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Preprint available at: https://psyarxiv.com/bf92d - Purpose: To advance the learning of professional practices in teacher education and medical education, this conceptual paper aims to introduce the idea of representational scaffolding for digital simulations in higher education. Design/methodology/approach: This study outlines the ideas of core practices in two important fields of higher education, namely, teacher and medical education. To facilitate future professionals’ learning of relevant practices, using digital simulations for the approximation of practice offers multiple options for selecting and adjusting representations of practice situations. Adjusting the demands of the learning task in simulations by selecting and modifying representations of practice to match relevant learner characteristics can be characterized as representational scaffolding. Building on research on problem-solving and scientific reasoning, this article identifies leverage points for employing representational scaffolding. Findings: The four suggested sets of representational scaffolds that target relevant features of practice situations in simulations are: informational complexity, typicality, required agency and situation dynamics. Representational scaffolds might be implemented in a strategy for approximating practice that involves the media design, sequencing and adaptation of representational scaffolding. Originality/value: The outlined conceptualization of representational scaffolding can systematize the design and adaptation of digital simulations in higher education and might contribute to the advancement of future professionals’ learning to further engage in professional practices. This conceptual paper offers a necessary foundation and terminology for approaching related future research.

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... Simulations are simplified yet valid representations of professional practice situations that include features that learners can manipulate (F. Fischer et al. 2022;Sauvé et al. 2007). Simulations provide opportunities for authentic learning in higher education (Codreanu et al. 2020;Jossberger, Breckwoldt, and Gruber 2022;Nachtigall, Shaffer, and Rummel 2022), yet avoid the potential risks and costs of placing novice learners in actual practice settings (De et al. 2019;Kaufman and Ireland 2016). ...
... However, despite various options for adjusting the demands of the learning task in simulations (e.g., focusing on a few core activities), simulationbased learning can still be challenging for learners because they must apply their knowledge and skills to complex professional situations and tasks (F. Fischer et al. 2022;Frerejean et al. 2023;Machts et al. 2024). By doing so, learner characteristics, such as learners' prior task-relevant knowledge and skills (Hetmanek et al. 2018;Kolovou et al. 2021), self-regulation (van der Graaf et al. 2022) and task-related interest and motivation (Kron et al. 2022;Nickl et al. 2022), influence learners' task perceptions, task performance and learning outcomes in simulations (Heitzmann et al. 2019). ...
... Especially in simulation-based learning, the demands associated with formative self-assessment exacerbate the demands of applying knowledge and skills to simulated cases (F. Fischer et al. 2022;Frerejean et al. 2023), which may be a challenging combination for many learners. In this study, learners who received static feedback during simulation-based learning showed no evidence of significant benefits to their justification quality compared with the no-simulation control group, whereas the adaptive feedback group showed evidence of a significantly higher justification quality compared with both other groups. ...
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Background Artificial intelligence, particularly natural language processing (NLP), enables automating the formative assessment of written task solutions to provide adaptive feedback automatically. A laboratory study found that, compared with static feedback (an expert solution), adaptive feedback automated through artificial neural networks enhanced preservice teachers' diagnostic reasoning in a digital case‐based simulation. However, the effectiveness of the simulation with the different feedback types and the generalizability to field settings remained unclear. Objectives We tested the generalizability of the previous findings and the effectiveness of a single simulation session with either feedback type in an experimental field study. Methods In regular online courses, 332 preservice teachers at five German universities participated in one of three randomly assigned groups: (1) a simulation group with NLP‐based adaptive feedback, (2) a simulation group with static feedback and (3) a no‐simulation control group. We analysed the effect of the simulation with the two feedback types on participants' judgement accuracy and justification quality. Results and Conclusions Compared with static feedback, adaptive feedback significantly enhanced justification quality but not judgement accuracy. Only the simulation with adaptive feedback significantly benefited learners' justification quality over the no‐simulation control group, while no significant differences in judgement accuracy were found. Our field experiment replicated the findings of the laboratory study. Only a simulation session with adaptive feedback, unlike static feedback, seems to enhance learners' justification quality but not judgement accuracy. Under field conditions, learners require adaptive support in simulations and can benefit from NLP‐based adaptive feedback using artificial neural networks.
... This is in line with the finding of Südkamp et al. (2018), who initially assumed that making a holistic judgment based on inconsistent patterns of cues for cognitive and motivational-affective characteristics might result in lower accuracy; however, they empirically found that teachers in their study were not better at diagnosing consistent profiles compared to inconsistent profiles. Based on the evidence, we speculate that one factor in teachers' development of cognitive prototypes concerning student profiles might be the frequency with which the student profiles occur in regular classrooms (i.e., exemplarity; see Fischer et al., 2022): As reported by Kosel et al. (2020), approximately 35% of students in a large sample of 9th-graders exhibited an underestimating profile. This finding was consistent in two different school subjects (i.e., mathematics and language arts), suggesting that the underestimating profile might be a common profile to observe in secondary school students; by contrast the frequency of other profiles varied across the two subjects. ...
... Our results indicate that a higher frequency (i.e., exemplarity) a specific student profile in real classrooms might facilitate experienced teachers' judgment accuracy because they have gained a lot of experience with students that match this frequent student profile. However, also other features of student cases and classroom situations might be worth exploring, such as the complexity of information (i.e., the amount and connectivity of information that needs to be processed), especially in terms of the salience of relevant cues (Fischer et al., 2022). Moreover, future research might elucidate the sequence in which novice and experienced teachers employ cues for diagnostic reasoning. ...
... This integration provides novice teachers with a comprehensive blueprint that illustrates the complex ways in which more experienced teachers use student cues in their reasoning to achieve higher accuracy in their judgments. Studies focusing on investigating perceived case difficulty conceptualized by features of student cases can further inform teacher education, for example, regarding potential sequencing strategies of different cases to facilitate novice teachers' systematic training (see Fischer et al., 2022). ...
Article
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The concept of teacher professional vision suggests that experienced teachers, compared to novice teachers, might be better at making accurate judgments of students’ learning characteristics, which can be explained by their advanced reasoning in diagnostic situations. This study examines experienced and novice teachers’ diagnoses of different student characteristic profiles: three inconsistent profiles (overestimating, uninterested, and underestimating) and two consistent profiles (strong and struggling). We examined both experienced (n = 19 in-service mathematics teachers) and novice teachers (n = 24 pre-service mathematics teachers) to determine the extent of differences in their judgment accuracy and their diagnostic reasoning about observable cues when diagnosing student profiles while watching a lesson video. ANOVA results indicate that experienced teachers generally achieved a higher judgment accuracy in diagnosing student profiles compared to novice teachers. Moreover, epistemic network analysis of observable cues in experienced and novice teachers’ diagnostic reasoning showed that, compared to novice teachers, experienced teachers make more relations between a broader spectrum of both surface cues (e.g., a student’s hand-raising behavior) and deep cues (e.g., a student being interested in the subject). Experienced teachers thereby construct more comprehensive and robust reasoning compared to novice teachers. The findings highlight how professional experience shapes teachers’ professional skills, such as diagnosing, and suggest strategies for enhancing teacher training.
... Coaching and scaffolding are fundamental to situated learning, providing learners with the necessary support, guidance, and structure within specific contexts. This support can take the form of hints, prompts, or strategies that enhance the learning process on both cognitive and meta-cognitive levels (Fischer et al. 2022). Finally, authentic assessment is integral, as it allows students to shape their learning outcomes based on their knowledge and situational analysis, leading to a deeper understanding of the subject matter. ...
... Huang and Liaw (2011) argue that VR offers unique opportunities for scaffolded learning experiences by allowing real-time feedback and guidance. Additionally, Fischer et al. (2022) highlight that scaffolding in VR can provide both cognitive and metacognitive support, which is crucial for learners to navigate complex language tasks. Participants generally praised the instructor, Kyle, for his coaching style. ...
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A situated learning environment is crucial for language learners to develop speaking skills as learners can apply their speaking skills in context, helping them adapt language use to various situations and improve their language proficiency and communication effectiveness. Although various features of situated learning environments have been explored across different subject areas and in many platforms, there is limited research on their application to language learning within VR environments. This convergent mixed-method study adopts a situated learning framework and examines the impact of situated learning on learners’ English-speaking performance, specifically in areas of fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar, and explores learners’ perception of the instruction based on the situated learning approach. Sixteen first-year English majors at a university in China participated in eight role-play speaking classes using the desktop-based VR application, Immerse. The study involved pre- and post-assessments of speaking performance and semi-structured interviews with six participants. Paired samples t-tests were used to assess the difference in the speaking performance and respective areas, and a thematic analysis was adopted to explore learners’ perceptions of the instruction based on the situated learning approach. Quantitative findings show a significant improvement in learners’ speaking performance (t(15) = 7.41, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 1.82), with notable progress in fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. Thematic analysis of the qualitative data indicated the authenticity of the context and activities, the collaborative nature of the tasks, the expert guidance, and the opportunities for reflection all contribute to a comprehensive learning experience that aligns well with the principles of situated learning.
... CBS or simulation-based learning in higher education and professional development provides effective ways to support professional learning and development (Duchatelet et al., 2022). Fischer et al. (2022) suggest that simulationbased learning can benefit from utilizing a variety of methodological techniques and analyzing different process indicators and learning outcomes. CBS has been found to significantly improve learning outcomes in physics, biology, and chemistry (Ben Ouahi et al., 2021;Rehman et al., 2021;Simanjuntak et al., 2021;Swandi et al., 2018;Akhigbe & Ogufere, 2020;Olumide, 2019;Nkemakolam et al., 2018;Uzezi & Deya, 2020). ...
... CBS has shown positive effects on academic achievement, motivation, retention, and attitudes in various subjects. As such, CBS, along with Simulation-Based Learning (SBL) approaches, has the potential to enhance Basic Science and Technology education (Nsabayezu et al., 2023;Pal et al., 2023;Chatpinyakoop et al., 2022;Fischer et al., 2022;Akhigbe & Ogufere, 2020). ...
Article
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A computer-based simulation is a viable approach for integrating the basics of science and technology in Junior Secondary. This study examined the impact of PhET on students' academic performance as well as students' motivation toward Basic Science and Technology. The study also investigates how PhET influence students' attitudes toward Basic Science and Technology. The study adopted the pre-test, post-test, and non-equivalent control group design. We randomly selected the study population from junior secondary two (JSII) students in private and public schools who are studying Basic Science and Technology. Quantitative data were collected and analyzed using a statistical approach such as the mean, standard deviation, and t-test. Students' post-test academic performance improved significantly (t160 = 36.28, p < 0.05) as a result of teaching Basic Science and Technology with PhET. According to the findings PhET had a substantial effect on the motivation of Basic Science and Technology students (t160 = 29.32, p < 0.05). Furthermore, the results demonstrated that PhET affected students' attitudes toward Basic Science and Technology (t160 = 65.36, p < 0.05). This study contributes to the body of knowledge by providing empirical evidence to support the integration of PhET in the teaching of Basic Science and Technology in Nigeria and other similar contexts. The findings suggest that PhET can be an effective pedagogical tool for improving learning outcomes in science and technology education, particularly in developing countries where resources and infrastructure may be limited.
... By that, simulations (or approximations of practice, Grossman et al., 2009) go beyond representations of practice by allowing participants (here: pre-service teachers) to interact with the respective professional situation (Heitzmann et al., 2019). To support learning in simulations, the respective representation can be adjusted with respect to its complexity (Codreanu et al., 2020;Fischer, Bauer, et al., 2022). ...
... Those pre-service teachers who engaged in a balanced frequency of diagnostic processes had the most beneficial cognitive and affective-motivational dispositions and were relatively accurate given the time-effective use of the simulation. Thus, this group may benefit from opportunities for additional practice (Grossman et al., 2009) in which they can apply their knowledge in practicerelevant situations without requiring much additional support (Fischer, Bauer, et al., 2022). ...
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Assessing students' understanding is central for teachers. While research has focused on factors affecting accuracy as a main performance measure of diagnosing, less is known about teachers' diagnostic process. This study investigated the diagnostic process of pre-service teachers in a simulation using a person-centered approach. We examined the frequency of the diagnostic processes describing, explaining, and decision-making as well as their relation to dispositions and diagnostic performance. Findings show that participants' varying engagement in the diagnostic process is related to different levels of knowledge , task value, and accuracy. We discuss consequences for the adaptive support of learning to diagnose.
... Since professional knowledge guides visual processing, the knowledge limits of teachers often prevent them from noticing relevant events due to the transient flow of information represented in a video case (Chandler, 2004). Particularly, novice teachers need additional instructional support, either from learning scaffolds (such as prompts) or through representational scaffolds (such as salience in video cases), that guide visual processing and professional vision (Fischer et al., 2022). Thereto, theories of multi-media learning in cognitive psychology are of relevance for designing effective instructional support (Derry et al., 2014). ...
... In teacher education, instructional time with student teachers is limited (Bauer and Prenzel, 2012). Hence, identifying the most relevant teaching and learning events as core practices is highly advantageous (Grossman et al., 2018;Fischer et al., 2022). Educational research has identified a number of core practices that Frontiers in Education 03 frontiersin.org ...
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Video cases are commonly used in teacher education to support evidence-based professional knowledge acquisition. Novice teachers, however, often struggle when learning with video, since they lack professional knowledge schemata that facilitate noticing and reasoning about relevant events. Scripted video case development provides an approach to make relevant events more salient and visible. In alignment with previously reported approaches, we applied relevant design steps and quality criteria within the presented project to promote use in further research. Thereby, we introduce the novel approach of using mock-up settings as a way to identify naturalistic behavior as a basis for script development. User experience (UX) evaluations based on defined quality criteria of realistic experiences (i.e., authenticity), personal relevance (i.e., utility value), engagement (i.e., situational interest), and challenge (i.e., cognitive load) were carried out in a set of four studies including N = 423 teacher students. Findings support the conclusion that our design approach resulted in the development of high-quality scripted video cases for further use in initial teacher education.
... Of note, the findings from a previous study, which found that the less central, cognitive and emotion-arousing the conflict, and the higher its level of resolution, the stronger the professional identity formation among the learners [61], raises the need to further examine the level of conflict and its effect on the simulation participants. In this vein, the current findings align with the concept of instructional support (e.g., scaffolding), which should be further explored [62,63]. ...
Article
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Research on educational simulations has attempted to decipher the simulation-based learning (SBL) process by examining factors that facilitate and impede this process. In the current study, we examined the role of SBL participants’ hindrances, in particular their experience of anxiety or fear, which we view using the framework of leaving one’s comfort zone. Departure from one’s comfort zone has never been studied in the context of SBL in teacher education. A quantitative analysis of data collected via a questionnaire on Simulation Learning Outcomes in Teacher Education (SLOTE) revealed a model in which the hindrance variable potentially mediated all of the relationships between the background variables and the simulation learning outcomes (i.e., communication skills and collaborative learning insights). These results improve the theoretical understanding of the SBL process in this field and indicate ways to optimally utilize potential hindrances to plan and apply SBL for the purpose of learning.
... For example, it is possible to convert text from MLLMs into mind maps and graphical illustrations or to extract terms from a complex representation of scientific processes, making it much easier for the learner to select, organize and integrate information into complete mental models. In other words, MLLM offers a promising way of "representational scaffolding" (Fischer et al., 2022) to extract terms from complex scientific representations, helping learners to select and organize, i.e., the adaptation of representational modalities to learners' needs. Plass and Pawar (2020) emphasize that adaptive learning systems can personalize content on multiple levels-cognitive, motivational, and affective-by continuously analyzing learning data and adjusting materials accordingly, also interacting directly with learners. ...
Article
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The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly Large Language Model (LLM)-based systems, in education has shown promise in enhancing teaching and learning experiences. However, the advent of Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) like GPT-4 Vision, capable of processing multimodal data including text, sound, and visual inputs, opens a new era of enriched, personalized, and interactive learning landscapes in education. This paper derives a theoretical framework for integrating MLLMs into multimodal learning. This framework serves to explore the transformative role of MLLMs in central aspects of science education by presenting exemplary innovative learning scenarios. Possible applications for MLLMs range from content creation to tailored support for learning, fostering engagement in scientific practices, and providing assessments and feedback. These applications are not limited to text-based and uni-modal formats but can be multimodal, thus increasing personalization, accessibility, and potential learning effectiveness. Despite the many opportunities, challenges such as data protection and ethical considerations become salient, calling for robust frameworks to ensure responsible integration. This paper underscores the necessity for a balanced approach in implementing MLLMs, where the technology complements rather than supplants the educators' roles, ensuring an effective and ethical use of AI in science education. It calls for further research to explore the nuanced implications of MLLMs for educators and to extend the discourse beyond science education to other disciplines. Through developing a theoretical framework for the integration of MLLMs into multimodal learning and exploring the associated potentials , challenges, and future implications, this paper contributes to a preliminary examination of the trans-formative role of MLLMs in science education and beyond.
... We use log data from a digital simulation to measure situation-specific indicators of the assessment process. Digital simulations are useful in teacher education to represent real-life situations in a simplified form, providing a highly controlled environment (Fischer et al., 2022). Using digital simulations is particularly suitable for research and training purposes in the development of teachers' professional competencies (Heitzmann et al., 2019). ...
Article
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Background: Teachers need assessment competencies. That is, they need to assess students' learning outcomes accurately. Intervention studies that aimed at fostering (pre-service) teachers' assessment competencies during the assessment process show only limited effects on assessment accuracy. Adapting support measures to individual assessment processes has the potential to increase the effects. However, developing adaptive support requires a concise understanding of how assessment processes are related to individual learners' dispositions (e. g., knowledge, interest) on the one hand and the accuracy of their assessments on the other. Aims: We aimed to characterize the relationships between pre-service teachers' dispositions, assessment process, and assessment accuracy to establish a basis for adaptive support during the assessment process. Sample: We analysed 65 mathematics pre-service teachers' assessment processes in a digital simulation of a task-based assessment situation. Methods: Pre-service teachers' assessment processes were measured by recording their log data in a digital simulation. Patterns of process indicators were interpreted as modes of cognitive engagement. Process indicators included participants' selections of mathematical tasks and their interpretations of simulated students' task solutions. Results: We found pronounced individual differences in pre-service teachers' assessment processes, reflecting a passive, active, or constructive mode of engagement. Engagement modes were related to participants' individual interest in student assessment. Moreover, engagement modes predicted differences in assessment accuracy above and beyond cognitive dispositions. Conclusions: Log data from a digital simulation help unravel the link between teachers' dispositions and accuracy in assessment situations. The results provide a basis for developing adaptive support for pre-service mathematics teachers' assessment competencies.
... The effectiveness of simulations for learning can be enhanced by integrating additional scaffolding for the learning process, such as reflection prompts, external collaboration scripts or worked examples [5]. Educational researchers have recently introduced the concept of representational scaffolding [11], which relates to features that are closely aligned with the demands of professional practice. These features include informational complexity (i.e., the amount and degree of interconnectedness of information and the prominence of cues), situational dynamics (i.e., changes in the practice situation over time), and agency/responsibility (i.e., the demands on a professional's ability to act flexibly and appropriately). ...
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Intervention reasoning as a critical component of clinical reasoning has been understudied in medical education in contrast to the well-established field of diagnostic reasoning. This resonates in a lack of comprehensive understanding of the cognitive processes involved and a deficit in research to promote intervention skills in future clinicians. In this commentary, we present a conceptual framework for intervention reasoning that includes four phases: generating, selecting, implementing, and evaluating interventions. The conceptualization highlights cognitive processes such as developing interventions based on a patient’s diagnosis and signs and symptoms; selecting the most appropriate option by contrasting, prioritizing, and evaluating interventions in terms of feasibility, effectiveness, and the patient’s context-specific needs; and predicting patient outcomes within so-called “developmental corridors” to adjust treatments accordingly. In addition to these cognitive processes, interventions require collaborative activities, such as sharing information with other care providers, distributing roles among care teams, or acting together. Future research should validate the proposed framework, examine the impact of intervention reasoning on clinical outcomes, and identify effective training methods (e.g., simulation and AI-based approaches). In addition, it would be valuable to explore the transferability and generalizability of the model to other areas of health education and contexts outside of health education.
... The term of instructional guidance itself is, moreover, defined in different ways(Clark, 2009), and depending on the theoretical framework, the relationship between guidance, structure, and reduction changes. For instance, in light of the concept of representational scaffolding(Fischer et al., 2022), instructional guidance could be seen as an umbrella term that includes certain forms of structuring (e.g., increasing the salience of relevant information to properly process or handle a problem) or didactic reduction (e.g., by reducing distracting information). In contrast, according toReiser (2004), structuring could be seen as the umbrella term that can refer to instructional guidance, such as providing prompts or agendas, or to didactic reduction by restricting the options to ones that are relevant to the current learning goals. ...
Article
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A highly authentic learning setting is likely to trigger positive motivational and emotional reactions due to its emphasis on promoting the acquisition of knowledge that is connected and transferable to real-world phenomena outside the learning environment. However, a high level of authenticity is usually accompanied by a high level of complexity due to the complexity inherent in the real world. This complexity can be overwhelming for learners and can hamper or even prevent cognitive learning outcomes. Consequently, to help learners cope with this complexity, they need some kind of instructional support. By building a high level of support into the learning setting in order to promote cognitive learning outcomes, the level of authenticity and thereby the effects of authenticity on motivational outcomes may, however, in turn be reduced. In the present conceptual paper, we refer to this tension between authenticity and complexity, on the one hand, and instructional support, on the other hand, as the “authenticity dilemma”. Based on existing empirical evidence from previous studies, we (1) outline this dilemma, (2) discuss ways to reconceptualize it, and (3) derive implications regarding the conditions and effects of authentic learning. Finally, we discuss the findings of the studies included in the special issue “Perspectives on Authentic Learning” through the lens of the authenticity dilemma.
... The use of evidence-based scripted videos (as in the present study), which are developed according to validity and quality assurance guidelines from research (e.g., Dieker et al., 2009;Kim et al., 2006;Piwowar et al., 2018;Seidel et al., 2023), can also offer complexity-reducing benefits. Through careful planning, development, and editing, they reduce the extraneous information presented, while also allowing for target learning material to be demonstrated saliently, further reducing the cognitive demand for novice learners (Fischer et al., 2022;Piwowar et al., 2018). In addition, successful video analysis tasks focus on a selected set of skills around specific learning goals (Blomberg et al., 2013;Kang & van Es, 2019). ...
Article
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In teacher education, video representations of practice offer a motivating means for applying conceptual teaching knowledge toward real-world settings. With video analysis, preservice teachers can begin cultivating professional vision skills through noticing and reasoning about presented core teaching practices. However, with novices’ limited prior knowledge and experience, processing transient information from video can be challenging. Multimedia learning research suggests instructional design techniques for support, such as signaling keyword cues during video viewing, or presenting focused self-explanation prompts which target theoretical knowledge application during video analysis. This study investigates the professional vision skills of noticing and reasoning (operationalized as descriptions and interpretations of relevant noticed events) from 130 preservice teachers participating in a video-analysis training on the core practice of small-group instruction. By means of experimental comparisons, we examine the effects of signaling cues and focused self-explanation prompts on professional vision performance. Further, we explore the impact of these techniques, considering preservice teachers’ situational interest. Overall, results demonstrated that preservice teachers’ professional vision skills improved from pretest to posttest, but the instructional design techniques did not generally offer additional support. However, moderation analysis indicated that training with cues fostered professional vision skills for preservice teachers with low situational interest. This suggests that for uninterested novices, signaling cues may compensate for the generative processing boost typically associated with situational interest. Research and practice implications involve the consideration of situational interest as a powerful component of instructional design, and that keyword cueing can offer an alternative when interest is difficult to elicit.
... Therefore, LMFMs have the potential to authentically simulate multimodal interactions with students with specific difficulties. Additionally, they may systematically support the teachers in simulation environments by automaticall selecting and modifying representations of practice, so-called representational scaffolds [52]. ...
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Large language models have made great advances in the past years, creating compelling responses to extended verbal inputs. After the release of ChatGPT 3.5, researchers have identified several opportunities and challenges of large language models in various fields of education. However, at that point, it was unforeseeable how fast a multitude of technological advances would erupt and how dynamically educational research would change, undoubtedly facing and increasing number of challenges related to large language models. Now, large language models can be used as a middleware connecting various AI tools and other large language models to solve complex tasks. This led to the development of so-called large multimodal foundation models, such as ChatGPT-4-Turbo and Gemini, that do not only interact via written text with the user, but have the power to process spoken text, music, images and videos. These models open up vast new territories of opportunities and come with unexpected challenges. In this overview, we outline and explain the new set of opportunities and challenges in education that arise from large multimodal foundation models for learners, teachers, educational researchers and developers of educational tools additionally to the opportunities and challenges of conventional large language models.
... Cook et al., 2013). Instructional support comes primarily in two different forms: (a) It can take the form of scaffolding that is directed at the learning process, or (b) it can be directed toward scaffolding the representation of the simulated practice (Fischer et al., 2022). These form of support mean that the practices in the simulation are purposefully selected and adjusted so that they fit a learner's current level of learning prerequisites. ...
... However, meta-analyses suggest that the use of digital media may not only positively influence cognitive but also non-cognitive aspects, such as attitudes towards the subject matter, or motivation, which, however, depends on their implementation (Higgins et al., 2019); this is especially true for learning fractions (Reinhold et al., 2021). In particular, a positive and learning-promoting effect of digital simulation-based learning environments through 'representational scaffolding' is assumed (Fischer et al., 2022). ...
Conference Paper
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Potentials of digital tools compared to paper-based learning environments are, e.g., using congruent gestures on realistic models-which can be beneficial for learning outcomes. We argue that this effect is mediated by an increase in motivational-emotional engagement. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a randomized controlled trial with N=292 students (6 th grade). In an experimental group, students developed the 'part of many wholes' concept in a digital learning environment which made use of congruent gestures; in a control group, students worked with the same material paper-based. We assessed students' knowledge of the part-whole concept before and after the intervention, and asked about their motivational-emotional engagement during the lesson. The results of the mediation analysis are in line with our hypothesis.
... Peerfeedback scenarios that require a higher degree of self-regulation and co-regulation might impose additional challenges (Greisel et al., 2021;Koivuniemi et al., 2017) but also potential for NLP-based adaptive support measures. Moreover, the characteristics of the learning task-its complexity or dynamics (see Fischer et al., 2022) or the non-existence of a correct solution (see Fischer & Wolf, 2015)-might be relevant to both the generalizability of the model as well as the effectiveness of NLP-based adaptive support measures. Educational research on peer-feedback needs to continue with detailed process analyses to investigate the learning processes during peer-feedback as well as the potential influences of varying learner characteristics, context characteristics and task characteristics, which might also affect the leverage points for optimal learner support. ...
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Advancements in artificial intelligence are rapidly increasing. The new‐generation large language models, such as ChatGPT and GPT‐4, bear the potential to transform educational approaches, such as peer‐feedback. To investigate peer‐feedback at the intersection of natural language processing (NLP) and educational research, this paper suggests a cross‐disciplinary framework that aims to facilitate the development of NLP‐based adaptive measures for supporting peer‐feedback processes in digital learning environments. To conceptualize this process, we introduce a peer‐feedback process model, which describes learners' activities and textual products. Further, we introduce a terminological and procedural scheme that facilitates systematically deriving measures to foster the peer‐feedback process and how NLP may enhance the adaptivity of such learning support. Building on prior research on education and NLP, we apply this scheme to all learner activities of the peer‐feedback process model to exemplify a range of NLP‐based adaptive support measures. We also discuss the current challenges and suggest directions for future cross‐disciplinary research on the effectiveness and other dimensions of NLP‐based adaptive support for peer‐feedback. Building on our suggested framework, future research and collaborations at the intersection of education and NLP can innovate peer‐feedback in digital learning environments. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic There is considerable research in educational science on peer‐feedback processes. Natural language processing facilitates the analysis of students' textual data. There is a lack of systematic orientation regarding which NLP techniques can be applied to which data to effectively support the peer‐feedback process. What this paper adds A comprehensive overview model that describes the relevant activities and products in the peer‐feedback process. A terminological and procedural scheme for designing NLP‐based adaptive support measures. An application of this scheme to the peer‐feedback process results in exemplifying the use cases of how NLP may be employed to support each learner activity during peer‐feedback. Implications for practice and/or policy To boost the effectiveness of their peer‐feedback scenarios, instructors and instructional designers should identify relevant leverage points, corresponding support measures, adaptation targets and automation goals based on theory and empirical findings. Management and IT departments of higher education institutions should strive to provide digital tools based on modern NLP models and integrate them into the respective learning management systems; those tools should help in translating the automation goals requested by their instructors into prediction targets, take relevant data as input and allow for evaluating the predictions.
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A core element of teacherss' professional knowledge is their Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). The Refined Consensus Model of PCK defines three realms of PCK: collective PCK, personal PCK and enacted PCK. ePCK encompasses the acts of planning and reflecting on a lesson. Digital simulations allow the training of transferring pPCK to ePCK in early teacher education. Until now, it remains unclear how digital simulations could be personalized. We analyze different types of adaptation granularity for a scaffolding via cognitive activation promptspresenting a study that was completed in a three-level single factor pre-post-test design. N=115 pre-service biology teachers were randomly assigned to three treatment groups receiving scaffolds either based on a summative cPCK-score or based on situation-specific cPCK-scores or no scaffolding. A mixed ANOVA revealed a main effect of time (Huynh-Feldt F(1.87, 208.92)=53.56, p<.001) as well as of treatment (F(2, 530.39)=3.47, p=.034) and a significant interaction effect of time and treatment (Huynh-Feldt F(3.73, 208.92)=5.62, p<.001). Regardless of the adaptation modus, scaffolding led to a higher ePCK when the scaffold was presented, but only participants receiving situation-specific scaffolding had a higher ePCK in the post-test. These findings can contribute to improve teacher education by using personalized digital simulations training ePCK.
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This report provides an example implementation of a virtual gaming simulation (VGS) in counseling seminars in teacher education as a tool for learning psychological conversation skills. The theory-practice seminar “Counseling language learners” in a blended learning environment includes the teaching of counseling competencies, followed by actual online counseling sessions with school students. As a further approximation of practice, before gathering their first experience as counselors, preservice teachers play through a virtual simulation of a counseling session in which they can interactively control the counselor's behavior by choosing from a pool of alternatives. In this way, users learn inductively about the functionality of conversational techniques, and begin to anticipate the consequences of their actions. An evaluative study explores the benefits perceived by preservice teachers of the present VGS application. Results indicate high levels of usability and utility of the VGS as well as an aroused situational and topic interest through the task. Confirmatory evaluations are still required.
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Teachers routinely observe and interpret student behavior to make judgements about whether and how to support their students’ learning. Simulated cases can help pre-service teachers to gain this skill of diagnostic reasoning. With 118 pre-service teachers, we tested whether participants rate simulated cases presented in a serial-cue case format as more authentic and become more involved with the materials compared to cases presented in a whole case format. We further investigated whether participants with varying prior conceptual knowledge (what are symptoms of ADHD and dyslexia) gain more strategic knowledge (how to detect ADHD and dyslexia) with a serial-cue versus whole case format. We found that the case format did not impact authenticity ratings but that learners reported higher involvement in the serial-cue case format condition. Bayes factors provide moderate evidence for the absence of a case format effect on strategic knowledge and strong evidence for the absence of an interaction of case format and prior knowledge. We recommend using serial-cue case formats in simulations as they are a more authentic representation of the diagnostic reasoning process and cognitively involve learners. We call for replications to gather more evidence for the impact of case format on knowledge acquisition. We suggest a further inquiry into the relationship of case format, involvement, and authenticity but think that a productive way forward for designing authentic simulations is attention to aspects that make serial-cue cases effective for diverse learners. For example, adaptive feedback or targeted practice of specific parts of diagnostic reasoning such as weighing evidence.
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The introductory chapter provides a brief overview of the existing research strands on simulation-based learning and the notion of diagnostic competences. We believe that the domains of medical and teacher education can learn a lot from each other, especially when it comes to designing learning environments to promote professional development. We therefore emphasize the need for finding similarities across disciplines and instructional design features that can be effectively transferred between domains. This chapter also introduces the three-level coherence framework used throughout the other chapters of this book to enable comparisons between the presented approaches to simulation-based learning. This chapter ends with an overview of the chapters in the book.
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This article presents a systematic review of the literature to identify core practices, teaching strategies and assessment processes used or under development in practice-based teacher education programs. It addresses diverse core practices used in university pedagogy of practice. A finding is that the assessment of students’ learning of core practices remains incipient. Our study contributes to teacher education programs that opt for a practice-based curriculum to further understand teaching and assessment of core practices. This review facilitates progress in constructing common frameworks that support pre-service teachers’ training.
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We investigated how medical students' collaborative diagnostic reasoning, particularly evidence elicitation and sharing, can be facilitated effectively using agent-based simulations. Providing adaptive collaboration scripts has been suggested to increase effectiveness, but existing evidence is diverse and could be affected by unsystematic group constellations. Collaboration scripts have been criticized for undermining learners' agency. We investigate the effect of adaptive and static scripts on collaborative diagnostic reasoning and basic psychological needs. We randomly allocated 160 medical students to one of three groups: adaptive, static, or no collaboration script. We found that learning with adaptive collaboration scripts enhanced evidence sharing performance and transfer performance. Scripting did not affect learners’ perceived autonomy and social relatedness. Yet, compared to static scripts, adaptive scripts had positive effects on perceived competence. We conclude that for complex skills complementing agent-based simulations with adaptive scripts seems beneficial to help learners internalize collaboration scripts without negatively affecting basic psychological needs.
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Entrustable professional activities (EPAs) have received much attention in the literature since they were first proposed in 2005. Useful guidelines, workshops, courses, and conferences have supported faculty in developing programs and designing assessment procedures using EPAs and entrustment decision-making. Yet, the need for clarification remains, particularly as more programs make the step from design to implementation. Well-written EPAs provide a natural construct to establish the outcome of training. To be useful, EPAs require more than a suitable title. This AMEE Guide elaborates eight sections of a full EPA description, and provides explanations and justifications for each. These sections are: title; specification and limitations; risks in case of failure; most relevant competency domains; knowledge, skills, attitudes and experiences; information sources to assess progress and support summative entrustment; entrustment/supervision level expected at which stage of training; and time period to expiration if not practiced. Constructing fully elaborated EPAs creates a shared mental model amongst learners and programs, informs competency-based curriculum design, directs ad-hoc and formal entrustment decision-making, and provides standards for certifying bodies and boundaries for scope of practice. The framework intends to support curricular leaders looking to adopt new EPAs, or revise and define established EPAs for competency-based education.
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Collaborations between researchers and practitioners have recently become increasingly popular in education, and educational design research (EDR) may benefit greatly from investigating such partnerships. One important domain in which EDR on collaborations between researchers and practitioners can be applied is research on simulation-based learning. However, frameworks describing both research and design processes in research programs on simulation-based learning are currently lacking. The framework proposed in this paper addresses this research gap. It is derived from theory and delineates levels, phases, activities, roles, and products of research programs to develop simulations as complex scientific artifacts for research purposes. This dual-level framework applies to research programs with a research committee and multiple subordinate research projects. The proposed framework is illustrated by examples from the actual research and design process of an interdisciplinary research program investigating the facilitation of diagnostic competences through instructional support in simulations. On a theoretical level, the framework contributes primarily to the literature of EDR by offering a unique dual-level perspective. Moreover , on a practical level, the framework may help by providing recommendations to guide the research and design process in research programs.
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Personalized education—the systematic adaptation of instruction to individual learners—has been a long-striven goal. We review research on personalized education that has been conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, and in digital learning environments. Across all learning environments, we find that personalization is most successful when relevant learner characteristics are measured repeatedly during the learning process and when these data are used to adapt instruction in a systematic way. Building on these observations, we propose a novel, dynamic framework of personalization that conceptualizes learners as dynamic entities that change during and in interaction with the instructional process. As these dynamics manifest on different timescales, so do the opportunities for instructional adaptations—ranging from setting appropriate learning goals at the macroscale to reacting to affective-motivational fluctuations at the microscale. We argue that instructional design needs to take these dynamics into account in order to adapt to a specific learner at a specific point in time. Finally, we provide some examples of successful, dynamic adaptations and discuss future directions that arise from a dynamic conceptualization of personalization.
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A key challenge for teachers is the on-the-fly assessment of student learning. Video-based simulations may provide a tool for measuring assessment skills and a basis for learning environments in teacher education. Based on the framework for teaching practice by Grossman et al. (2009), considerations for designing video-based simulations that balance authenticity and cognitive demand are derived. Results show that participants perceived the developed simulation as authentic, were mostly able to rank students according to their overall mathematical argumentation skills and showed potential for learning in their detailed assessment of students. Thus, results indicate the internal validity of the video-based simulation.
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Adaptive learning and personalization have long been of great interest to learning designers and educators, and recent technological advances that have opened up a range of new possibilities for adaptivity. However, we lack clear definitions of the terms adaptivity and personalization, and the theoretical and empirical soundness of implementations of corresponding systems varies greatly. We therefore first provide definitions for key concepts related to adaptivity. We then discuss what variable systems should adapt for, how these variables can be measured, and what modifications to the learner experience can be made based on these variables. We propose a taxonomy of adaptivity that distinguishes adaptivity based on cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social/cultural variables, and that defines types of adaptivity at a macro-level and a micro-level.
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Simulation-based learning offers a wide range of opportunities to practice complex skills in higher education and to implement different types of scaffolding to facilitate effective learning. This meta-analysis includes 145 empirical studies and investigates the effectiveness of different scaffolding types and technology in simulation-based learning environments to facilitate complex skills. The simulations had a large positive overall effect: g = 0.85, SE = 0.08; CIs [0.69, 1.02]. Technology use and scaffolding had positive effects on learning. Learners with high prior knowledge benefited more from reflection phases; learners with low prior knowledge learned better when supported by examples. Findings were robust across different higher education domains (e.g., medical and teacher education, management). We conclude that (1) simulations are among the most effective means to facilitate learning of complex skills across domains and (2) different scaffolding types can facilitate simulation-based learning during different phases of the development of knowledge and skills.
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Objective: Training in the final year (FY) of undergraduate medical training currently does not adequately prepare students for the independent performance of medical professional activities after graduation. The concept of Entrustable Professional Activities (EPA) offers the opportunity for a competency-based FY training with the focus on medical professional activities. Methodology: In regular meetings, the FY sub-working group of the German Medical Faculty Association (MFT), which includes representatives with clinical and didactic expertise of the Associations of Internal Medicine, Surgery and General Medicine, developed a concept for the competecy-orientated, EPA-based, FY model logbook 2.0. The selection of the units of practice was made in a cross-disciplinary, consensus-orientated discussion process based on the question which medical professional activities a young professional has to master in the inpatient or outpatient working environment. Results: For the FY electives internal medicine, surgery and general medicine, a blueprint of a total of 18 comprehensive, partially interdisciplinary EPAs relating to inpatient and outpatient care contexts were developed. Each EPA was operationalised by a short description, supervision levels were attributed, and the process of transparent entrustment was determined. Conclusions: The concept for a new FY model logbook 2.0 focuses on the interdisciplinary core medical professional activities in an inpatient and outpatient care context, in order to facilitate transition from undergraduate training to professional practice, and to help avoid overload, thus increasing patient safety. Copyright © 2019 Berberat et al.
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We propose a conceptual framework which may guide research on fostering diagnostic competences in simulations in higher education. We first review and link research perspectives on the components and the development of diagnostic competences, taken from medical and teacher education. Applying conceptual knowledge in diagnostic activities is considered necessary for developing diagnostic competences in both fields. Simulations are considered promising in providing opportunities for knowledge application when real experience is overwhelming or not feasible for ethical, organizational or economic reasons. To help learners benefit from simulations, we then propose a systematic investigation of different types of instructional support in such simulations. We particularly focus on different forms of scaffolding during problem-solving and on the possibly complementary roles of the direct presentation of information in these kinds of environments. Two sets of possibly moderating factors, individual learning prerequisites (such as executive functions) or epistemic emotions and contextual factors (such as the nature of the diagnostic situation or the domain) are viewed as groups of potential moderators of the instructional effects. Finally, we outline an interdisciplinary research agenda concerning the instructional design of simulations for advancing diagnostic competences in medical and teacher education.
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Interactive simulations allow preservice teachers to connect education theory and pedagogy in scaffolded environments. We created digital simulations with scenarios from in-person simulations and used them to prepare novice teachers for conversations with parents. Using a design-based approach we implemented the simulations in an education class, gathered data through surveys and observations, and incorporated feedback into subsequent designs. Novice teachers perceived the simulation as authentic and practiced maintaining composure and articulating pedagogical approaches. Recordings of novice teachers’ responses produced by the simulation enabled self-reflection and peer and instructor feedback. Results suggest that these digital simulations hold promise as low-cost, flexible tools for novice teachers to engage in targeted practice in a low-stakes setting.
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Background: Entrustable Professional Activities (EPAs) have emerged as a new approach to operationalise the workplace performance expectations for the transition from under- to postgraduate medical training. However, the transferability of such EPAs from one context to another appears limited. In this article, we report on the results of our approach to define a full set of core EPAs for entry into residency with the expectation to be performed under distant supervision. Methods: The EPA development involved a modified, three round Delphi study, conducted at the Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin. The supervision level was operationalised as supervisor being distantly available and findings being reviewed. The threshold for consent was reaching a content validity index of a least 80%. The Delphi study involved experienced physicians (n=45) and resulted in a set of core EPAs with the descriptions of the categories: title, specification/limitations, conditions and implications of entrustment decision, knowledge, skills, and attitude, link to competencies and assessment sources. Results: The response rates were 76-80% in the Delphi rounds. Key to the content validation process for the performance expectation was deciding on “to act under distant supervision”. The results are full descriptions of 12 core EPAs, organised into 5 overarching EPA domains. Conclusions: Our systematic approach yielded the definition of 12 core EPAs for entry into residency at the level of “act with distant supervision” according to the practice in our context. This report may support other medical schools who plan to implement EPAs into their curricula.
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Evidence suggests that diagnostic error plays a major role in America’s suboptimal patient care. Evidence also suggests that generalizable problem solving or clinical reasoning skills are not the primary determinant of diagnostic accuracy. Rather, knowledge-based constructs likely play a greater role in diagnostic performance. Dual processing theory (DPT) posits how knowledge-based constructs and information processing (problem solving or reasoning) mechanisms work together to enable categorization tasks such as differential diagnosis. This manuscript describes how medical educators might use DPT to create training and testing methods to improve the diagnostic capabilities of tomorrow’s practitioners and subsequently patient care outcomes.
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Cognitive apprenticeship theory emphasizes the process of making expert thinking “visible” to students and fostering the cognitive and meta-cognitive processes required for expertise. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the use of cognitive apprenticeship theory with the primary aim of understanding how and to what extent the theory has been applied to the design, implementation, and analysis of education in the health sciences. The initial search yielded 149 articles, with 45 excluded because they contained the term “cognitive apprenticeship” only in reference list. The remaining 104 articles were categorized using a theory talk coding scheme. An in depth qualitative synthesis and review was conducted for the 26 articles falling into the major theory talk category. Application of cognitive apprenticeship theory tended to focus on the methods dimension (e.g., coaching, mentoring, scaffolding), with some consideration for the content and sociology dimensions. Cognitive apprenticeship was applied in various disciplines (e.g., nursing, medicine, veterinary) and educational settings (e.g., clinical, simulations, online). Health sciences education researchers often used cognitive apprenticeship to inform instructional design and instrument development. Major recommendations from the literature included consideration for contextual influences, providing faculty development, and expanding application of the theory to improve instructional design and student outcomes. This body of research provides critical insight into cognitive apprenticeship theory and extends our understanding of how to develop expert thinking in health sciences students. New research directions should apply the theory into additional aspects of health sciences educational research, such as classroom learning and interprofessional education.
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Background: In Germany, a national competency based catalogue of learning objectives in medicine (NKLM) is developed by the Society for Medical Education and the Council of Medical Faculties. As many international pendants it describes the qualifications of medical school graduates in detail. The definition of such outcome frameworks indents to make medical education transparent to students, teachers and society. The NKLM aims to extend existing lists of medical topics for assessment with learnable competencies. All outcome frameworks are structured by chapters, domains or physician roles. The definition of the scholar-role often poses a number of questions as: What distinguishes necessary qualifications of a scientifically qualified physician from those of a physician scientist? Methods: 13 outcome frameworks were identified through a systematic three-step literature review and their content compared to the scholar role in the NKLM by means of a qualitative text analysis. The three steps consist of search for outcome frameworks, in- and exclusion, and data extraction, categorization, and validation. Results: Extracted contents of all frameworks may be summarized into the components Common Basics, Clinical Application, Research, Teaching and Education, and Lifelong Learning. Compared to the included frameworks the NKLM emphasises competencies necessary for research and teaching while clinical application is less prominently mentioned. Conclusion: The scholar role of the NKLM differs substantially from other international outcome frameworks. Discussing these results within AWMF and among German physicians shall increase propagation and understanding of the NKLM and thus contribute to the qualification of future medical graduates in Germany.
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This study investigated the effectiveness of three different versions of a training programme on physician-patient and teacher-parent conversations for medical students and student teachers. The research questions concerned the differential effects of e-learning featuring contrastive video cases, role-play including video feedback and their combination. The training effects were tested to determine whether they were similar across both professional domains. In a randomised controlled trial (N = 168), three training conditions were prepared using a wait-list control group. The assessment of communication competence was based on videotaped communications between the participants and simulated patients/parents (i.e., trained actors). The results of planned contrast analyses corroborated the study expectations: first, a strong overall treatment effect was observed. Second, the combined condition was more effective than e-learning and role-play alone when controlling for prior knowledge and cognitive ability. Third, e-learning proved more effective than role-play. Exploring interaction effects indicated that student teachers benefited more from the training than medical students.
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Currently, the field of teacher education is undergoing a major shift-a turn away from a predominant focus on specifying the necessary knowledge for teaching toward specifying teaching practices that entail knowledge and doing. In this article, the authors suggest that current work on K-12 core teaching practices has the potential to shift teacher education toward the practice of teaching. However, the authors argue that to realize this vision we must reimagine not only the curriculum for learning to teach but also the pedagogy of teacher education. We present one example of what we mean by reimagined teacher education pedagogy by offering a framework through which to conceptualize the preparation of teachers organized around core practices. From our perspectives, this framework could be the backbone of a larger research and development agenda aimed at engaging teachers and teacher educators in systematic knowledge generation regarding ambitious teaching and teacher education pedagogy. We conclude with an invitation to the field to join with us in imagining approaches to generating and aggregating knowledge about teaching and the pedagogy of teacher education that will move not only our individual practice but also our collective practice forward.
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Scientific reasoning and scientific argumentation are highly valued outcomes of K-12 and higher education. In this article, we first review main topics and key findings of three different strands of research, namely research on the development of scientific reasoning, research on scientific argumentation, and research on approaches to support scientific reasoning and argumentation. Building on these findings, we outline current research deficits and address five aspects that exemplify where and how research on scientific reasoning and argumentation needs to be expanded. In particular, we suggest to ground future research in a conceptual framework with three epistemic modes (advancing theory building about natural and social phenomena, artefact-centred scientific reasoning, and science-based reasoning in practice) and eight epistemic activities (problem identification, questioning, hypothesis generation, construction and redesign of artefacts, evidence
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This study examines how design characteristics in digital simulation-based learning environments moderate self-efficacy and transfer of learning. Drawing on social cognitive theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the meta-analysis psychometrically cumulated k = 15 studies of 25 years of research with a total sample size of N = 2274 learners. The findings indicate that high levels of user control result in higher estimates of self-efficacy and transfer. Offering assessment feedback after rather than during training led to higher efficacy beliefs and transfer. Effects of social, narrative and multimedia characteristics were nonsignificant. Implications for computer-based instructional design and directions for future research associated with motivational outcomes in technology-enhanced learning are discussed.
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Despite intensive research in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) over the last decade, there is relatively little research about how groups and individuals in groups engage, sustain, support, and productively regulate collaborative processes. This article examines the role of regulatory processes in collaborative learning and how CSCL environments can be used for shared regulation of learning. First, we establish the importance of regulation processes and introduce three types of regulation contributing to successful collaboration: self-, co-, and socially shared regulation of learning. Second, we illuminate two strands of seemingly diverse research that lay an important foundation for supporting and researching regulation in CSCL contexts establishing that (a) computer-based pedagogical tools used to successfully support regulation in individual learning contexts can be leveraged for collaborative task contexts, and (b) computer-based tools for supporting collaborative knowledge construction can be leveraged for supporting regulatory processes. Finally, we draw on emerging research in our own programs of research to demonstrate how regulation can be supported and researched in CSCL environments. The article concludes by charting a course for future CSCL research focused on supporting regulated learning in collaborative task contexts.
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Case-based reasoning means using old experiences to understand and solve new problems. In case-based reasoning, a reasoner remembers a previous situation similar to the current one and uses that to solve the new problem. Case-based reasoning can mean adapting old solutions to meet new demands; using old cases to explain new situations; using old cases to critique new solutions; or reasoning from precedents to interpret a new situation (much like lawyers do) or create an equitable solution to a new problem (much like labor mediators do). This paper discusses the processes involved in case-based reasoning and the tasks for which case-based reasoning is useful.
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This manuscript presents a study in which the factor structure and validity of the Adolescent Self-Regulatory Inventory (ASRI) were examined. The ASRI is a theoretically-based questionnaire that taps two temporal aspects of self-regulation (regulation in the short- and long-term). 169 students in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades of a small, Midwestern school district completed self-report questionnaires focused on self-regulation, parenting behaviors, and psychological adjustment. 80 parents also participated. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that the internal consistency of the long-term and short-term factors was satisfactory. Requirements for concurrent and construct validity were met. The ASRI also demonstrated incremental validity, as the inclusion of the long-term factor with a comparison questionnaire significantly increased the proportion of explained variance in adolescent-reported parental warmth, externalizing, and prosocial behavior. The ASRI has the potential to move research on self-regulation in adolescence in a viable new direction.
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This article provides an overview description of the four-component instructional design system (4C/ID-model) developed originally by van Merriënboer and others in the early 1990s (van Merriënboer, Jelsma, & Paas, 1992) for the design of training programs for complex skills. It discusses the structure of training blueprints for complex learning and associated instructional methods. The basic claim is that four interrelated components are essential in blueprints for complex learning: (a) learning tasks, (b) supportive information, (c) just-in-time (JIT) information, and (d) part-task practice. Instructional methods for each component are coupled to the basic learning processes involved in complex learning and a fully worked-out example of a training blueprint for “searching for literature” is provided. Readers who benefit from a structured advance organizer should consider reading the appendix at the end of this article before reading the entire article.
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Past educational improvement endeavors were fundamentally centered on the learner as an individual. This changed by the early 1990s after an increasing number of educators and researchers embraced sociocultural learning concepts such as “communities of practice,” “communities of learners,” and “knowledge-building communities.” These ideas are originally grounded in a dialectical materialist, cultural-historical theory of activity, or, as Lev Vygotsky called it, in a “concrete human [social] psychology.” However, as these concepts filtered into Western scholarship, some of their defining characteristics have been lost or downplayed. The intention of this article is thus to offer a more complete theorization of the educational notion of community that is centered on collective activity or practice mediated by history and culture/society. Two case studies, which exemplify learning communities using this lens, conclude the paper.
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The Core EPAs for Entering Residency Pilot project aimed to test the feasibility of implementing 13 entrustable professional activities (EPAs) at 10 U.S. medical schools and to gauge whether the use of the Core EPAs could improve graduates' performance early in residency. In this manuscript, the authors (members of the pilot institutions and Association of American Medical Colleges staff supporting the project evaluation) describe the schools' capacity to collect multimodal evidence about their students' performance in each of the Core EPAs and the ability of faculty committees to use those data to make decisions regarding learners' readiness for entrustment. In reviewing data for each of the Core EPAs, the authors reflected on how each activity performed as an EPA informed by how well it could be assessed and entrusted. For EPAs that did not perform well, the authors examined whether there are underlying practical and/or theoretical issues limiting its utility as a measure of student performance in medical school.
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Ever since its first conception, the concept of complex problem solving (CPS) has been debated regarding its role within the conception of human intelligence. The aim of the current paper was to theoretically introduce and empirically test a multifaceted framework of CPS that subsumes different positions and provides testable predictions on the nature of CPS. Following a review of the existing literature on complex problem solving, we conclude that it is necessary to differentiate between the dimensions of connectivity and dynamics. These dimensions are further distinguishable for both phases of CPS, knowledge acquisition and knowledge application, resulting in four facets. Static problems, as used in conventional measures of intelligence, on the other hand, do not include dynamics as much as complex problems. We argue that the differences in CPS and static problem solving proposed by various researchers result from the dimension of dynamics that is highly relevant for CPS but less so for static problem solving. An empirical analysis based on two independent samples supported the assumptions made by the framework. This brings substantial implications for the understanding of CPS as well as the interpretation of previous research, which we discuss.
Chapter
This chapter argues that to understand the ways that multiple representations should be designed to support learning, we need to consider the pedagogical functions that they play alongside their structural form. Multiple representations play a complementary role when learners exploit differences in computational properties or information by switching between representations and selecting the appropriate representation for the task at hand. Constraining benefits can be achieved when we support learners’ understanding of a second representation by relating it to a familiar representation. Learners can gain deeper understanding when they abstract over multiple representations to achieve insight into the nature of the representations and the domain. This chapters reviews studies that have used multiple representations for these purposes and identifies some of the circumstances that infiuence the effectiveness of using multiple representations in these ways.
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We now can begin to turn the observations of the previous chapter into objects to be analyzed. In the following sections, we recast the central characteristics of these several historical realizations of apprenticeship in terms of legitimate peripheral participation. First, we discuss the structuring resources that shape the process and content of learning possibilities and apprentices' changing perspectives on what is known and done. Then we argue that “transparency” of the sociopolitical organization of practice, of its content and of the artifacts engaged in practice, is a crucial resource for increasing participation. We next examine the relation of newcomers to the discourse of practice. This leads to a discussion of how identity and motivation are generated as newcomers move toward full participation. Finally, we explore contradictions inherent in learning, and the relations of the resulting conflicts to the development of identity and the transformation of practice.
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This study seeks to promote learning in computer-based learning environments utilizing students’ self-directed metacognitive prompts. Such prompts are based on the idea of instructing students to design their own metacognitive scaffolds and learn with them afterward. In a pre-post experimental design, students in the experimental group (n = 35) were instructed to configure their own metacognitive prompts before learning whereas students in the control group (n = 35) learned without prompts. Log file analysis of navigation behavior indicates that students who learned with their individually designed, self-directed prompts visited relevant webpages significantly more often and spent a longer time on them compared with students in the control group. Moreover, participants in the experimental group attained better transfer performance immediately after learning. The long-term effect in transfer performance was even greater in a follow-up learning session conducted after three weeks without any instructional support in either group. These results are consistent with theories of metacognition and self-regulated learning and indicate that self-directed prompts can lead to sustainable effects.
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The aim of this chapter is to discuss appropriate scaffolding for metacognitive reflection when learning with modern computer-based learning environments. Many researchers assume that prompting students for metacognitive reflection will affect the learning process by engaging students in more metacognitive behaviour leading to better learning performance. After defining basic constructs and assumptions, an overview of research on prompting metacognitive and self-regulated learning skills during hypermedia learning is presented. On the basis of this overview the design and effects of three kinds of metacognitive support (reflection prompts, metacognitive prompts, training & metacognitive prompts) are presented and discussed. In three experiments with university students, the experimental groups are supported by one of the types of metacognitive prompts, whereas the control groups are not supported. Analysis of learning processes and learning outcomes confirms the positive effects of all three types of metacognitive prompts; however their specific influence varies to a significant degree. The results and their explanations are in line with recent theories of metacognition and self-regulated learning. At the end of the chapter implications for the design of metacognitive support to improve hypermedia learning are discussed. Furthermore, implications for investigating metacognitive skills during hypermedia learning will be derived.
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Medical training must at some point use live patients to hone the skills of health professionals. But there is also an obligation to provide optimal treatment and to ensure patients' safety and well-being. Balancing these two needs represents a fundamental ethical tension in medical education. Simulation-based learning can help mitigate this tension by developing health professionals' knowledge, skills, and attitudes while protecting patients from unnecessary risk. Simulation-based training has been institutionalized in other high-hazard professions, such as aviation, nuclear power, and the military, to maximize training safety and minimize risk. Health care has lagged behind in simulation applications for a number of reasons, including cost, lack of rigorous proof of effect, and resistance to change. Recently, the international patient safety movement and the U.S. federal policy agenda have created a receptive atmosphere for expanding the use of simulators in medical training, stressing the ethical imperative to “first do no harm” in the face of validated, large epidemiological studies describing unacceptable preventable injuries to patients as a result of medical management. Four themes provide a framework for an ethical analysis of simulation-based medical education: best standards of care and training, error management and patient safety, patient autonomy, and social justice and resource allocation. These themes are examined from the perspectives of patients, learners, educators, and society. The use of simulation wherever feasible conveys a critical educational and ethical message to all: patients are to be protected whenever possible and they are not commodities to be used as conveniences of training.
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In "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education," John Dewey compares professional education for teachers to the education of other professionals, especially physicians. He distinguishes between 2 general approaches, the apprenticeship and the laboratory, generally favoring the latter. This article proposes 6 commonplaces characteristic of all forms of professional education and critically examines Dewey's views of teacher education through those commonplaces. Proposals are offered for conceptualizing the education of teachers in general and the connections between theory and practice in particular.
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Background/Context This study investigates how people are prepared for professional practice in the clergy, teaching, and clinical psychology. The work is located within research on professional education, and research on the teaching and learning of practice. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study The purpose of the study is to develop a framework to describe and analyze the teaching of practice in professional education programs, specifically preparation for relational practices. Setting The research took place in eight professional education programs located in seminaries, schools of professional psychology, and universities across the country. Population/Participants/Subjects Our research participants include faculty members, students, and administrators at each of these eight programs. Research Design This research is a comparative case study of professional education across three different professions—the clergy, clinical psychology, and teaching. Our data include qualitative case studies of eight preparation programs: two teacher education programs, three seminaries, and three clinical psychology programs. Data Collection and Analysis For each institution, we conducted site visits that included interviews with administrators, faculty, and staff; observations of multiple classes and field-work; and focus groups with students who were either at the midpoint or at the end of their programs. Conclusions/Recommendations We have identified three key concepts for understanding the pedagogies of practice in professional education: representations, decomposition, and approximations of practice. Representations of practice comprise the different ways that practice is represented in professional education and what these various representations make visible to novices. Decomposition of practice involves breaking down practice into its constituent parts for the purposes of teaching and learning. Approximations of practice refer to opportunities to engage in practices that are more or less proximal to the practices of a profession. In this article, we define and provide examples of the representation, decomposition, and approximation of practice from our study of professional education in the clergy, clinical psychology, and teaching. We conclude that, in the program we studied, prospective teachers have fewer opportunities to engage in approximations that focus on contingent, interactive practice than do novices in the other two professions we studied.
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Learning from examples is a very effective means of initial cognitive skill acquisition. There is an enormous body of research on the specifics of this learning method. This article presents an instructionally oriented theory of example-based learning that integrates theoretical assumptions and findings from three research areas: learning from worked examples, observational learning, and analogical reasoning. This theory has descriptive and prescriptive elements. The descriptive subtheory deals with (a) the relevance and effectiveness of examples, (b) phases of skill acquisition, and (c) learning processes. The prescriptive subtheory proposes instructional principles that make full exploitation of the potential of example-based learning possible.
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In this article, the authors examine two distinct but closely related fields, research on teaching and research on teacher education. Despite its roots in research on teaching, research in teacher education has developed in isolation both from mainstream research on teaching and from research on higher education and professional education. A stronger connection to research on teaching could inform the content of teacher education, while a stronger relationship to research on organizations and policy implementation could focus attention on the organizational contexts in which the work takes shape. The authors argue that for research in teacher education to move forward, it must reconnect with these fields to address the complexity of both teaching as a practice and the preparation of teachers.
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In this article, the authors provide an argument for future directions for teacher education, based on a re‐conceptualization of teaching. The authors argue that teacher educators need to attend to the clinical aspects of practice and experiment with how best to help novices develop skilled practice. Taking clinical practice seriously will require teacher educators to add pedagogies of enactment to an existing repertoire of pedagogies of reflection and investigation. In order to make this shift, the authors contend that teacher educators will need to undo a number of historical divisions that underlie the education of teachers. These include the curricular divide between foundations and methods courses, as well as the separation between the university and schools. Finally, the authors propose that teacher education be organized around a core set of practices in which knowledge, skill, and professional identity are developed in the process of learning to practice during professional education.
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In cognitive load theory, element interactivity has been used as the basic, defining mechanism of intrinsic cognitive load for many years. In this article, it is suggested that element interactivity underlies extraneous cognitive load as well. By defining extraneous cognitive load in terms of element interactivity, a distinct relation between intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load can be established based on whether element interactivity is essential to the task at hand or whether it is a function of instructional procedures. Furthermore, germane cognitive load can be defined in terms of intrinsic cognitive load, thus also associating germane cognitive load with element interactivity. An analysis of the consequences of explaining the various cognitive load effects in terms of element interactivity is carried out. KeywordsCognitive load theory-Element interactivity-Extraneous cognitive load-Intrinsic cognitive load-Germane cognitive load
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High-fidelity simulators have enjoyed increasing popularity despite costs that may approach six figures. This is justified on the basis that simulators have been shown to result in large learning gains that may transfer to actual patient care situations. However, most commonly, learning from a simulator is compared with learning in a 'no-intervention' control group. This fails to clarify the relationship between simulator fidelity and learning, and whether comparable gains might be achieved at substantially lower cost. This analysis was conducted to review studies that compare learning from high-fidelity simulation (HFS) with learning from low-fidelity simulation (LFS) based on measures of clinical performance. Using a variety of search strategies, a total of 24 studies contrasting HFS and LFS and including some measure of performance were located. These studies referred to learning in three areas: auscultation skills; surgical techniques, and complex management skills such as cardiac resuscitation. Both HFS and LFS learning resulted in consistent improvements in performance in comparisons with no-intervention control groups. However, nearly all the studies showed no significant advantage of HFS over LFS, with average differences ranging from 1% to 2%. The factors influencing learning, and the reasons for this surprising finding, are discussed.
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Flaws in clinical reasoning are present in most diagnostic errors and occur even when physicians have enough knowledge to solve the problem. Deliberate reflection has been shown to improve diagnoses. The sources of faulty reasoning and how reflection counteracts them remain largely unknown. To explore the causes of faulty reasoning and the mechanisms through which reflection neutralises them by investigating the influence of salient distracting clinical features on diagnostic decision-making. In a prior study, 34 internal medicine residents and 50 medical students of the Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, diagnosed four clinical cases by means of non-analytical reasoning and four by reflective reasoning. In the secondary analysis of the data presented here, five internists independently evaluated the diagnoses and examined the nature of the diagnostic errors in relation to case features that gave rise to these errors. Frequency of incorrect diagnoses caused by salient distracting features made through reflective and non-analytical reasoning. Among residents, reflective reasoning (Mean diagnostic accuracy score (M)=2.09, 95% CI 1.77 to 2.40) led to a significantly higher number of correct diagnoses than non-analytical reasoning (M=1.71, 95% CI 1.37 to 2.04; p=0.03). This higher diagnostic accuracy was associated with fewer incorrect diagnoses triggered by salient distracting clinical features (M=0.47, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.68) compared with non-analytical reasoning (M=0.85, 95% CI 0.59 to 1.11; p=0.02). Students did not benefit from reflection to improve diagnoses. Salient features in a case tend to attract physicians' attention and may misdirect diagnostic reasoning when they turn out to be unrelated to the problem, causing errors. Reflection helps by enabling physicians to overcome the influence of distracting features. The lack of effect for students suggests that this is only possible when there is enough knowledge to recognise which features discriminate between alternative diagnoses.