and, subsequently, around 1000 BC, to laying
on lime mortar. Hamburg and Lorenzon [
8
] propound the idea that, in the second and first
millennia BC, using mudbricks (sun-dried clay bricks) and adobes (clay mixed with straw),
civilizations commenced in the construction of fortresses and palaces, as well as mansions.
The bricks were introduced in cases where a paucity of unfired bricks was experienced.
Initially, as mentioned, raw bricks were usually superimposed, one on top of the other,
without mortar. They cohered to each other lightly, creating a monolithic masonry.
Suzan and colleagues [
9
] opine that in the clayey river meadows of the Nile valley in
Egypt, about 150 centuries ago, people fabricated artificial bricks from clay using molds
solidified by an admixture of chopped straw and camel dung. A technological quantum
jump occurred when ‘burnt brick’ was invented around 4000 BC. [
10
], and this made it
possible to produce bricks in different colors. Binici and colleagues [
11
,
12
] have referred
to excavations in burnt-brick buildings that have been utilized for a very long period,
as evidenced by their employment in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other early centers of
civilization. Almusaed and co-authors [
13
] have explained that the brick-makers who
made the unburnt fiber tiles (alternatives to burnt bricks) simply soaked and kneaded clay
soil, mixed it with various additives (straw, manure, chips, etc.) and, having densified it,
solar-dried the mass. Raad Z.H. et al. [
14
] assumed that bricks were strong, did not break
when dropped from a height of about 2 m, and did not get wet for 1–2 days when exposed
to rainfall. Moisture resistance was the main disadvantage of the unburnt fiber tiles, which
were thus unsuitable for wetter climates.
Bricks have the reputation of being the earliest construction materials, and the first
ones—mud bricks—were molded and naturally dried clay bars. Adding small pebbles and
straws to the raw materials was expected to increase strength and reduce shrinkage [
15
].
However, the approaches were vastly different from the Egyptians sometimes laying dried
bricks into the wall on a liquid clay mortar, and the Assyrians gluing freshly molded
material into a monolith. Greater strength facilitated the construction of more massive
structures—palaces, temples, etc.—in combination with burnt brick, which conferred
durability to the structures. Han et al. have noted that burnt bricks are standard features
between structural frames in the building and construction sectors owing to their simplicity
of use [16].
In ancient Rome, a hydraulic binder—pozzolana (the origin of the name can be traced
to Pozzuoli in Naples)—was used for masonry mortar. Excavations in Babylon show that
the part of the city east of the Euphrates—4 million m
2
in the area—was shielded by brick
walls. When the Mesopotamian culture was at its peak, decorative brick walls were a
common sight. Adamo and Almusaed refer to the processional route from the Ishtar Gate
to the city of Babylon, built by King Nebuchadnezzar and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius
I around 500 BC [1719].
A Greek house with walls lined with raw bricks, dating back to 800–600 BC, was
unearthed in Kamesh-Burden. However, southern Europe’s large-scale use of ceramic
bricks (59 cm long, and 4–7 cm thick) dates back to 200–100 BC. According to Giuseppe
and co-authors, the raw materials for these bricks used in southern Europe comprised clay
and resin. The practice began with unbaked bricks—the clay drying up in the sun’s heat
and hardening [
20
]. Rossi & Almusaed believe that the ancient Egyptians, who pioneered
and mastered the art of firing bricks in kilns, checked the correctness of the masonry of
the walls with a triangle, and that the bricks were worn on the yokes, and assert that they
adhered to this method of construction consistently [21,22].
The history of Chinese building construction has gone through three stages. One is
the era of the most ancient caves and various nests, and then the era of the coexistence
of wooden houses and thatched houses. In China, fired bricks have been employed in
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 4 of 18
construction for at least 2000 years. Since the middle of the 19th century, a new system has
replaced the previous one in the brick manufacturing process. European red brick and other
contemporary goods have progressively supplanted the distinctive Chinese blue brick [
23
].
After modern times, adobe houses and red bricks appeared. Accordingly, a building made
of red brick is not susceptible to damage from wind and rain and is durable, even for a
hundred years. One can talk of sintered (clay) and non-sintered (lime–sand and fly ash)
bricks in China. The former is made of clay, shale, and coal gangue material and is subjected
to mud treatment, drying, and roasting processes, according to Amin Al-Fakih and co-
authors. When the Qin and Han dynasties ruled China 221–207 BC, architecture flourished,
and with it, the technology, scale of production, quality, and diversity of bricks [
24
]. Most
old homes, including those in the ancient city of Pingyao in Shanxi, Huizhou homes, the
old courtyard in Beijing, and other conserved historical buildings, such as the Big Wild
Goose Pagoda and the old city wall, are constructed of blue bricks. Blue bricks made up
most of the materials used to build load-bearing buildings in ancient China [25].
Focusing on ancient Rome, we define the concept—opus maximum-layered masonry—
referring to walls being made of layers of different materials, usually bricks alternating
with each other. The brick facade included strips of baked bricks running along the
entire depth of the wall. With all these types of masonry, it must be emphasized that the
bricks were usually cut, that is, they were treated like stones. The bricks delivered to the
construction site from the kiln were considered simply as blocks that could be trimmed (cut
to the required size, in other words) in situ, before being laid into the wall. The Romans
embellished brickwork with images, thus beautifying it even further. Nadali considers that
sometimes they, “like the Babylonians”, used bricks tapering towards one end, making
the mortar layers’ visible side thinner [
26
]. They were also very meticulous about the
final processing of the mortar layer. After the masonry was completed, another layer of
mortar was applied—a technique which in architectural/construction parlance is called
‘additional grouting’. The mortar layers grid was to look as flat as possible, but sometimes
beveled and concave mortar layers were made. As referred to earlier also, about three
millennia ago, masonry started being fastened with mortar. Dabaieh and colleagues have
pointed out that this ‘fastening’ was done with lime and was used not only for constructing
fortresses/defensive structures but also for residential ones. Around this time, ancient
Rome could also avail of sun-dried clay bricks [27].
The Romans disseminated the craft of brickmaking throughout the West. Baudin
and colleagues have written about Roman bricks used in Norman and Anglo-Saxon build-
ings [
28
]. Wherever their campaigns took them, the Romans took the bricks with them.
Their practical sense helped them immediately grasp the advantages of bricks for the
construction of vaults, as several structures still testify. Brick, the material of choice for
the Romans, automatically became one for the entire world, owing to their conquests and
trading links. Stefani Dou and colleagues believe most Roman and Byzantine bricks were
plates measuring 30 cm square, and between 2.5 and 6 cm thick. Various additions, such
as fine and coarse aggregates or fibrous materials, were utilized to enhance their qualities.
Due to their extensive porosity and matrix fissures, ancient bricks from those eras often
had low apparent specific densities (1.5–1.8 kg/m
3
), high absorption rates (13–30%), and
average compressive strengths (5–20 MPa) [29].
2.2. Medieval Times
Medieval architects advanced much further than their predecessors from ancient
cultures, and cleverly manipulated brick’s structural and decorative possibilities in con-
struction. Hvattum has written that along with patterned masonry, its combination with
terracotta and majolica details was also popular and in vogue [
30
]. Europe assimilated all
the experience of ancient humans and the millennia of the past into its societal structures,
with brick entrenching itself firmly around the 4th century AD. At the end of the 10th cen-
tury AD, with the revival of cities, 2–3-storied brick residential buildings were built with
shops/workshops at the ground level. Patterned masonry bricks with embellishments
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 5 of 18
on their surfaces and a strong shiny glaze became the trends of those times. However,
these were affordable only to the affluent—kings, funded monasteries, and powerful feudal
lords/landed gentry.
Yakovlev and co-authors have written that, in the 11–12th centuries, thin and heavy
slabs of different sizes, called plinths, were used, before bar-shaped bricks became ubiqui-
tous [
31
]. The plinth, however, is typically viewed as a symbol of the structure’s elevation
towards the sacred and its isolation from profane daily life, whereas in modern usage, a
plinth is a lower, square slab that sits at the base of a column and symbolizes the base
course of a building or the outward-projecting base of a wall. In Germany, brick-Gothic
architecture dominated all through the 12th–16th centuries. The European brick cathedrals,
but from the 10th through the 15th century, are significant tourist attractions in the places
where they were built. While the English were the first to introduce mechanical brick
making, pioneering developments happened in Germany. The first usable extrusion press
was made by the Berlin-based manufacturer Schlickeysen in 1854; the first ring kiln was
set up by master builder Friedrich Hoffmann (it was registered as a Prussian and Austrian
patent in 1858). At the same time, clay-working machines, runners, vyaltsy, and pug mills
were set up in different parts of the continent.
The first brick-making machines were steam-powered, and wood or coal was used to
fire bricks [
32
]. With rapid industrialization and the establishment of the belt press and ring
kiln (referred to earlier), the brick dimensions were stabilized (suitable for mass production).
At about this time, spurred by the Industrial Revolution, a new type of brick—refractory
brick—came into vogue, being for use in furnaces to withstand very high temperatures.
By the beginning of the 17th century, bricks had become the first choice for residential
buildings. Their dimensions had come closer to modern standards, though there were
some minor differences among manufacturers. Discussions regarding a single standard
size were held among builders and manufacturers. Joseph and Tretsiakova-McNally have
stated that it was in the second half of the 19th century that it was possible to standardize
the size of raw bricks [
33
]. Fiala and colleagues state that the best way to dress the mortar
layers in brickwork (considering the thickness of the mortar layers) is with the following
dimensions: 250 ×120 ×65 mm [34].
In England, for example, we find the neo-Gothic style which dominates the cityscapes
of the country even today [
35
]. In the neo-Gothic style of architecture, the practitioners
often chose unflustered brick as a facing material. By this time, the industrial revolution had
already sped up all the processes in the value chain of the bricks, including transport [36].
The prevalent perception of medieval architecture as distinct from Renaissance town
buildings can be questioned [
37
]. Lombardy, France, and Germany were major hubs for
brick construction in medieval times. Bricks were used increasingly often during the Ro-
manesque, Gothic, and Renaissance periods. The northern European
nations—particularly
northern Germany, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, and England—are home to numerous
magnificent brick structures constructed from hand-made bricks in different hues.
Although manufacturing roof tiles in Flanders may be traced back to the 10th century
thanks to archaeological discoveries, how the process evolved to produce bricks is still
unknown. More than just as a less expensive alternative to stone, the invention and spread
of brick in medieval Flanders must be understood in the context of the vibrant, sustainable
building industry in a heavily populated and urbanized region [38].
Just as the Romans took the brick to England (which they were ruling), the British,
when it was their turn, took it to Canada, towards the end of the 18th century. In fact,
Quebec, a French colony, had not been enamored of bricks at that time, as the French
evidently had not taken a liking for it as much as the British did. Most of these bricks
were first imported from the British Isles and were used as ballast to stabilize the tall ships
that came to Quebec to stock up on wood. Bricks continue to occupy a place of pride in
industrial architecture too. Manufactured inexpensively in different standardized shapes
and dimensions, they are just perfect for the furnaces and chimneys. Industrial buildings
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 6 of 18
compensate for their drabness by having decorative motifs and ornamental cornices made
of an arrangement of bricks of various colors or sets of reliefs and projecting bands.
Modernists began using ordinary-shaped or modular bricks as a decorative element
by abandoning traditional principles, forms, and materials in favor of more natural and
dynamic ones. They conferred upon Art Nouveau buildings a calm naturalness and a
strong sense of individuality. The division into structural and decorative elements of the
building disappears; elements of load-bearing structures and material go to the facade,
giving buildings a new dynamic. Expressionist architects developed their ornamental
language with rough, sharp, and often pointed elements, as well as horizontal and vertical
forms. Purposefully laying bricks achieved the liveliness of the facade’s characteristic of
brick expressionism in patterns and ornaments on most buildings’ facades. Additionally,
the masonry pattern could give the building a pronounced horizontal or vertical movement.
The use of brick was dictated by the tension of the post-war period, climatic conditions,
and the economic situation of the area where it was distributed—Northern Germany in the
1920s. Despite the decisive renewal of forms and designs, the rejection of older styles, and
the use of new materials, modernism did not abandon the use of bricks.
3. The Contemporary Brick Masonry Techniques
3.1. Masonry in the Application and Conceptual Framework
The management of masonry building assets throughout their lifecycle has undergone
a significant change recently because of technological advancements in brick manufactur-
ing and application models, particularly in construction activities which aim to increase
productivity during the building creation phases. However, the traditional manual labor
method might have several drawbacks, such as a high rate of mistakes and its constitut-
ing a waste of time and money [
5
]. Today, many examples applied modern technology
in building conception and construction. Many architects and designers took the initia-
tive to re-evaluate embossed brickwork. Their projects include a database created using
algorithms based on traditional national patterns. The relief of the facade is based on
the rhythmic repetition of the most basic forms and is extremely simple to create, like
conventional geometric patterns. They have embodied the notion that anybody may and
should be able to utilize bricks for cosmetic reasons. Brick walls line the entry road of Sala,
which was created by onion architects [
39
]. Their contours imaginatively framed the sky
and were made “the old-fashioned way”, without the use of computer calculations. If we
refer to “old brick construction,” we refer at once to red ceramic bricks, which for most of
history was exclusively a building material. Architects valued its functionality—strength,
and affordability—but did not pay much attention to the aesthetic aspects—appearance.
Today, the situation is rather the opposite [
40
,
41
]. Brick remains a reliable material, but
architects, builders, and sellers rely on the aesthetics of brickwork—smooth and corrugated
surfaces, different colors, and decorative inclusions. Technology assists in adding aesthetic
components while improving functionality. The task of building then at once becomes a
science, a business, and an art.
3.2. Masonry within the Architectural Model
Many brick buildings worldwide have a charm not easily found in wooden or re-
inforced concrete structures. Brick architecture not only overcomes the most apparent
disadvantage of wooden architecture—vulnerability to fire—but also has the advantage
of creating a stylish appearance by incorporating curved lines (arches). In terms of fire,
reinforced concrete construction can also meet the requirements, but many other attractive
features are unique to brick construction. It can create a building of any stylistic orientation
and architectural complexity, and one which is composed of several stories. Furthermore,
if the building’s façade has been precisely constructed with high-quality masonry, it does
not require any additional finishing work.
Bricks have excellent abrasion resistance, and their high strength is due to their
opposition to the adverse impacts of temperature and humidity. Unlike wood, bricks do
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 7 of 18
not rot, being resistant to deformation and fungal buildup. American architect Louis Kahn
once said, “It is the architect’s responsibility to return each brick to its original position.
The architect does not realize his dream but helps the brick realize his dream.” Facing
(facing, facade, finishing) brick has a high surface quality and a precise, regular geometry.
In addition, there are numerous options for brick processing surfaces (smooth, wavy, rough,
“antique”, etc.). Mortar layers in such masonry are performed on ordinary and colored
masonry mortars. Facade bricks allow you to create an original architectural appearance,
harmoniously combined with the color of the roof, windows, landscape—the environment.
Factories produce several types of facing bricks, as shown in Figure 2.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
features are unique to brick construction. It can create a building of any stylistic orienta-
tion and architectural complexity, and one which is composed of several stories. Further-
more, if the building’s façade has been precisely constructed with high-quality masonry,
it does not require any additional finishing work.
Bricks have excellent abrasion resistance, and their high strength is due to their op-
position to the adverse impacts of temperature and humidity. Unlike wood, bricks do not
rot, being resistant to deformation and fungal buildup. American architect Louis Kahn
once said, “It is the architects responsibility to return each brick to its original position.
The architect does not realize his dream but helps the brick realize his dream.” Facing
(facing, facade, finishing) brick has a high surface quality and a precise, regular geometry.
In addition, there are numerous options for brick processing surfaces (smooth, wavy,
rough, antique, etc.). Mortar layers in such masonry are performed on ordinary and
colored masonry mortars. Facade bricks allow you to create an original architectural ap-
pearance, harmoniously combined with the color of the roof, windows, landscape—the
environment. Factories produce several types of facing bricks, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Facing brick types.
Most architects saw only a suitable constructive material in brick, mercilessly driving
it into the thickness of walls or inside columns, hiding all its beauty under a thick layer of
plaster. This was especially true of the facing of the monuments of the Renaissance, Ba-
roque and Classical styles. In the middle of the 19th century, with a departure from the
heritage of antiquity, turning to national traditions and searching for new ideas, architects
turned their attention to this brick as a decorative element. Since the end of the 19th cen-
tury, each new style has been given special meaning and function [42].
Finnish architect Alvar Aalto, for example, reimagined a brick building with the
Muuratsalo Experimental House, which features over fifty types of bricks and masonry
for the façade. This heterogeneous facade was also a testing ground for tracking the aes-
thetic possibilities of different bricks and their properties. Modernists also rejected the
established association with brick as a material for heavy and monumental buildings. The
façades of the famous Church of Christ in Uruguay and some other structures in the South
American country were designed by Eladio Dieste, a modernist architect, in brick [43].
The main principles of organic architecture are freedom of spaces, deployed mainly in a
horizontal plane, an endless combination of reinforced concrete and glass with more tra-
ditional and natural materials—wood, stone, and brick. In our postmodern era, brick is
no longer used for decorative facades and is seldom used inside building structures. In-
stead, reinforced concrete, glass, and steel have supplanted its usage. Since the 1950s, ma-
sonry technology has remained virtually unchanged [44]. Some new solutions and addi-
tives improve the performance of a brick house—but the method of the masonry itself and
the tools used are the same as more than half a century ago.
3.3. Brick Working Model
Firebricks are ideal if the masonry project aims to build a wall, framework, or build-
ing that is extremely heat- and fire-resistant. These bricks, also referred to as refractory
Figure 2. Facing brick types.
Most architects saw only a suitable constructive material in brick, mercilessly driving
it into the thickness of walls or inside columns, hiding all its beauty under a thick layer
of plaster. This was especially true of the facing of the monuments of the Renaissance,
Baroque and Classical styles. In the middle of the 19th century, with a departure from the
heritage of antiquity, turning to national traditions and searching for new ideas, architects
turned their attention to this brick as a decorative element. Since the end of the 19th century,
each new style has been given special meaning and function [42].
Finnish architect Alvar Aalto, for example, reimagined a brick building with the
Muuratsalo Experimental House, which features over fifty types of bricks and masonry for
the façade. This heterogeneous facade was also a testing ground for tracking the aesthetic
possibilities of different bricks and their properties. Modernists also rejected the established
association with brick as a material for heavy and monumental buildings. The façades of
the famous Church of Christ in Uruguay and some other structures in the South American
country were designed by Eladio Dieste, a modernist architect, in brick [
43
]. The main
principles of organic architecture are freedom of spaces, deployed mainly in a horizontal
plane, an endless combination of reinforced concrete and glass with more traditional and
natural materials—wood, stone, and brick. In our postmodern era, brick is no longer used
for decorative facades and is seldom used inside building structures. Instead, reinforced
concrete, glass, and steel have supplanted its usage. Since the 1950s, masonry technology
has remained virtually unchanged [
44
]. Some new solutions and additives improve the
performance of a brick house—but the method of the masonry itself and the tools used are
the same as more than half a century ago.
3.3. Brick Working Model
Firebricks are ideal if the masonry project aims to build a wall, framework, or building
that is extremely heat- and fire-resistant. These bricks, also referred to as refractory bricks,
are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina. From the
analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high compres-
sive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a result,
they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their widespread
use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end of the 19th
century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 8 of 18
textures have arisen. Table 1displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional
and contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
bricks, are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina.
From the analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high
compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a
result, they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their
widespread use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end
of the 19th century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and tex-
tures have arisen. Table 1 displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional and
contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd century
BC [45]. The coupon can be understood as the basic
element of the arch. Single-story arched structures,
such as arched doors and windows in the walls, are
coupons.
Arch coupons
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch coupons
appeared relatively late in China and went through
several development steps of hollow brick beams and
slabs, pointed arches, and folding arches, and formed
in the early Western Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault
The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon. Before
the invention of concrete, barrel vaults consisted of
multiple test blocks side by side. The original barrel-
shaped vault was composed of numerous coupons
j
uxtaposed and later developed into interlaced
masonry between the coupons and connected into a
whole, called a longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome
The Romans created the dome arch from the tube arch
structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault. The
construction of domes is a millennias-old architectural
tradition that persisted with several local variants
worldwide [47].
Four-petal arch
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call it a
cross arch.
Cross vaults
Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to balance
the side thrust like the four-petal arch and the barrel
vault, so the Romans arranged the cross arch in the
longitudinal direction, and the adjacent parts balanced
the longitudinal side thrust with each other.
Rib vaults The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman Empire.
Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed arch is
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd
century BC [
45
]. The coupon can be understood as
the basic element of the arch. Single-story arched
structures, such as arched doors and windows in
the walls, are coupons.
Arch coupons
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
bricks, are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina.
From the analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high
compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a
result, they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their
widespread use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end
of the 19th century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and tex-
tures have arisen. Table 1 displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional and
contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd century
BC [45]. The coupon can be understood as the basic
element of the arch. Single-story arched structures,
such as arched doors and windows in the walls, are
coupons.
Arch coupons
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch coupons
appeared relatively late in China and went through
several development steps of hollow brick beams and
slabs, pointed arches, and folding arches, and formed
in the early Western Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault
The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon. Before
the invention of concrete, barrel vaults consisted of
multiple test blocks side by side. The original barrel-
shaped vault was composed of numerous coupons
j
uxtaposed and later developed into interlaced
masonry between the coupons and connected into a
whole, called a longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome
The Romans created the dome arch from the tube arch
structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault. The
construction of domes is a millennias-old architectural
tradition that persisted with several local variants
worldwide [47].
Four-petal arch
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call it a
cross arch.
Cross vaults
Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to balance
the side thrust like the four-petal arch and the barrel
vault, so the Romans arranged the cross arch in the
longitudinal direction, and the adjacent parts balanced
the longitudinal side thrust with each other.
Rib vaults The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman Empire.
Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed arch is
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch
coupons appeared relatively late in China and
went through several development steps of hollow
brick beams and slabs, pointed arches, and folding
arches, and formed in the early Western
Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
bricks, are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina.
From the analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high
compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a
result, they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their
widespread use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end
of the 19th century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and tex-
tures have arisen. Table 1 displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional and
contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd century
BC [45]. The coupon can be understood as the basic
element of the arch. Single-story arched structures,
such as arched doors and windows in the walls, are
coupons.
Arch coupons
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch coupons
appeared relatively late in China and went through
several development steps of hollow brick beams and
slabs, pointed arches, and folding arches, and formed
in the early Western Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault
The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon. Before
the invention of concrete, barrel vaults consisted of
multiple test blocks side by side. The original barrel-
shaped vault was composed of numerous coupons
uxtaposed and later developed into interlaced
masonry between the coupons and connected into a
whole, called a longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome
The Romans created the dome arch from the tube arch
structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault. The
construction of domes is a millennias-old architectural
tradition that persisted with several local variants
worldwide [47].
Four-petal arch
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call it a
cross arch.
Cross vaults
Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to balance
the side thrust like the four-petal arch and the barrel
vault, so the Romans arranged the cross arch in the
longitudinal direction, and the adjacent parts balanced
the longitudinal side thrust with each other.
Rib vaults The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman Empire.
Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed arch is
The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon.
Before the invention of concrete, barrel vaults
consisted of multiple test blocks side by side. The
original barrel-shaped vault was composed of
numerous coupons juxtaposed and later
developed into interlaced masonry between the
coupons and connected into a whole, called a
longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
bricks, are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina.
From the analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high
compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a
result, they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their
widespread use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end
of the 19th century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and tex-
tures have arisen. Table 1 displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional and
contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd century
BC [45]. The coupon can be understood as the basic
element of the arch. Single-story arched structures,
such as arched doors and windows in the walls, are
coupons.
Arch coupons
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch coupons
appeared relatively late in China and went through
several development steps of hollow brick beams and
slabs, pointed arches, and folding arches, and formed
in the early Western Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault
The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon. Before
the invention of concrete, barrel vaults consisted of
multiple test blocks side by side. The original barrel-
shaped vault was composed of numerous coupons
j
uxtaposed and later developed into interlaced
masonry between the coupons and connected into a
whole, called a longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome
The Romans created the dome arch from the tube arch
structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault. The
construction of domes is a millennias-old architectural
tradition that persisted with several local variants
worldwide [47].
Four-petal arch
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call it a
cross arch.
Cross vaults
Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to balance
the side thrust like the four-petal arch and the barrel
vault, so the Romans arranged the cross arch in the
longitudinal direction, and the adjacent parts balanced
the longitudinal side thrust with each other.
Rib vaults The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman Empire.
Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed arch is
The Romans created the dome arch from the tube
arch structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault.
The construction of domes is a millennias-old
architectural tradition that persisted with several
local variants worldwide [47].
Four-petal arch
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
bricks, are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina.
From the analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high
compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a
result, they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their
widespread use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end
of the 19th century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and tex-
tures have arisen. Table 1 displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional and
contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd century
BC [45]. The coupon can be understood as the basic
element of the arch. Single-story arched structures,
such as arched doors and windows in the walls, are
coupons.
Arch coupons
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch coupons
appeared relatively late in China and went through
several development steps of hollow brick beams and
slabs, pointed arches, and folding arches, and formed
in the early Western Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon. Before
the invention of concrete, barrel vaults consisted of
multiple test blocks side by side. The original barrel-
shaped vault was composed of numerous coupons
j
uxtaposed and later developed into interlaced
masonry between the coupons and connected into a
whole, called a longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome The Romans created the dome arch from the tube arch
structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault. The
construction of domes is a millennias-old architectural
tradition that persisted with several local variants
worldwide [47].
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call it a
cross arch.
Cross vaults Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to balance
the side thrust like the four-petal arch and the barrel
vault, so the Romans arranged the cross arch in the
longitudinal direction, and the adjacent parts balanced
the longitudinal side thrust with each other.
Rib vaults The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman Empire.
Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed arch is
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call
it a cross arch.
Cross vaults
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
bricks, are created from fireclay, a unique clay that mainly comprises silica and alumina.
From the analysis of the bricks in action, bricks’ fundamental physical properties are high
compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 10% of compressive strength). As a
result, they are unsuitable for tensile and bending components, thus preventing their
widespread use in various structural systems. Sand–lime brick, invented towards the end
of the 19th century, is now the undisputed classic among masonry bricks.
In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend toward improving the external
appearance of buildings. Therefore, face bricks with various sizes, forms, colors, and tex-
tures have arisen. Table 1 displays several brick forms and shapes used in traditional and
contemporary architecture.
Table 1. Bricks formed into arches and domes.
Form and Image Description
Folded arch
Based on the folded fake coupons, the Romans
invented the real vaulted coupons in the 2nd century
BC [45]. The coupon can be understood as the basic
element of the arch. Single-story arched structures,
such as arched doors and windows in the walls, are
coupons.
Arch coupons
The technique of arch coupons appeared in
Mesopotamia as early as in the 4th millennium BC,
and was later applied and developed in Babylon,
Assyria, India, and Rome [46]. However, arch coupons
appeared relatively late in China and went through
several development steps of hollow brick beams and
slabs, pointed arches, and folding arches, and formed
in the early Western Han Dynasty.
Barrel vault
The barrel vault is an extension of the coupon. Before
the invention of concrete, barrel vaults consisted of
multiple test blocks side by side. The original barrel-
shaped vault was composed of numerous coupons
j
uxtaposed and later developed into interlaced
masonry between the coupons and connected into a
whole, called a longitudinal barrel vault.
Dome
The Romans created the dome arch from the tube arch
structure, an alienated form of the barrel vault. The
construction of domes is a millennias-old architectural
tradition that persisted with several local variants
worldwide [47].
Four-petal arch
Like the quadruple arch, it is also crosscut on the
square tube arch, which consists of four identical
parts; however, the top forms a more distinct cross
shape than the quadruple arch, so the Romans call it a
cross arch.
Cross vaults
Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to balance
the side thrust like the four-petal arch and the barrel
vault, so the Romans arranged the cross arch in the
longitudinal direction, and the adjacent parts balanced
the longitudinal side thrust with each other.
Rib vaults The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman Empire.
Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed arch is
Although the cross arch got rid of the load-bearing
wall, it could not rely on its own structure to
balance the side thrust like the four-petal arch and
the barrel vault, so the Romans arranged the cross
arch in the longitudinal direction, and the adjacent
parts balanced the longitudinal side thrust with
each other.
Rib vaults
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18
divided into load-bearing and enclosed parts. The
main load is concentrated on the arch, and the rest is
enclosed by light bricks slabs, saving materials and
lightening the valuts top weight.
3.4. The Special Form of Masonry (Polychrome Brickwork)
Polychrome brickwork is a type of architectural brickwork that first appeared in the
1860s as a characteristic of Gothic Revival architecture. It uses bricks of various colors
(typically brown, cream, and red) to create patterns and combinations that draw attention
to specific architectural features [48]. It is frequently used to embellish windows and re-
produce the Qu effect. Both early and later specimens have intricate diagonal, criss-
crossed, and stepped designs, some of which are even inscribed in bricks. British architects
like George Edmund Street and William Butterfield created several Gothic Revival
churches and educational facilities in the 19th century, frequently including vibrant de-
tails. In his book The Seven Lamps of Architecture, art critic John Ruskin highlighted Tuscan
and Venetian Romanesque and Gothic architecture as models for aesthetic qualities. One
notable and eye-catching example is the Doge’s Palace in Venice. This is attributed to ar-
chitect Joseph Reid in Australia. Lisburn House in Dunedin, New Zealand, is the oldest
instance of what can be referred to as a ‘modern building’.
The 1870s saw the emergence of this style in England as well, as gathered from Wil-
liam Butterfield’s work (a coincidental cooperation with Joseph Reed at St. Paul’s Cathe-
dral, Melbourne). Although there were some later examples, such as Watson Fothergills
work in Nottingham, it was not usually well acknowledged in the UK. According to Jon-
athan Foyle, the colorful brick art of many fake historic Australian homes and businesses
was revitalized in the 1990s because of its relative simplicity and accurate replication of
other faux landmark forms. It was frequently used for window ornamentation and to
mimic the quoining look. Later specimens, some of which even used bricks, exhibited in-
tricate diagonal, cruciform, and stepped motifs, in addition to the stripe that was present
in earlier instances. English architects like George Edmund Street and William Butterfield
created several Gothic Revival churches and educational facilities in the 19th century, fre-
quently using polychrome. They did this during a ‘period of yearning for the Middle
Ages’, if one could be permitted to think so. Apart from the obvious benefits that are con-
sidered when constructing load-bearing structures and walls out of bricks—durability,
sound insulation, high thermal conductivity, affordabilityceramic bricks also provide
other benefits [49].
3.5. Masonry & Quality-Control Process
The appearance of facing bricks constantly improves its properties over time and un-
der the influence of solar ultraviolet radiation. Colors become brighter, and strength in-
creases [50]. There is a certain fireplace brick—this is also a high-quality brick, but its sur-
face may not be smooth. Next, there are shaped bricks—angular, semi-circular, or U-
shaped. These lend easily to oval outlines, rounded corners, and special solutions for win-
dow frames, cornices, etc.
Bridge and facade clinker bricks, first made in Holland at the beginning of the 19th
century, are now widely in demand in many European countries. The growth of cottage
construction and elite housing, observed in recent years in Europe, makes it a necessary
building material for us to examine. A good brick is distinguished by its homogeneity
concerning quality. The entire batch ordered for constructing a house, whether a cottage
or a multi-story building, will be completed as a single unit [51]. Bricks have a wide range
of colors and textures. They have many types of size, including a very narrow brick, which
in Europe is used to build cottages, apartment buildings, and churches. The construction
The ribbed arch appeared in the late Roman
Empire. Compared with the cross arch, the ribbed
arch is divided into load-bearing and enclosed
parts. The main load is concentrated on the arch,
and the rest is enclosed by light bricks slabs, saving
materials and lightening the valuts top weight.
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 9 of 18
3.4. The Special Form of Masonry (Polychrome Brickwork)
Polychrome brickwork is a type of architectural brickwork that first appeared in the
1860s as a characteristic of Gothic Revival architecture. It uses bricks of various colors
(typically brown, cream, and red) to create patterns and combinations that draw attention
to specific architectural features [
48
]. It is frequently used to embellish windows and
reproduce the Qu effect. Both early and later specimens have intricate diagonal, crisscrossed,
and stepped designs, some of which are even inscribed in bricks. British architects like
George Edmund Street and William Butterfield created several Gothic Revival churches
and educational facilities in the 19th century, frequently including vibrant details. In his
book The Seven Lamps of Architecture, art critic John Ruskin highlighted Tuscan and Venetian
Romanesque and Gothic architecture as models for aesthetic qualities. One notable and
eye-catching example is the Doge’s Palace in Venice. This is attributed to architect Joseph
Reid in Australia. Lisburn House in Dunedin, New Zealand, is the oldest instance of what
can be referred to as a ‘modern building’.
The 1870s saw the emergence of this style in England as well, as gathered from William
Butterfield’s work (a coincidental cooperation with Joseph Reed at St. Paul’s Cathedral,
Melbourne). Although there were some later examples, such as Watson Fothergill’s work
in Nottingham, it was not usually well acknowledged in the UK. According to Jonathan
Foyle, the colorful brick art of many fake historic Australian homes and businesses was
revitalized in the 1990s because of its relative simplicity and accurate replication of other
faux landmark forms. It was frequently used for window ornamentation and to mimic
the quoining look. Later specimens, some of which even used bricks, exhibited intricate
diagonal, cruciform, and stepped motifs, in addition to the stripe that was present in earlier
instances. English architects like George Edmund Street and William Butterfield created
several Gothic Revival churches and educational facilities in the 19th century, frequently
using polychrome. They did this during a ‘period of yearning for the Middle Ages’, if one
could be permitted to think so. Apart from the obvious benefits that are considered when
constructing load-bearing structures and walls out of bricks—durability, sound insulation,
high thermal conductivity, affordability—ceramic bricks also provide other benefits [49].
3.5. Masonry & Quality-Control Process
The appearance of facing bricks constantly improves its properties over time and
under the influence of solar ultraviolet radiation. Colors become brighter, and strength
increases [
50
]. There is a certain fireplace brick—this is also a high-quality brick, but its
surface may not be smooth. Next, there are shaped bricks—angular, semi-circular, or
U-shaped. These lend easily to oval outlines, rounded corners, and special solutions for
window frames, cornices, etc.
Bridge and facade clinker bricks, first made in Holland at the beginning of the 19th
century, are now widely in demand in many European countries. The growth of cottage
construction and elite housing, observed in recent years in Europe, makes it a necessary
building material for us to examine. A good brick is distinguished by its homogeneity
concerning quality. The entire batch ordered for constructing a house, whether a cottage or
a multi-story building, will be completed as a single unit [
51
]. Bricks have a wide range of
colors and textures. They have many types of size, including a very narrow brick, which in
Europe is used to build cottages, apartment buildings, and churches. The construction of
raw bricks was widely practiced: under the pressure of the structure, the masonry elements
stuck together, forming a monolithic surface. Based on the use of raw bricks, the technology
of firing clay bricks appeared; they were laid using strong solutions. Fired bricks were flat
rectangular ceramic slabs, 31–65 cm in length and up to 10 cm thick. In [
52
], the thermal
conductivity coefficients of refractory bricks are presented at different temperatures—from
20 to 1700
C. This depends primarily on the density and configuration of the voids in
the bricks.
Bricks are now often manufactured from a mixture of clay and sand in the proper
proportions, held together with a binder. The bricks are frequently constructed from dirt
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 10 of 18
pieces that have been stabilized using various substances. Furthermore, depending on
the constructions’ significance and the environmental conditions’ severity, the bricks are
described and categorized differently in several international standard codes. Therefore,
for improved brick standardization, a complete analysis of the composition, characteristics,
and other aspects of brick manufacture is essential [53].
4. Contemporary Masonry Construction Standards and Model
4.1. Masonry Working Standards
It is not easy to accomplish the goal of ecologically responsible building and con-
struction without adopting eco-friendly goods and resources with a minimal carbon foot-
print [
54
]. Bricks have been recognized now as environmentally friendly materials for
construction. The process is completely automated nowadays (it takes less than an hour).
A workable mortar is used to bind construction materials—stone, bricks, and concrete—
and to fill up any uneven spaces between them, distribute their weight uniformly, and
occasionally paint ornamental designs on masonry walls.
Concrete hollow-block masonry is widely used in North American and Australasian
countries because it enables grouting and reinforcement to resist higher axial and lateral
actions, ultimately facilitating the construction of high-rise masonry buildings [
55
]. The
difference between the models is mainly in their geometric shapes. Laying similarly does
not show how it was set without using additional tools. To be picked up with one hand,
bricks must be compact and lightweight. Conversely, the brick’s width is determined by
the acceptable grasp distance for most individuals, around 100 mm. The brick is short
and ineffective at this length, while it is too tall and bulky. As multiples facilitate stacking,
lengths, widths, and heights are frequently multiples of 4:2:1. However, regular bricks do
not all have the same size. Figure 3shows the variations in brick sizes among 10 countries.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18
of raw bricks was widely practiced: under the pressure of the structure, the masonry ele-
ments stuck together, forming a monolithic surface. Based on the use of raw bricks, the
technology of firing clay bricks appeared; they were laid using strong solutions. Fired
bricks were flat rectangular ceramic slabs, 3165 cm in length and up to 10 cm thick. In
[52], the thermal conductivity coefficients of refractory bricks are presented at different
temperatures—from 20 to 1700 °C. This depends primarily on the density and configura-
tion of the voids in the bricks.
Bricks are now often manufactured from a mixture of clay and sand in the proper
proportions, held together with a binder. The bricks are frequently constructed from dirt
pieces that have been stabilized using various substances. Furthermore, depending on the
constructions’ significance and the environmental conditions’ severity, the bricks are de-
scribed and categorized differently in several international standard codes. Therefore, for
improved brick standardization, a complete analysis of the composition, characteristics,
and other aspects of brick manufacture is essential [53].
4. Contemporary Masonry Construction Standards and Model
4.1. Masonry Working Standards
It is not easy to accomplish the goal of ecologically responsible building and con-
struction without adopting eco-friendly goods and resources with a minimal carbon foot-
print. [54]. Bricks have been recognized now as environmentally friendly materials for
construction. The process is completely automated nowadays (it takes less than an hour).
A workable mortar is used to bind construction materialsstone, bricks, and concrete
and to fill up any uneven spaces between them, distribute their weight uniformly, and
occasionally paint ornamental designs on masonry walls.
Concrete hollow-block masonry is widely used in North American and Australasian
countries because it enables grouting and reinforcement to resist higher axial and lateral
actions, ultimately facilitating the construction of high-rise masonry buildings [55]. The
difference between the models is mainly in their geometric shapes. Laying similarly does
not show how it was set without using additional tools. To be picked up with one hand,
bricks must be compact and lightweight. Conversely, the brick’s width is determined by
the acceptable grasp distance for most individuals, around 100 mm. The brick is short and
ineffective at this length, while it is too tall and bulky. As multiples facilitate stacking,
lengths, widths, and heights are frequently multiples of 4:2:1. However, regular bricks do
not all have the same size. Figure 3 shows the variations in brick sizes among 10 countries.
Figure 3. Shows the variations in brick sizes amongst nations [56,57]. (my = Malaysia; se = Sweden;
sg = Singapore; dk = Denmark; in = India; iq = Iraq; au = Australia; uk = United Kingdom; us = USA;
de = Germany).
Consider a structure composed of bricks. Figure 4 that shows red and rustic bricks
are once again populated in modern construction. They appear to be ‘gentle giants’ or
‘ancient wise rulersin the contemporary cityscape, in contrast to the slick glass buildings.
Figure 3.
Shows the variations in brick sizes amongst nations [
56
,
57
]. (my = Malaysia; se = Sweden;
sg = Singapore; dk = Denmark; in = India; iq = Iraq; au = Australia; uk = United Kingdom; us = USA;
de = Germany).
Consider a structure composed of bricks. Figure 4that shows red and rustic bricks are
once again populated in modern construction. They appear to be ‘gentle giants’ or ‘ancient
wise rulers’ in the contemporary cityscape, in contrast to the slick glass buildings. All the
ideas displayed here use brick to give them a contemporary appearance while keeping
a classic aesthetic that might add value or character to the structures. Over 300 choices
in the color of the slinker enable one to realize even the most far-fetched architectural
ambitions [58].
Sustainability 2022,14, 14734 11 of 18
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
All the ideas displayed here use brick to give them a contemporary appearance while
keeping a classic aesthetic that might add value or character to the structures. Over 300
choices in the color of the slinker enable one to realize even the most far-fetched architec-
tural ambitions [58].
Figure 4. Bricks as an essential building material for modern architecture.
A wide range of colors is achieved by changing the firing technology—adjusting the
temperature and volume of the air supply. Clinkerverily the material of the new mil-
lennium—is available in fiery nuances of red, radiant yellow, purest white or brownish
blue. It is also bolstered by the ease of processing, increased wear resistance, low porosity,
and high absolute frost resistance. Finally, there is a series of “Nostalgia” buildings—the
bricks from them look like they were taken out of a wall three hundred years ago. The
color of the European brick now can be just anything—shades of red and pink, indeed;
but also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today has
evolved over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of human
beings in the past—both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to collab-
orations among these two classes [59,60]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of con-
temporary architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level after
decades of deconstructivism and hi-tech building. The various forms of mortar layers of
brick buildings are tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Forms of mortar layers [61,62].
Type of Mortar
Layers Brief Description Illustration
Flush form
Plastering and other final finishes are built
using this mortar layer. As a result, these
layers are finally concealed. It is somewhat
time-consuming and requires a little more
work. Water may settle on top of the flush
form if it is made in such a way as to stand out
from the brickwork.
Raked form
The mortar is forced slightly inward in the
raked jform, leaving it about 2 mm lower than
the facing brick. Its ledge, which might enable
water or snow to accumulate on top of the
b
rick, makes it unsuitable for external usage.
Figure 4. Bricks as an essential building material for modern architecture.
A wide range of colors is achieved by changing the firing technology—adjusting
the temperature and volume of the air supply. Clinker—verily the material of the new
millennium—is available in fiery nuances of red, radiant yellow, purest white or brownish
blue. It is also bolstered by the ease of processing, increased wear resistance, low porosity,
and high absolute frost resistance. Finally, there is a series of “Nostalgia” buildings—the
bricks from them look like they were taken out of a wall three hundred years ago. The
color of the European brick now can be just anything—shades of red and pink, indeed; but
also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today has evolved
over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of human beings
in the past—both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to collaborations
among these two classes [
59
,
60
]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of contemporary
architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level after decades of de-
constructivism and hi-tech building. The various forms of mortar layers of brick buildings
are tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Forms of mortar layers [61,62].
Type of Mortar Layers Brief Description Illustration
Flush form
Plastering and other final finishes are built using
this mortar layer. As a result, these layers are
finally concealed. It is somewhat time-consuming
and requires a little more work. Water may settle
on top of the flush form if it is made in such a way
as to stand out from the brickwork.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
All the ideas displayed here use brick to give them a contemporary appearance while
keeping a classic aesthetic that might add value or character to the structures. Over 300
choices in the color of the slinker enable one to realize even the most far-fetched architec-
tural ambitions [58].
Figure 4. Bricks as an essential building material for modern architecture.
A wide range of colors is achieved by changing the firing technology—adjusting the
temperature and volume of the air supply. Clinkerverily the material of the new mil-
lennium—is available in fiery nuances of red, radiant yellow, purest white or brownish
blue. It is also bolstered by the ease of processing, increased wear resistance, low porosity,
and high absolute frost resistance. Finally, there is a series of “Nostalgia” buildings—the
bricks from them look like they were taken out of a wall three hundred years ago. The
color of the European brick now can be just anything—shades of red and pink, indeed;
but also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today has
evolved over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of human
beings in the past—both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to collab-
orations among these two classes [59,60]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of con-
temporary architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level after
decades of deconstructivism and hi-tech building. The various forms of mortar layers of
brick buildings are tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Forms of mortar layers [61,62].
Type of Mortar
Layers Brief Description Illustration
Flush form
Plastering and other final finishes are built
using this mortar layer. As a result, these
layers are finally concealed. It is somewhat
time-consuming and requires a little more
work. Water may settle on top of the flush
form if it is made in such a way as to stand out
from the brickwork.
Raked form
The mortar is forced slightly inward in the
raked jform, leaving it about 2 mm lower than
the facing brick. Its ledge, which might enable
water or snow to accumulate on top of the
b
rick, makes it unsuitable for external usage.
Raked form
The mortar is forced slightly inward in the raked
jform, leaving it about 2 mm lower than the facing
brick. Its ledge, which might enable water or snow
to accumulate on top of the brick, makes it
unsuitable for external usage.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
All the ideas displayed here use brick to give them a contemporary appearance while
keeping a classic aesthetic that might add value or character to the structures. Over 300
choices in the color of the slinker enable one to realize even the most far-fetched architec-
tural ambitions [58].
Figure 4. Bricks as an essential building material for modern architecture.
A wide range of colors is achieved by changing the firing technology—adjusting the
temperature and volume of the air supply. Clinkerverily the material of the new mil-
lennium—is available in fiery nuances of red, radiant yellow, purest white or brownish
blue. It is also bolstered by the ease of processing, increased wear resistance, low porosity,
and high absolute frost resistance. Finally, there is a series of “Nostalgia” buildings—the
bricks from them look like they were taken out of a wall three hundred years ago. The
color of the European brick now can be just anything—shades of red and pink, indeed;
but also black, white, and everything in between. The brick form we know today has
evolved over time and has been shaped by several cultural and social influences of human
beings in the past—both colonizers and the colonized, and at times even thanks to collab-
orations among these two classes [59,60]. Brickwork that satisfies the requirements of con-
temporary architecture and urban planning is reaching a new, better-quality level after
decades of deconstructivism and hi-tech building. The various forms of mortar layers of
brick buildings are tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Forms of mortar layers [61,62].
Type of Mortar
Layers Brief Description Illustration
Flush form
Plastering and other final finishes are built
using this mortar layer. As a result, these
layers are finally concealed. It is somewhat
time-consuming and requires a little more
work. Water may settle on top of the flush
form if it is made in such a way as to stand out
from the brickwork.
Raked form
The mortar is forced slightly inward in the
raked jform, leaving it about 2 mm lower than
the facing brick. Its ledge, which might enable
water or snow to accumulate on top of the
b
rick, makes it unsuitable for external usage.
Concave form
It is one of the most common forms of mortar
owing to the high amount of rainwater it can block,
thus avoiding inward leakages. This layer’s ability
to keep the mortar tight is due to the employment
of a curved steeling tool.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
Concave form
It is one of the most common forms of mortar
owing to the high amount of rainwater it can
b
lock, thus avoiding inward leakages. This
layer’s ability to keep the mortar tight is due
to the employment of a curved steeling tool.
“V” form
Named as such because of its “V” shape, as
seen in the image on the right, this mortar
layer offers little protection against water
infiltration due to its design.
Struck form
The struck form works better with interior
walls than with exterior ones. This junction
has a bottom edge that is recessed and a top
edge that is finished flash with a brick edge.
Water is drawn in and allowed to settle on the
b
rick thanks to the slope of the layer
Weather form
This is similar to the struck layer, except that
the top edge is recessed, not the bottom. This
j
unction allows the water to drain quickly
from the mortar layer because of the slope.
Additionally, the mortar in the mortar layer
must be adequately bonded to reduce the
likelihood of water seeping through its
underside.
Extruded form
No special tooling is needed for this kind of
layer. Since excess mortar is naturally
squeezed out, and causes an extrusion
b
etween the bricks, this effct is generated
organically.
4.2. Masonry, Form, Colors, and Selection Platform
Exposed brick walls are frequently hailed as being highly desirable to apartments,
eateries, and retail establishments, and brick exterior facades can give a building or home
a cozier, more inviting feel. On the other hand, white brick lends itself to a more minimal-
ist style, while tan brick tends to seem more rustic and earthy. However, the color and cut
of the brick may dramatically impact the ambiance of wall bricks, a typical construction
material, being crucial to architectural aesthetics and a significant component of the archi-
tectural aesthetics framework. Color is key to how wall bricks look and may improve a
building’s visual appeal. However, differences in the color of the wall bricks will affect
the overall appearance of the building (refer to Figure 5).
Three components determine the color. Let us start with the clay. This establishes the
foundation color or the viewed colors. According to a study by Sedat and colleagues [63],
the reddening of clay bricks was the primary cause