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2 - Defining the Scientific Method
Abstract
The invitation for those nominating candidates for the Nobel Prize in economics, the “Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel,” described the award of the prize as being “based solely on scientific merit.” No criteria for judging scientific merit were provided, but nominators were directed to “consider origin and gender” of the nominees. Without clear criteria for the award, to what extent can one be confident that the prize was based on the scientific merit of the findings?
... La influencia de filósofos como Herbert Spencer y Karl Pearson, unido a la famosa máxima de Huxley, «la ciencia no es más que sentido común entrenado y organizado» (Huxley, 1854), produjo en las primeras décadas del siglo XX un movimiento en la educación científica que se denominó método heurístico, y en el que los procesos pasaron a tener relevancia en la instrucción científica (Jenkins, 1976 (Armstrong, 1903;citado en Brock, 1971y Nightingale, 1962 Fue tan allá Armstrong en su defensa de los métodos y procesos científicos y en su visión de las ciencias como sentido común bien organizado, que llegó a situarse en una posición epistemológica delicada: defendía a la vez que el método científico no era exclusivo de las ciencias naturales y que la principal función de la enseñanza de las ciencias era enseñar el método científico. Armstrong se colocaba así muy cerca de negar que las ciencias proporcionaran ventaja educativa concreta alguna respecto de otros saberes en la enseñanza, debilitando la reclamación ya entonces clásica de que la inclusión de las ciencias en la enseñanza aportaba ventajas especiales para el desarrollo de algunas capacidades mentales de los individuos. ...
... asada en los hechos. Y antes de que cualquier enseñanza didáctica empiece a tomar cuerpo se debe haber dado un curso completo de entrenamiento heurístico y haber llegado a saber utilizarlo; hábitos mentales científicos, formas científicas de trabajo, deben llegar a ser costumbres tan profundamente arraigadas que resulte imposible escapar de ellas.»(Armstrong, 1903; citado en Bybee y DeBoer, 1994) Para Armstrong: «Las ciencias desarrollan una parte del intelecto humano (…) que suele dejarse sin cultivar después del mejor y más cuidadoso entrenamiento matemático y literario: la facultad de la observación y del razonamiento a partir de la observación y la experimentación. (…) »El niño aprende observ ...
Η σταθερά του Planck αποτελεί μια από τις πιο θεμελιώδεις σταθερές της κβαντομηχανικής. Περιγράφει τη
συμπεριφορά των σωματιδίων σε υποατομικό επίπεδο, όπου ύλη και ενέργεια εναλλάσσονται. Τα φωτόνια ως
στοιχειώδη σωματίδια-φορείς της ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας χαρακτηρίζονται από ενέργεια που
υπολογίζεται με τη βοήθεια της σταθεράς του Planck. Πως όμως είναι δυνατόν να καταστήσουμε υπολογίσιμη
τη σταθερά αυτή στους μαθητές του Λυκείου; Οι μαθητές διδάσκονται στη Β΄ Λυκείου τα ηλεκτρικά
κυκλώματα συνεχούς ρεύματος, τη Φυσική του Φωτός και τα ατομικά φαινόμενα. Συνδυάζοντας τα τρία αυτά
αντικείμενα καταστρώσαμε ένα πείραμα υπολογισμού της σταθεράς του Planck. Η λειτουργία των διόδων
εκπομπής φωτός (LED) στηρίζεται στην ατομική θεωρία. Αναπτύξαμε κύκλωμα συνεχούς με διόδους εκπομπής
διαφορετικών χρωμάτων ,ποτενσιόμετρο, αμπερόμετρο και βολτόμετρο. Μεταβάλλαμε την τάση του
κυκλώματος και εντοπίσαμε την τάση ενεργοποίησης κάθε διόδου Από τις τιμές τάσεων ενεργοποίησης για κάθε
δίοδο διαφορετικού μήκους κύματος (χρώματος) μπορέσαμε να υπολογίσουμε τη σταθερά του Planck.
There have been many attempts to determine the value and the role of school laboratory experiment, but it seems hard to find consensus among these attempts from the perspective of education. This difficulty seems mainly due to disagreement on the concept of education, which has caused an instrumental attitude considering the school laboratory only as a means of developing science or pursuing various functions of school. However, the Endogenous Theory of Education (ETE), which claims education as 'a form of life', has recently paved the way for laboratory experiment to be justified as an opportunity of 'educooperation' allowing students to experience the intrinsic values of education in the medium of science. According to this theory, it is not the detailed practicals but the whole context where the laboratory activity is situated that matters in revealing the inherent educational phenomena. Through this new perspective, I observed two biology laboratory classes in a high school and analyzed the pattern of teacher-student and student-student interactions. Some meaningful educooperation was found in students' chattering, which has been traditionally considered as merely noise in the classroom, rather than in teacher-student interactions. This study discusses the reasons for these findings in detail and culminates in suggesting ways for accentuating the educational aspect of school laboratory activity.
The teaching of science in schools in most countries changed markedly during the last four decades of the twentieth century. The first 60 years of that century gave rise to many remarkable advances in science, not only with respect to basic scientific principles, but also in the applications of science to technology for military purposes and the growth and development of living organisms. This led to major changes in an understanding of scientific processes, the rejection of positivism and greater recognition of the contribution of science to economic and technological development. Consequently, in the late 1950s it was widely recognized that the teaching of science in schools must also change. The major changes that occurred were: (a) the teaching of biology in schools with an ecological focus to replace the teaching of botany, zoology and physiology largely to girls, (b) the teaching of science related to the earth, the solar system, the universe and the environment, (c) the teaching of an integrated science during the early years of secondary schooling, rather than the teaching of only physics and chemistry as the basic sciences, (d) the teaching of elementary science during the primary school years, replacing the study of nature, and (e) a greater emphasis on inquiry and investigation in the learning of science. Unfortunately, the applications of science both in everyday life, in technology and in conservation of the environment were often overlooked in the new courses that were introduced. However, after 20 years of intense activity world-wide, the movement for change in the teaching of science lost momentum in many countries of the Western world. This was at a time when the developing countries were searching for leadership and for advances in the teaching of science to support their economic and technological development that involved the uses and applications of scientific knowledge and the processes involved in scientific inquiry.
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