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Strength and Conditioning Considerations for Speed Climbing

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Abstract

Climbing has developed into a professional sport with worldwide participation. Olympic climbing consists of lead climbing, speed climbing, and bouldering. The objective of speed climbing is to reach the top of the route in the fastest time. Speed climbing has not been subjected to the same level of investigation as other types of climbing. A strength and power base underpins performance in speed climbing. This physiological and mechanical basis provides the foundations for effective program design for the speed climber. Effective programming should incorporate a long-term planning approach that is based on a needs analysis of the sport and the climber's physical qualities. The development of high performance will involve the sequential application of regional hypertrophy, maximal strength, explosive strength training, plyometrics, and climbing-specific training to a varying degree.

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Purpose: The goal of this study was to compare the force production capacities between boulderers, lead climbers and speed climbers during a pull-up test using a force-velocity-power profile. Methods: 24 high elite climbers (11 boulderers, 8 lead climbers, 5 speed climbers) realized two pull-ups at different percentages of their body mass (0%, 30%, 45%, 60%, 70%). Force-Velocity-Power profile analyses were performed with the use of an accelerometer for each load. The intraclass correlation (ICC) and coefficients of variation (CV) were calculated. A one-way analysis of variance was performed (ANOVA) with a Tukey Post-Hoc test to assess the difference between the groups. Results: Regarding the force, the CV ranged from 1.00% to 6.18% and the ICC from 0.98 to 0.99. For the velocity the CV ranged from 2.75% to 6.62% and the ICC 0.84 to 0.95. The linear regression slope showed the R² to be between 0.93 and 0.99, confirming the high quality of the linear relationship between the velocity and the external force produced during a pull-up. Boulderers presented significantly higher (p<0.05) maximal power (+22.30% and +26.29%), mean power for the pull-up at body-weight (+23.49% and +25.35%), theoretical maximal velocity at zero force (V0) (+23.92% and +21.53%) compared to lead and speed climbers respectively, and a more significant curve increase (Sfv) (+35.21% compared to lead climbers). Conclusions: The reliability of the method was shown to be high. Moreover, boulderers were able to develop an important external force and had the capacity to maintain high speed when the force production increased.
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Speed climbing is the most dynamic discipline among all climbing sports. Previous studies have emphasized the combined strength and speed character of speed climbing (determined by high level of anaerobic power of the muscles). The main aim of this study was to evaluate the level of mechanical power of the muscles generated during specific climbing movements in competition speed climbing at the level of the final rounds of the IFSC World Cup. The material for the study was provided by the somatic data and scores obtained by six speed climbers who regularly participated in speed climbing events during the IFSC World Cup. The analyses were performed based on the results derived from the IFSC World Cup played on 7 to 8 May 2016 in Nankin, China. The findings of this study lead to the following conclusions: Development of the level of relative anaerobic power in speed climbers represents the basis for the training process. The Margaria–Kalamen formula is likely to represent a valuable tool for evaluation of the level of sport-specific power in speed climbing. One of the determinants of high sportspecific power in speed climbing is high level of technical skills. The values of sport-specific power parameters can be useful in recruitment of athletes in speed climbing.
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Introduction. Studies have demonstrated an important role of muscle strength and endurance in climbing. However, little research has explored the speed parameters of the muscles of climbers. This study aimed to evaluate biomechanical indices of the functional status of the upper limbs in climbers. Material and methods. Group G1 (n = 3) were athletes who were able to climb 8c+/9a climbing routes using the red-point style and 7c+/8b routes with the on-sight style. Group G2 (n = 5) comprised climbers who were able to climb 8a/8b+ and 7b+/8a routes, respectively. Maximum muscle torques were measured in the elbow and arm flexors and extensors. Hand grip tests, dynamometric arm strength tests, and laboratory endurance tests were conducted. Results. Strength parameters in both joints were similar in the two groups of climbers. Maximum absolute values of hand grip, crimp grip, and global arm force in hanging did not differ between the groups. Furthermore, significant differences were found for relative indices (from circa 3% to circa 12%). No significant differences were recorded for the parameters of muscle speed. Furthermore, no significant effect of the subjects’ skill level on the results of endurance tests was found. The results obtained in the groups of athletes (G1, G2, and G1+2) were compared with the values recorded in a control group of students (GC, n = 48). Conclusions. Elite climbers were found to have an advantage over the controls only in strength and muscular endurance. No significant differences were observed in the results of speed tests in the muscles of the athletes and students examined in the study. The climbers (G1 and G2) differed in the strength potential of their muscles, but only when relative force indices were analysed. No differences were found in the biomechanical variables of speed and muscular endurance. Conventional tests are typically not a valuable diagnostic tool for the evaluation of climbers.
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This review covers underlying physiological characteristics and training considerations that may affect muscular strength including improving maximal force expression and time-limited force expression. Strength is underpinned by a combination of morphological and neural factors including muscle cross-sectional area and architecture, musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit recruitment, rate coding, motor unit synchronization, and neuromuscular inhibition. Although single- and multi-targeted block periodization models may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, concepts within each model must be considered within the limitations of the sport, athletes, and schedules. Bilateral training, eccentric training and accentuated eccentric loading, and variable resistance training may produce the greatest comprehensive strength adaptations. Bodyweight exercise, isolation exercises, plyometric exercise, unilateral exercise, and kettlebell training may be limited in their potential to improve maximal strength but are still relevant to strength development by challenging time-limited force expression and differentially challenging motor demands. Training to failure may not be necessary to improve maximum muscular strength and is likely not necessary for maximum gains in strength. Indeed, programming that combines heavy and light loads may improve strength and underpin other strength-power characteristics. Multiple sets appear to produce superior training benefits compared to single sets; however, an athlete’s training status and the dose–response relationship must be considered. While 2- to 5-min interset rest intervals may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, rest interval length may vary based an athlete’s training age, fiber type, and genetics. Weaker athletes should focus on developing strength before emphasizing power-type training. Stronger athletes may begin to emphasize power-type training while maintaining/improving their strength. Future research should investigate how best to implement accentuated eccentric loading and variable resistance training and examine how initial strength affects an athlete’s ability to improve their performance following various training methods.
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In this review of research on climbing expertise, we focus on different measures of climbing performance, including spatiotemporal measures related to fluency and activity states (i.e., discrete actions), adopted by climbers for achieving overall performance goals of getting to the end of a route efficiently and safely. Currently, a broad range of variables have been reported, however, many of these fail to capture how climbers adapt to a route whilst climbing. We argue that spatiotemporal measures should be considered concurrently with evaluation of activity states (such as reaching or exploring) in order gain a more comprehensive picture of how climbers successfully adapt to a route. Spatial and temporal movement measures taken at the hip are a traditional means of assessing efficiency of climbing behaviors. More recently, performatory and exploratory actions of the limbs have been used in combination with spatiotemporal indicators, highlighting the influence of limb states on climbing efficiency and skill transfer. However, only a few studies have attempted to combine spatiotemporal and activity state measures taken during route climbing. This review brings together existing approaches for observing climbing skill at performance outcome (i.e., spatiotemporal assessments) and process (i.e., limb activity states) levels of analysis. Skill level is associated with a spatially efficient route progression and lower levels of immobility. However, more difficult hold architecture designs require significantly greater mobility and more complex movement patterning to maintain performance. Different forms of functional, or goal-supportive, movement variability, including active recovery and hold exploration, have been implicated as important adaptations to physiological and environmental dynamics that emerge during the act of climbing. Indeed, recently it has also been shown that, when climbing on new routes, efficient exploration can improve the transfer of skill. This review provides new insights into how climbing performance and related actions can be quantified to better capture the functional role of movement variability.
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The purpose of this paper was to conduct a systematic review of the current body of literature and a meta-analysis to compare changes in strength and hypertrophy between low- versus high-load resistance training protocols. Searches of PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library and Scopus were conducted for studies that met the following criteria: 1) an experimental trial involving both low- (≤60% 1 RM) and high- (>60% 1 RM) load training; 2) with all sets in the training protocols being performed to momentary muscular failure; 3) at least one method of estimating changes in muscle mass and/or dynamic, isometric or isokinetic strength was used; 4) the training protocol lasted for a minimum of 6 weeks; 5) the study involved participants with no known medical conditions or injuries impairing training capacity. A total of 21 studies were ultimately included for analysis. Gains in 1RM strength were significantly greater in favor of high- versus low-load training, while no significant differences were found for isometric strength between conditions. Changes in measures of muscle hypertrophy were similar between conditions. The findings indicate that maximal strength benefits are obtained from the use of heavy loads while muscle hypertrophy can be equally achieved across a spectrum of loading ranges.
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Purpose The primary aim of this study is to determine the principal somatic and motor determinants for elite climbers. Methods Twenty climbers were examined [age: 28.5±6.1 years].The runners were divided into two groups based on their climbing level, according to the International Rock Climbing Research Association (IRCRA). Elite climbers represented a 8b-8c Rotpunkt (RP) climbing level (n = 6), and advanced climbers represented an 7c+-8a RP level (n = 14). The following measurements were assessed: height, weight, lean body mass, upper limb length, arm span, and forearm, arm, thigh and calf circumference. The BMI, Rohrer ratio, and Ape Index were also measured. The following motor tests were assessed: a specific test for finger strength, an arm strength test, and a test of muscle endurance (hanging from 2.5 and 4 cm ledges). In addition, pull ups were used to measure muscle resistance to fatigue. Results Elite climbers recorded significantly higher values for finger strength than advanced climbers (129.08 vs. 111.54 kg; t(18) = 2.35, p = 0.03) and arm endurance (33.17 vs. 25.75 pull ups; t(18) = 2.54, p = 0.02). In addition, the calf circumference was significantly lower in elite climbers than that in advanced climbers (34.75 vs. 36.93 cm; t(18) = 3.50, p = 0.003). Conclusion The results suggest that elite climbers have greater finger strength and arm endurance than advanced climbers.
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Skeletal muscle contracts either by shortening or lengthening (concentrically or eccentrically, respectively); however, the two contractions substantially differ from one another in terms of mechanisms of force generation, maximum force production and energy cost. It is generally known that eccentric actions generate greater force than isometric and concentric contractions and at a lower metabolic cost. Hence, by virtue of the greater mechanical loading involved in active lengthening, eccentric resistance training (ECC RT) is assumed to produce greater hypertrophy than concentric resistance training (CON RT). Nonetheless, prevalence of either ECC RT or CON RT in inducing gains in muscle mass is still an open issue, with some studies reporting greater hypertrophy with eccentric, some with concentric and some with similar hypertrophy within both training modes. Recent observations suggest that such hypertrophic responses to lengthening vs. shortening contractions are achieved by different adaptations in muscle architecture. Whilst the changes in muscle protein synthesis in response to acute and chronic concentric and eccentric exercise bouts seem very similar, the molecular mechanisms regulating the myogenic adaptations to the two distinct loading stimuli are still incompletely understood. Thus, the present review aims to, (a) critically discuss the literature on the contribution of eccentric vs. concentric loading to muscular hypertrophy and structural remodeling, and, (b) clarify the molecular mechanisms that may regulate such adaptations. We conclude that, when matched for either maximum load or work, similar increase in muscle size is found between ECC and CON RT. However, such hypertrophic changes appear to be achieved through distinct structural adaptations, which may be regulated by different myogenic and molecular responses observed between lengthening and shortening contractions.
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The basic drill of plyometric training aimed at improving lower limb power and jump height is a drop jump. This exercise can be performed using different techniques, which substantially affects jump variables. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the values of the reactive strength index (RSI) for countermovement drop jumps (CDJs) and bounce drop jumps (BDJs). The study was carried out in a group of 8 male youth basketball players. The tests were conducted using the AMTI BP600900 force plate to measure ground reaction forces and the Noraxon MyoMotion system to record kinematic data. Each player performed two CDJs and two BDJs from the height of 15, 30, 45 and 60 cm. The RSI was calculated as a ratio of jump height and contact time. Moreover, the RSI was determined for the amortization and take-off phases separately. Significant differences (p < 0.05) between RSI values for CDJs and BDJs were recorded for jumps from 30, 45 and 60 cm. Differences in RSI values for jumps from 15 cm were not significant. Furthermore, CDJ height values were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the values recorded for BDJs. Times of contact, amortization and take-off during BDJs were significantly shorter (p < 0.05) than the respective values obtained for CDJs. Therefore, the use of the RSI to monitor plyometric training should be based on the drop jump technique that is commonly performed by basketball players.
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Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of intra-set rest frequency and training load on muscle time under tension, external work, and external mechanical power output during back squat protocols with similar changes in velocity. Methods: Twelve strength-trained men (26.0±4.2 y; 83.1±8.8 kg; 1.75±0.06 m; 1.88 ± 0.19 1RM:body mass) performed three sets of twelve back squats using three different set structures: traditional sets with 60% 1RM (TS), cluster sets of four with 75% 1RM (CS4), and cluster sets of two with 80% 1RM (CS2). Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to determine differences in peak force (PF), mean force (MF), peak velocity (PV), mean velocity (MV), peak power (PP), mean power (MP), total work (TW), total time under tension (TUT), percent mean velocity loss (%MVL), and percent peak velocity loss (%PVL) between protocols. Results: Compared to TS and CS4, CS2 resulted in greater MF, TW, and TUT in addition to less MV, PV, and MP. Similarly, CS4 resulted in greater MF, TW, and TUT in addition to less MV, PV, and MP compared to TS. There were no differences between protocols for %MVL, %PVL, PF, or PP. Conclusions: These data show that the intra-set rest provided in CS4 and CS2 allowed for greater external loads compared to TS, increasing TW and TUT, while resulting in similar PP and %VL. Therefore, cluster set structures may function as an alternative method to traditional strength- or hypertrophy-oriented training by increasing training load without increasing %VL or decreasing PP.
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The purpose of this study was comparative and functional characterization of speed- force readiness elite athletes - representatives of climbing to the complexity, speed and climbers. The study involved 26 athletes: 10 masters of sports of international class (speed climbing), 10 masters of sports of international class (climbing difficulty), 6 world-class climbers. The age of the athletes was 19-22 years. Found that the different types of rock climbing have different requirements for the development of the components of speed- force readiness: speed climbing is more conducive to the development of explosive power and speed endurance, climbing on the complexity is more conducive to the development of power abilities and strength endurance in short time intervals. Taken in the study to compare climbing contributes to the development of strength endurance over longer intervals of time.
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Background A number of resistance training (RT) program variables can be manipulated to maximize muscular hypertrophy. One variable of primary interest in this regard is RT frequency. Frequency can refer to the number of resistance training sessions performed in a given period of time, as well as to the number of times a specific muscle group is trained over a given period of time. Objective We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the effects of resistance training frequency on hypertrophic outcomes. Methods Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) were an experimental trial published in an English-language refereed journal; (2) directly compared different weekly resistance training frequencies in traditional dynamic exercise using coupled concentric and eccentric actions; (3) measured morphologic changes via biopsy, imaging, circumference, and/or densitometry; (4) had a minimum duration of 4 weeks; and (5) used human participants without chronic disease or injury. A total of ten studies were identified that investigated RT frequency in accordance with the criteria outlined. Results Analysis using binary frequency as a predictor variable revealed a significant impact of training frequency on hypertrophy effect size (P = 0.002), with higher frequency being associated with a greater effect size than lower frequency (0.49 ± 0.08 vs. 0.30 ± 0.07, respectively). Statistical analyses of studies investigating training session frequency when groups are matched for frequency of training per muscle group could not be carried out and reliable estimates could not be generated due to inadequate sample size. Conclusions When comparing studies that investigated training muscle groups between 1 to 3 days per week on a volume-equated basis, the current body of evidence indicates that frequencies of training twice a week promote superior hypertrophic outcomes to once a week. It can therefore be inferred that the major muscle groups should be trained at least twice a week to maximize muscle growth; whether training a muscle group three times per week is superior to a twice-per-week protocol remains to be determined.
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This review article discusses previous literature that has examined the influence of muscular strength on various factors associated with athletic performance and the benefits of achieving greater muscular strength. Greater muscular strength is strongly associated with improved force-time characteristics that contribute to an athlete’s overall performance. Much research supports the notion that greater muscular strength can enhance the ability to perform general sport skills such as jumping, sprinting, and change of direction tasks. Further research indicates that stronger athletes produce superior performances during sport specific tasks. Greater muscular strength allows an individual to potentiate earlier and to a greater extent, but also decreases the risk of injury. Sport scientists and practitioners may monitor an individual’s strength characteristics using isometric, dynamic, and reactive strength tests and variables. Relative strength may be classified into strength deficit, strength association, or strength reserve phases. The phase an individual falls into may directly affect their level of performance or training emphasis. Based on the extant literature, it appears that there may be no substitute for greater muscular strength when it comes to improving an individual’s performance across a wide range of both general and sport specific skills while simultaneously reducing their risk of injury when performing these skills. Therefore, sport scientists and practitioners should implement long-term training strategies that promote the greatest muscular strength within the required context of each sport/event. Future research should examine how force-time characteristics, general and specific sport skills, potentiation ability, and injury rates change as individuals transition from certain standards or the suggested phases of strength to another.
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Aim of the study. To determine the basic parameters of speed climbers' somatic constitution and to determine whether high levels of strength and speed capability characterise top-class speed climbers. Material and methods. The study examined 5 competitors holding top positions in the Polish Mountaineering Association speed climbing ranking (during the 2009 season). The control group consisted of 10 recreational climbers. Measurements were taken of height, body mass, upper limb length and percentage level of fat; then, Body Mass Index was calculated. Strength ability was measured using dynamometric tests of the maximal local static strength of upper limbs. The following tests were used to determine the level of motor ability in subjects (standing broad jump, envelope run, sit-ups, sit and reach and spread sit, as well as a test for the maximum rate of movement of upper limbs). Maximal anaerobic work (MAW) was calculated. Results. It was established that the best competitors in speed climbing have significantly higher levels of explosive strength and maximal anaerobic work, better muscle mobilisation ability, and higher torso strength and endurance. Clear but statistically insignificant differences between the groups were observed in strength tests and flexibility. Both professional and recreational climbers presented similar levels of the somatic traits studied. Conclusions. High standards in speed climbing are connected with higher levels of speed capability. The scale of differences is a proof of the importance of speed capability in speed climbing. The importance of high upper limb muscle strength in climbing was confirmed. Amongst the somatic traits studied, only body mass can be treated as influencing the results in speed climbing.
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Abstract. The given article focuses on problem of the development of model characteristics of competitive activity of elite athletes-climbers specializing in speed climbing (format «record»). Based on the use of multivariate exploratory techniques were obtained 3 group models (profiles), characterizing various technical and tactical schemes of the ascends speed route of elite athletes-climbers. Found that the main discriminant feature of given group models is the number of feet movements (repulsion). The results of this study can be used as a basis for the development of technical training programs athletes-climbers. Key words: sport climbing, speed, technique, model parameters.
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This review article examines previous weightlifting literature and provides a rationale for the use of weightlifting pulling derivatives that eliminate the catch phase for athletes who are not competitive weightlifters. Practitioners should emphasize the completion of the triple extension movement during the second pull phase that is characteristic of weightlifting movements as this is likely to have the greatest transference to athletic performance that is dependent on hip, knee, and ankle extension. The clean pull, snatch pull, hang high pull, jump shrug, and mid-thigh pull are weightlifting pulling derivatives that can be used in the teaching progression of the full weightlifting movements and are thus less complex with regard to exercise technique. Previous literature suggests that the clean pull, snatch pull, hang high pull, jump shrug, and mid-thigh pull may provide a training stimulus that is as good as, if not better than, weightlifting movements that include the catch phase. Weightlifting pulling derivatives can be implemented throughout the training year, but an emphasis and de-emphasis should be used in order to meet the goals of particular training phases. When implementing weightlifting pulling derivatives, athletes must make a maximum effort, understand that pulling derivatives can be used for both technique work and building strength–power characteristics, and be coached with proper exercise technique. Future research should consider examining the effect of various loads on kinetic and kinematic characteristics of weightlifting pulling derivatives, training with full weightlifting movements as compared to training with weightlifting pulling derivatives, and how kinetic and kinematic variables vary between derivatives of the snatch.
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Purpose: To evaluate whether the dynamic strength index (DSI: ballistic peak force/isometric peak force) could be effectively used to guide specific training interventions and detect training-induced changes in maximal and ballistic strength. Methods: Twenty-four elite male athletes were assessed in the isometric bench press and a 45% 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) ballistic bench throw using a force plate and linear position transducer. The DSI was calculated using the peak force values obtained during the ballistic bench throw and isometric bench press. Athletes were then allocated into 2 groups as matched pairs based on their DSI and strength in the 1RM bench press. Over the 5 wk of training, athletes performed either high-load (80-100% 1RM) bench press or moderate-load (40-55% 1RM) ballistic bench throws. Results: The DSI was sensitive to disparate training methods, with the bench-press group increasing isometric bench-press peak force (P=.035, 91% likely), and the ballistic-bench-throw group increasing bench-throw peak force to a greater extent (P≤.001, 83% likely). A significant increase (P≤.001, 93% likely) in the DSI was observed for both groups. Conclusions: The DSI can be used to guide specific training interventions and can detect training-induced changes in isometric bench-press and ballistic bench-throw peak force over periods as short as 5 wk.
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This study aimed to determine the demand of strengthpower capabilities represented by traditional and anklespecific vertical jump modalities-squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), reboundcontinuous jump (RJ), reboundcontinuous ankle jump (AJ)-relative to sprint acceleration ability during the entire acceleration phase of maximal sprint. Nineteen male sprinters performed a 60m maximal sprint and various vertical jumps. Correlation coefficients among the vertical jump performances and between those and the 60m sprint time and sprint acceleration at each step were calculated. There were significant relationships between the 60-m sprint time and SJ height, CMJ height, AJ height, and AJ index. AJ height and index had no correlation with any other jump variables. Acceleration was significantly correlated with SJ height from the 6th to the 10th steps (r=0.48-0.51) and with CMJ height from the 5th to the 11th steps (r=0.46-0.54). Acceleration was also correlated with the AJ index from the 14th to the 19th steps (r=0.48-0.54).Acceleration had no correlation with the RJ index at any step. The results suggest that the AJ allows assessment of different reactive strengths compared with traditional jump modalities. To accelerate effectively, the explosive strengths of the SJ and CMJ are important during the early stage of acceleration (from 6.6±0.4 to 17.5±0.8 m), and the reactive strength represented by the AJ is necessary during the later stage of acceleration (from 23.4±1.0 to 33.7±1.4 m). Sprinters and coaches should be aware of the different demands of strengthpower capability for effective acceleration.
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The aim of the current review is to discuss applications and mechanism of eccentric exercise in training regimes of competitive sports. Eccentric muscle work is important in most sports. Eccentric muscle contractions enhance the performance during the concentric phase of stretch shortening cycles, which is important in disciplines like sprinting, jumping, throwing and running. Muscles activated during lengthening movements can also function as shock absorbers, to decelerate during landings tasks or to precisely deal with high external loading in sports like alpine skiing. Of the few studies available on trained subjects reveal that eccentric training can further enhance maximal muscle strength and power. It can further optimize muscle length for maximal tension development at a greater degree of extension, and has potential to improve muscle coordination during eccentric tasks. In skeletal muscles, these functional adaptations are based on increases in muscle mass, fascicles length, number of sarcomeres and cross sectional area of type II fibers. Identified modalities for eccentric loading in athletic populations involve classical isotonic exercises, accentuated jumping exercises, eccentric overloading exercises and eccentric cycle ergometry. We conclude that eccentric exercise offers a promising training modality to enhance performance and to prevent injuries in athletes. However, further research is necessary to better understand how the neuromuscular system adapts to eccentric loading in athletes.
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We investigated architectural, functional, and molecular responses of human skeletal muscle to concentric (CON) or eccentric (ECC) resistance training (RT). Twelve young males performed 10 weeks of concentric (CON) or eccentric (ECC) resistance training (RT) (n = 6 CON, 6 ECC). An additional 14 males were recruited to evaluate acute muscle fascicle behaviour and molecular signalling in biopsies collected from vastus lateralis (VL) after 30 min of single bouts of CON or ECC exercise. VL volume was measured by magnetic resonance imaging. Muscle architecture (fascicle length, Lf; pennation angle, PA) was evaluated by ultrasonography. Muscle remodelling signals to CON or ECC loading (MAPK/AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling) and inflammatory pathway (TNFα/Murf-1-MAFbx) were evaluated by immunoblotting. Despite the ~1.2 fold greater load of the ECC group, similar increases in muscle volume (+8% CON and +6% ECC) and in maximal voluntary isometric contraction (+9% CON and +11% ECC) were found after RT. However, increases in Lf were greater after ECC than CON (+12 vs. +5%) while increases in PA were greater in CON than ECC (+30 vs. +5%). Distinct architectural adaptations were associated with preferential growth in the distal regions of VL for ECC (+ECC +8% vs. +CON +2) and mid-belly for CON (ECC +7 vs. CON +11%). While MAPK activation (p38MAPK, ERK1/2, p90RSK) was specific to ECC, neither mode affected AKT-mTOR or inflammatory signalling 30 min after exercise. Muscle growth with CON and ECC RT occurs with different morphological adaptations reflecting distinct fibre fascicle behaviour and molecular responses. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional overreaching, overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection, volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block. Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be “tailored” through creative programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.
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Climbing as a competition sport has become increasingly popular in recent years, particularly the sub-discipline of bouldering. The sport will debut in the Tokyo Summer Olympic Games. National and international competitions have three disciplines: lead (climbing with rope protection), bouldering (climbing at lower heights with mattress floor protection) and speed (maximum speed climbing on a standardised route in 1-on-1 mode). There is also a ‘combined mode’ of all three disciplines ( combined ) which forms the Olympic competition format; all competition formats are held on artificial walls. Existing literature describes a predominantly low injury frequency and severity in elite climbing. In comparison to climbing on real rock, artificial climbing walls have recently been associated with higher injury rates. Finger injuries such as tenosynovitis, pulley lesions and growth plate injuries are the most common injuries. As finger injuries are sport-specific, medical supervision of climbing athletes requires specific medical knowledge for diagnosis and treatment. There is so far little evidence on effective injury prevention measures in top athletes, and antidoping measures, in general, requiring further work in this field. An improved data situation regarding high-performance climbing athletes is crucial to ensure that the sport continues to be largely safe and injury-free and to prevent doping cases as extensively as possible.
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Introduction: Finger growth plate injuries are the most common injury among youth climbers, and the association between these injuries and speed climbing, a mandatory discipline in the 2021 Olympics, has not been examined previously. Our primary purpose was to examine the demographic and training characteristics of adolescent competition climbers who reported a history of a finger growth plate injury compared to those who did not report a history of a finger growth plate injury. Our secondary purpose was to determine whether training characteristics differed between adolescent competition climbers who did and did not report speed climbing. Methods: Our study was a cross-sectional study design. We surveyed adolescent climbers who competed in the 2017 USA Climbing Sport and Speed Youth National Championships. Questions assessed climbing injury history and current rock-climbing training characteristics. Results: Two-hundred sixty-seven adolescent competition climbers, 14±3 (9-18) y of age (mean±SD with range), completed the survey. Those with a history of a finger growth plate injury reported greater approximate time spent speed climbing throughout the year (β=1.28, 95% CI 0.11-2.46, P=0.032) and training regularly on the International Federation of Sport Climbing speed wall (adjusted odds ratio=3.95, 95% CI 1.14-13.7, P=0.031). Conclusions: Training regularly at practices on the speed wall was associated with a self-reported history of finger growth plate injuries among elite youth competition climbers. Speed climbing should be limited, especially during periods of rapid growth.
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Context: Plyometric training has been shown to be beneficial in adolescent overhead athletes. However, existing research on the effects of plyometrics on sport performance has been limited. Objective: To systematically review the current literature to investigate whether plyometric training intervention improves upper- and lower-body sport performance. Data sources: Two electronic databases (MEDLINE and Web of Science) were searched using specific Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms up to February 2019, and hand-searching was performed by looking to relevant studies that were cited in other studies. Study selection: A total of 932 items were identified and were further assessed for the eligibility in the systematic review. For a study to be eligible, each of the following inclusion criteria had to be met: (1) participants were aged 13 to 18 years and selected from a sports or athletic population and the study (2) involved the evaluation of a plyometric training intervention with an aim to improve sports performance; (3) must have included a control intervention and/or control group; (4) included a quantitative objective measure of sport performance variables concerning throwing, jumping, running, and sprinting; and (5) was published in English. Study design: Systematic review. Level of evidence: Level 3. Data extraction: A first screening was conducted based on title and abstract of the articles. In the second screening, the full text of the remaining articles was evaluated for the fulfillment of the inclusion criteria. Results: A total of 14 studies were included in this review. The methodological quality of the included studies ranged from low to moderate. There is moderate evidence that plyometric training intervention improves throwing and jumping performances. There is also preliminary evidence that plyometric training intervention improves sprint performance. Conclusion: The current evidence suggests that sport performance consisting of throwing capacity, jumping ability, and sprint performance significantly improved due to plyometric training interventions in adolescent overhead athletes.
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Objective. To prospectively evaluate current demographics, distribution and severity of rock climb-ing-related injuries after the sport’s inclusion into the Olympic program and to analyze changes in comparison to two prior study populations. Methods. In 2017-2018, we performed a single-center injury survey including 436 climbing patients with a total number of 633 independent climbing-related injuries or complaints. Results. 77.1% of the injuries affected the upper extremities, 17.7% the lower and 5.2% other body regions. Injury severity was overall low (Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme (UIAA) metric scale: 1.8 ± 1 (1-4)). The most frequent injuries were finger pulley injuries (12.3%) and finger tenosynovitis (10.6%). 43.9% of reported injuries were acute and 56.1% were chronic. Bouldering accidents were the leading cause of acute injuries (60.4%). Among shoulder injuries, superior labral lesion tears from anterior to posterior (SLAP) represented the leading diagnosis (29.8%). In comparison to our two prior study populations (1998-2001 and 2009-2012), we found: 1) an overall decrease in upper extremity injuries, 2) an increase of lower extremity injuries, 3) a constant decrease of finger pulley injuries and epicondylitis, 4) a rise of knee injuries and shoulder dislocations, 5) an increase of adolescents finger growth plate injuries. Conclusions. Severity of climbing injuries is low overall. Distinct trends are noticeable: being that some injury rates rose while others fell, preventative strategies only seem partially effective. There-fore, adjustment of preventive strategies is required. © 2020, CIC Edizioni Internazionali s.r.l.. All rights reserved.
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A spectrum of approaches exist amongst strength coaches as to the degree of specificity required to optimise training transfer to targeted athletic performance. The ‘problem’ with specificity is that it is in conflict with overload. Some giving precedence to specificity find a solution in applying overload via variation, while others seek to traditionally overload one or two elements of the sporting movement. Advocates of general training more readily sacrifice specificity for the development of capacities. In applying these contrasting approaches to the hypothetical target task of accelerative sprinting, this review combines evidence- and logic-led arguments to evaluate the efficacy of each. As such, a summary of literature is presented. In most contexts, a mixed methods approach remains recommended as degree of transfer to targeted athletic performance appears as dependent on athlete status as it is on the specificity of the training task.
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Background: The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of incorporating specific upper-body plyometric training for the spike into the competitive season of a women's professional volleyball team. Methods: A professional team from the Spanish first division participated in the study. An A-B-A' quasi-experimental design with experimental and control groups was used. The independent variable was the upper-body plyometric training for eight weeks during the competitive season. The dependent variables were the spiked ball's speed (Km/h); the player's body weight (Kg), BMI (Kg/m2), and muscle percentage in arms (%); 1 repetition maximum (1RM) in the bench press (Kg); 1RM in the pullover (Kg); and overhead medicine ball throws of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 kg (m). Inter-player and inter-group statistical analyses of the results were carried out (Wilcoxon test and linear regression model). Results: The experimental group significantly improved their spike speed 3.8% from phase A to phase B, and they maintained this improvement after the retention phase. No improvements were found in the control group. The experimental group presented a significant improvement from phase A to phase B in dominant arm muscle area (+10.8%), 1RM for the bench press (+8.41%), 1RM for the pullover (+14.75%), and overhead medicine ball throws with 1 kg (+7.19%), 2 kg (+7.69%), and 3 kg (+5.26%). The control group did not present differences in these variables. Conclusions: Data showed the plyometric exercises that were tested could be used by performance-level volleyball teams to improve spike speed. The experimental group increased their upper-body maximal strength, their power application, and spike speed.
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Animals possess a remarkable ability to perform physical activity over a wide range of workloads and durations, reflecting both the inherent efficiency and large reserve capacity of energy transfer systems. Deciphering how different organ/physiological systems respond to the acute and chronic demands of exercise depends on a foundational understanding of the redox and bioenergetic principles that underlie the flow of electrons in living systems and its coupling to ATP synthesis. The purpose of this review is to set the stage to cover (1) the thermodynamic driving forces responsible for generating and maintaining the energy charge that establishes and sustains life for cells, and (2) how cellular energy transfer systems respond to changes in energy demand to ensure energy charge is preserved.
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Purpose. The study involved 26 world-class athletes: 10 - speed climbing, 10 - climbing difficulty, 6 - climbers. Age 19-22 years amounted to athletes. Results . Revealed that body length was significantly higher in speed climbing representatives compared with representatives of climbing difficulty. Do climbers - significantly higher compared with the complexity of climbing. Body weight at the highest climbers, significantly higher compared with the climbing on the complexity. It is shown that span most climbers, shoulder length at the highest climbers (climbing speed). Revealed that the greatest hip girth representatives speed climbing. Conclusions . Identified by morphological characteristics of athletes associated with specific training and competitive process and selection of sports.
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1. Increases in strength and size of the quadriceps muscle have been compared during 12 weeks of either isometric or dynamic strength training. 2. Isometric training of one leg resulted in a significant increase in force (35 +/- 19%, mean +/- S.D., n = 6) with no change in the contralateral untrained control leg. 3. Quadriceps cross-sectional area was measured from mid-thigh X-ray computerized tomography (c.t.) scans before and after training. The increase in area (5 +/- 4.6%, mean +/- S.D., n = 6) was smaller than, and not correlated with, the increase in strength. 4. The possibility that the stimulus for gain in strength is the high force developed in the muscle was examined by comparing two training regimes, one where the muscle shortened (concentric) and the other where the muscle was stretched (eccentric) during the training exercise. Forces generated during eccentric training were 45% higher than during concentric training. 5. Similar changes in strength and muscle cross-sectional area were found after the two forms of exercise. Eccentric exercise increased isometric force by 11 +/- 3.6% (mean +/- S.D., n = 6), and concentric training by 15 +/- 8.0% (mean +/- S.D., n = 6). In both cases there was an approximate 5% increase in cross-sectional area. 6. It is concluded that as a result of strength training the main change in the first 12 weeks is an increase in the force generated per unit cross-sectional area of muscle. The stimulus for this is unknown but comparison of the effects of eccentric and concentric training suggest it is unlikely to be solely mechanical stress or metabolic fluxes in the muscle.
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The aim of this study was to analyse the effects of an 8-week (conducted biweekly for a total of 16 sessions) plyometric training programme (PT) (e.g., upper- and lower-body exercises) combined with regular tennis training on physical qualities in young tennis players. Sixty tennis players between the ages of 12 and 13 years (age 12.5 ± 0.3 years, weight 44.2 ± 7.0 kg, height 156.6 ± 7.1 cm) were allocated to either the control group (standard in-season regimen) (CG; n = 30) or the experimental group, which received an additional PT (TG; n = 30) for 30 to 60 minutes as a substitute for some tennis training within the usual 90-minute practice. Pre- and post-tests included: anthropometric measures; vertical countermovement jump (CMJ); standing long jump (SLJ); 20 m sprint time (with 5 and 10 m splits); a modified 505 agility test; overhead medicine ball throw and serve velocity test. After the training intervention, the TG showed significant (P < 0.01) improvements in all the parameters analysed, with percentages of change and ES ranging from 3.1 to 10.1 % and 0.4 (small) to 1.3 (moderate), respectively. No significant changes were observed in the CG after the training intervention. PT was shown as an important stimulus for enhancing explosive actions in young tennis players.
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Tendon disorders are common and lead to significant disability, pain, healthcare cost, and lost productivity. A wide range of injury mechanisms exist leading to tendinopathy or tendon rupture. Tears can occur in healthy tendons that are acutely overloaded (e.g., during a high speed or high impact event) or lacerated (e.g., a knife injury). Tendinitis or tendinosis can occur in tendons exposed to overuse conditions (e.g., an elite swimmer's training regimen) or intrinsic tissue degeneration (e.g., age-related degeneration). The healing potential of a torn or pathologic tendon varies depending on anatomic location (e.g., Achilles vs. rotator cuff) and local environment (e.g., intrasynovial vs. extrasynovial). Although healing occurs to varying degrees, in general healing of repaired tendons follows the typical wound healing course, including an early inflammatory phase, followed by proliferative and remodeling phases. Numerous treatment approaches have been attempted to improve tendon healing, including growth factor- and cell-based therapies and rehabilitation protocols. This review will describe the current state of knowledge of injury and repair of the three most common tendinopathies– flexor tendon lacerations, Achilles tendon rupture, and rotator cuff disorders– with a particular focus on the use of animal models for understanding tendon healing.. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
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The present study aimed to examine a wide profile of acute biochemical and neuromuscular responses to strength (STR) and hypertrophy (HYP) resistance exercise (RE). Seven trained males completed a STR workout (4 x 6 repetitions, 85% one repetition maximum [1RM], 5 min rest periods), a HYP workout (4 x 10 repetitions, 70% 1RM, 90s rest periods) and a control condition (CON) in a randomized cross-over design. Peak force (PF), rate of force development (RFD) and muscle activity were quantified pre- and post-exercise during an isometric squat protocol. Blood samples were taken 20, 10 and 0 minutes pre- and 0, 10 and 60 minutes post-exercise to measure the concentration of blood lactate (BL), pH and a number of electrolytes that were corrected for plasma volume changes. No differences were observed between the workouts for changes in PF, RFD or muscle activity. Repeated contrasts revealed a greater (p ≤0.05) increase in BL concentration and reduction in pH following the HYP protocol than the STR or CON conditions. There were similar but significant (p ≤0.05) changes in the concentration of a number of electrolytes following both workouts and a handful of these changes displayed significant correlations with the PF reductions observed following the HYP condition. Although the STR and HYP workouts were significantly different in terms of intensity, volume and rest, these differences were only observable in the acid-base responses. The present findings reinforce the need for practioners to look beyond the classification of RE workouts when aiming to elicit specific physiological responses.
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An athletic profile should encompass the physiological, biomechanical, anthropometric and performance measures pertinent to the athlete's sport and discipline. The measurement systems and procedures used to create these profiles are constantly evolving and becoming more precise and practical. This is a review of strength and ballistic assessment methodologies used in sport, a critique of current maximum strength [one-repetition maximum (1RM) and isometric strength] and ballistic performance (bench throw and jump capabilities) assessments for the purpose of informing practitioners and evolving current assessment methodologies. The reliability of the various maximum strength and ballistic assessment methodologies were reported in the form of intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and coefficient of variation (%CV). Mean percent differences [Formula: see text] and effect size (ES = [X method2 - X method1] ÷ SDmethod1) calculations were used to assess the magnitude and spread of methodological differences for a given performance measure of the included studies. Studies were grouped and compared according to their respective performance measure and movement pattern. The various measurement systems (e.g. force plates, position transducers, accelerometers, jump mats, optical motion sensors and jump-and-reach apparatuses) and assessment procedures (i.e. warm-up strategies, loading schemes and rest periods) currently used to assess maximum isometric squat and mid-thigh pull strength (ICC > 0.95; CV < 2.0 %), 1RM bench press, back squat and clean strength (ICC > 0.91; CV < 4.3 %), and ballistic (vertical jump and bench throw) capabilities (ICC > 0.82; CV < 6.5 %) were deemed highly reliable. The measurement systems and assessment procedures employed to assess maximum isometric strength [M Diff = 2-71 %; effect size (ES) = 0.13-4.37], 1RM strength (M Diff = 1-58 %; ES = 0.01-5.43), vertical jump capabilities (M Diff = 2-57 %; ES = 0.02-4.67) and bench throw capabilities (M Diff = 7-27 %; ES = 0.49-2.77) varied greatly, producing trivial to very large effects on these respective measures. Recreational to highly trained athletes produced maximum isometric squat and mid-thigh pull forces of 1,000-4,000 N; and 1RM bench press, back squat and power clean values of 80-180 kg, 100-260 kg and 70-140 kg, respectively. Mean and peak power production across the various loads (body mass to 60 % 1RM) were between 300 and 1,500 W during the bench throw and between 1,500 and 9,000 W during the vertical jump. The large variations in maximum strength and power can be attributed to the wide range in physical characteristics between different sports and athletic disciplines, training and chronological age as well as the different measurement systems of the included studies. The reliability and validity outcomes suggest that a number of measurement systems and testing procedures can be implemented to accurately assess maximum strength and ballistic performance in recreational and elite athletes, alike. However, the reader needs to be cognisant of the inherent differences between measurement systems, as selection will inevitably affect the outcome measure. The strength and conditioning practitioner should also carefully consider the benefits and limitations of the different measurement systems, testing apparatuses, attachment sites, movement patterns (e.g. direction of movement, contraction type, depth), loading parameters (e.g. no load, single load, absolute load, relative load, incremental loading), warm-up strategies, inter-trial rest periods, dependent variables of interest (i.e. mean, peak and rate dependent variables) and data collection and processing techniques (i.e. sampling frequency, filtering and smoothing options).
Article
To determine the effects of a sprint-specific plyometrics program on sprint performance, an 8-week training study consisting of 15 training sessions was conducted. Twenty-six male subjects completed the training. A plyometrics group (N = 10) performed sprint-specific plyometric exercises, while a sprint group (N = 7) performed sprints. A control group (N = 9) was included. Subjects performed sprints over 10-and 40-m distances before (Pre) and after (Post) training. For the plyometrics group, significant decreases in times occurred over the 0-10-m (Pre 1.96 +/- 0.10 seconds, Post 1.91 +/- 0.08 seconds, p = 0.001) and 0-40-m (Pre = 5.63 +/- 0.18 seconds, Post = 5.53 +/- 0.20 seconds, p = 0.001) distances, but the improvements in the sprint group were not significant over either the 0-10-m (Pre 1.95 +/- 0.06 seconds, Post 1.93 +/- 0.05 seconds) or 0-40-m distance (Pre 5.62 +/- 0.14 seconds, Post 5.55 +/- 0.10 seconds). The magnitude of the improvements in the plyometrics group was, however, not significantly different from the sprint group. The control group showed no changes in sprint times. There were no significant changes in stride length or frequency, but ground contact time decreased at 37 m by 4.4% in the plyometrics group only. It is concluded that a sprint-specific plyometrics program can improve 40-m sprint performance to the same extent as standard sprint training, possibly by shortening ground contact time. (C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association