Book

RTI: A Practitioner's Guide to Implementing Response to Intervention

Authors:
  • Riverside Insights
... Tier 2 interventions are evidence-based and designed to meet the needs of most students at-risk for poor outcomes. Tier 2 intervention is meant to be short in duration, focused on improving skill deficits that interfere with students' success, and comprised of systematic approaches to providing student support (Johnson & Mellard, 2014;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
... RTI is most frequently viewed as a three-tiered model (Vaughn, 2003). The three-tiered model aligns the instructional needs of students with increasingly intense interventions in the same way the public health model is organized with primary, secondary, and tertiary intervention levels (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). Tier 1 instruction occurs in the general education classroom and represents the base level of instruction. ...
... In many conceptualizations of RTI, Tier 3 is synonymous with special education services (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). Tier 3 provides scientifically based, individualized and iterative interventions to students with intensive learning needs. ...
Chapter
Response to intervention (RTI) is a framework that can help ensure the academic strengths and needs of students are met effectively and efficiently. Patterned on a public health model of prevention, the focus of RTI is on preventing and intervening for academic challenges through a system of increasingly intensive supports, where the least intensive but most effective option is the most desirable. RTI models consist of the key essential components of effective inclusive instruction, universal screening, progress monitoring, data-based instructional decision-making, tiered levels of evidence-based and culturally responsive interventions, and fidelity of implementation. When the RTI framework is well implemented, most students are successful in the general education environment. In the general education classroom, teachers provide quality core, or Tier 1, instruction for all students. Even with high-quality instruction, however, not all students will be successful. Between 10 and 15% of the student population will likely need more intensive academic support at some point during their schooling, typically referred to as Tier 2 intervention. Tier 2 provides a system of evidence-based intervention, designed to meet the needs of most students at risk for poor academic outcomes. Tier 2 interventions are meant to be short in duration, focused on improving skill deficits that interfere with students’ success, and comprised of systematic approaches to providing student support. For some students whose needs cannot be met through Tier 1 or 2 instruction, an even more intensive level of intervention will be required. Tier 3 consists of specially designed interventions to support the needs of students who require a more individualized, intensive instructional program. Through this multi-leveled prevention system, the RTI framework provides supports to students that are appropriate to their needs within an environment of equity, efficiency, and accountability. With a well-structured, rigorous implementation of RTI, schooling becomes much more fluid and responsive to meet student needs.
... A university should have research-based practices to commit to developing interventions focused on students' learning when transitioning from high school through completion of a degree program (Baer & Duin, 2014). Response to intervention is a three-tier model that designs a plan of interventions to implement the process of assessments, progress monitoring, teach or reteach (Hughes & Dester, 2015;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). These processes will collect data on a student's response to the intervention and what further steps need to be taken to move forward with another intervention for the students. ...
... These processes will collect data on a student's response to the intervention and what further steps need to be taken to move forward with another intervention for the students. These interventions focus on academics and/or behavioral needs of students (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
... Response to Intervention model began being implemented in most United States K-12 public school systems as a new way to respond to the instructional needs of their students (Hughes & Dester, 2015). The RtI model is a promising new process of instruction, assessment and intervention that allows schools to identify struggling students early, provide appropriate instructional interventions, and increase the likelihood that the students can be successful and maintain their class placement (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). The challenges and needs of students in higher education are clearly different from those in the K-12 setting, yet the principles of RtI can be adapted to assist at this more advanced level of learning. ...
... RTI is a schoolwide process that integrates instruction, intervention, and assessment. The alignment of instruction, assessment, and interventions promotes a stronger, more cohesive program of instruction that ultimately can result in higher student achievement (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
... One of the main advantages of an RTI model is its emphasis on ensuring appropriate learning opportunities for all students, beginning in the general education classroom. The system of screening and progress monitoring, contained within an iterative process of data collection, analysis, and decision making, supports a proactive approach to ensuring academic success (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). Therefore, one of the first areas reviewed was the general education instruction provided to students. ...
... Frequent assessments of the relevant skills provide data on which to base decisions, such as changing the instructional program or referring a student to another tier of intervention. This systematic process, known as progress monitoring, lies at the heart of the RTI model (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
... 1. Assessment: This consists of screening the student population to identify at-risk students, as well as the use of progress-monitoring tools in order to monitor how well the students are responding to intervention (e.g., Brown-Chidsey, Bronaugh, & McGraw, 2009;Brown-Chidsey & Steege, 2005;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). 2. Data-based decision making: Educators use the resulting assessment data to help make decisions about students' educational needs. ...
... Data obtained from assessments may answer questions about whether or not a student is making adequate progress to meet his or her goals or if a student's instruction needs to be modified. Using data, educators can modify an intervention, discontinue an intervention, or decide to evaluate a student using the decision-making rules (e.g., Batsche et al., 2005;Glover & DiPerna, 2007;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
... Preliminary research supports the model of prevention and intervention within RTI (e.g., Batsche et al., 2005;Brown-Chidsey, Bronaugh, & McGraw, 2009;Burns & Gibbons, 2008;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). For example, research has revealed that the model is associated with decreases in special education referrals (e.g., Burns, Appleton, & Stehouwer, 2005;VanDerHeyden, Witt, & Gilbertson, 2007) and increases in academic outcomes for students (e.g., McNamara & Hollinger, 2003;Speece, Case, & Molloy, 2003). ...
Article
This study examined the relationship between response to intervention (RTI) implementation integrity in reading and student reading outcomes. Data were collected from 64 principals and school psychologists at 43 elementary schools. Hierarchical linear regression was used to examine the degree to which implementation of RTI tiers and key components predicted student reading assessment results, when controlling for a block of school demographic variables. Findings revealed that data-based decision making and Tier 3 implementation integrity significantly predicted student reading outcomes when controlling for significant demographic predictors. Interpretation of results and implications for research and practice are provided.
... In these two MTSS models, interdisciplinary teams consisting of special education teachers, general education teachers, administrators, and counselors, work with the general education teacher to identify an EBP based on the teacher's assessment of student need. Teams work together to develop a plan to implement EBPs that will support individual students within general education classroom settings (Mellard & Johnson, 2007). Teachers collect data on student performance and teams collaborate to assess and monitor progress. ...
... The team then sets a time to meet outside of class to discuss student progress and teachers use of the EBP in the classroom. Based on student progress, the team, including teachers and coaches, will assess data and discuss the effectiveness of the EBP and determine whether or not to keep, modify, or discontinue the use of the selected EBP (Mellard & Johnson, 2007). ...
... Dematteo and Reeves (2011) found that shared (collective) leadership practices create a culture of continuous improvement of schools which improves the academic performance of all learners. Collective leadership practices in effective schools have instructional leaders and implementation teams that assure high levels of student learning (Mellard & Johnson, 2008;Leithwood & Mascall 2008). ...
... A response from a Local Religious Leader (LRL) participant in School A had this to say: "The benefits of collective leadership are … high academic performance of learners." Collective leadership practices in effective schools have instructional leaders and implementation teams that assure high levels of student learning(Mellard & Johnson, 2008;Leithwood & Mascall 2008).Dematteo & Reeves (2011) found that collective leadership practices create a culture of continuous improvement of schools which improves the academic performance of all learners.The study further revealed that where there was collective leadership there was success, peace, respect, progress, high quality education, and high learner academic performance. A LRL participant in School C exclaimed that: "Camagu! ...
... The elements of IDEA that align with the RTI framework include scientifically based research, early intervening services, prevention of overidentification and disproportionate representation, and special requirements for determining and documenting the presence of a disability (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). Many definitions exist for RTI but the common features presented by Sailor (2009) are: ...
... • High-quality research-based classroom instruction • Student assessment with classroom focus • Universal screening of academics and behavior • Continuous progress monitoring of students • Implementation of appropriate research-based interventions • Progress monitoring during interventions (effectiveness) • Teaching behavior fidelity measures Mellard and Johnson (2008) posit the RTI model can serve three distinct functions within a school setting: ...
Chapter
The Common Core State Standards Initiative has provided renewed impetus to school reform. Common Core State Standards (CCSS) are intended to more clearly align the school curriculum in English-language arts and mathematics with the expectations of colleges, workforce training programs and employers. They are also intended to promote equity through the provision of quality education to all Americans (NGACBP, 2010).
... Effective RtI models have several core principles: universal screening, high-quality classroom instruction, evidence-based instruction, progress monitoring, and fidelity of implementation. Universal screening is a principle that is used in RtI models to identify which students need additional support and closer attention (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). The efficacy of universal screening relies on the principle of high-quality classroom instruction. ...
... Another core concept is progress monitoring (Johnson et al., 2006). Progress monitoring is used to make decisions about the intensity of intervention, to evaluate if the student is benefiting from the instructional program, and to estimate the projected level of student achievement upon conclusion of instruction (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). Fidelity of implementation is also a crucial principle in single subject research. ...
Article
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The number of students with learning disabilities (LD) has grown substantially in the last three decades. These students account for more than half of the special education programs. As with the growing number, there is a great debate on the identification procedures of students with LD during early years. One of the models to early identify students with disabilities is Response to Intervention (RtI). The purpose of this article is to describe RtI on the identification of students with learning disabilities (LD) in the early years of childhood. First, a brief overview of RtI is provided, including the most popular models. Next, utilization of RtI in the identification of LD is described. Then, an overview of approaches that RtI is used to maximize achievement for a wide range of students is provided. Finally, future research directions in the area of special education within a model of RtI are discussed.
... To ensure successful RTI implementation, teachers, administrators, and school districts must adopt new behaviors and procedures that may differ from current practices. Numerous researchers have illustrated that for RTI implementation to work well, the general education environment must provide high-quality assessment, curriculum, and instruction for all students as a foundation for RTI (see, e.g., Mellard & Johnson, 2008;Pyle et al., 2011;Warren & Hale, 2016). These components of the RTI approach are additional responsibilities for school staff, beyond those of the LD identification model (i.e., the IQ-achievement discrepancy model) that schools have used since adopting the 1975 IDEA regulations (Gold & Richards, 2012). ...
Article
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Labeling students with disabilities has been an educational practice since the U.S.’s passing of P.L. 94-142 in 1975; however, the issue of students being labeled as “learning disabled” remains an ongoing controversy in special education. While some researchers have focused on the negative stigma surrounding students with learning disability (LD) labels, others have highlighted the positive outcomes of these students. This paper analyzed both perspectives on the labeling of students with LDs and focused on its positive outcomes to demonstrate that labels help these students succeed in school. It also discussed the rationales for using the IQ-achievement discrepancy model and the response to intervention (RTI) approach, including their varying implementation procedures and methods, to identify students with LDs. Finally, it addressed the barriers to successfully implementing RTI in schools and explained the implications of using this approach with students with LDs, parents, general educators, and special educators.
... However, there tends to be some confusion with the interpretation of Tier 3. Many states and school districts still consider Tier 3 to be general education, whereas others think that special education starts at Tier 3 due to students being unresponsive to core instruction and targeted interventions, indicating some other factor must be impeding students' learning such as a disability (Mellard & Johnson, 2008;Mellard et al., 2010). Students in Tier 3 receive intense and individualized instruction, convoluting the distinction between Tier 3 and special education (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2017;Hoover, 2010). ...
... Overall, these results are attributable to the fact that the intervention was carried out with adequate fidelity and had a significant positive impact on all grades. In fact, at the beginning of the intervention, the minimum requirements necessary to accurately carry out the implementation of the model were established (i.e., materials contained specific instructions on their implementation, a training and implementation schedule was designed, necessary materials for the evaluation of the fidelity of the implementation were designed, external observers were trained to do so, etc.) (Century et al., 2010;Johnson et al., 2006;Mellard & Johnson, 2008;O'Donnell, 2008). Direct observations and self-reports indicated that most of the teachers carried out the implementation of the program with fidelity of around 82%. ...
Article
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The main objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an intervention implemented by elementary school teachers within the context of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. For this purpose, a Tier 2 or secondary intervention was implemented by Spanish-speaking teachers in grades K-3 after receiving training to implement RtI components with fidelity. A total of 1,923 at-risk students were assigned to treatment (in reading, n = 542; in math, n = 483) or control (in reading, n = 406; in math, n = 492). Teachers were provided with a support system that included two web based training programs for reading (i.e., Letra program) and math (i.e., Primate program). Implementation fidelity was analyzed using direct observations and self-reports. All students were assessed three times during the academic year. A hierarchical linear growth modeling was conducted, and differences in the growth rate of reading and math performance were analyzed between at-risk students who have received the intervention and those who have not received it. Children at-risk in the intervention condition appeared to benefit more than at-risk children in the control condition. Moreover, findings indicate that the earlier the intervention, the greater the percentage of students who leave the situation of risk of learning difficulties in reading and math.
... No "at-risk" children were excluded from the intervention. The 40 th percentile has been widely used as a threshold for reading 'at grade level' statewide in the Unites States, including RtI initiatives and in tools such as DIBELS (Jimerson et al., 2016;Mellard & Johnson, 2008), and worldwide (e.g., in Australia; Reynolds, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011). Children attending schools in the Simplicity GPC condition received the Simplicity GPC intervention and children attending schools in the Control condition received the Letter Name intervention (see below). ...
Article
We evaluated the impact of teaching complex grapheme–phoneme correspondences (GPC) derived from the Simplicity Principle to at-risk poor readers in Grade 2 classrooms, using a two-arm dual site matched control trial intervention. Poor word readers (n = 149) were allocated to either a) Simplicity GPC (n= 79) or b) Letter-Name Control (n= 70) small group reading programs, and received intervention for 12–15 hours over 12 weeks. Students were matched on baseline reading, language, parent demographics, and observed regular classroom teaching quality. Results of hierarchical data modeling showed advantages for the GPC-group for word reading, pseudoword reading, and sentence comprehension at post-test moderated by pre-test phonological awareness skills. The results provide support for teaching complex GPCs derived from the Simplicity Principle as an approach to intervention for word reading, but suggest that children with low PA need additional supports.
... In fact, this requires having a differentiated instructional approach where there are extra focus and attention on learners who need more. Response to intervention (RTI) is a differentiated approach where defines the levels of differentiations into three tiers when the most extra help and attentions are provided to the individuals or student groups at the third tier for a short period of time in order to reach to the learning outcome set at tier one [4][5][6][7]. Curriculums and learning outcomes usually are devised by educators and teachers where there is no involvement from learners. ...
... In general, individuals who score low on cognitive measures of language aptitude will likely need support beyond that which is off ered in the general education classroom. Schools and instructors could follow a response to intervention model in which increasing levels of support are off ered to learners who exhibit learning diffi culties (Mellard, 2008 ). For example, a learner who scores below average on a language aptitude test such as the MLAT (Carroll & Sapon, 1959 ) can be given small group instruction that focuses on specifi c skills. ...
Chapter
Instructors of foreign languages in secondary and higher education often encounter diversity in learning abilities among their learners. Setting aside motivation and other academic factors, what makes one learner better at L1 or L2/Ln learning over another? Might some learners have a stronger aptitude for a signed language over a spoken language? And, how do we know how an atypical L1 or L2/Ln learner will fare in the classroom? These are interesting issues for the L1 and L2/Ln instructors as they consider adapting their instruction or activities for the range of skills and capacities within their class. In this chapter, we focus on adolescent and adult learners of signed language, exploring situations of learner diversity or atypicality and how those differences impact signed language learning in both the L1 and L2/Ln contexts...
... No "at-risk" children were excluded from the intervention. The 40 th percentile has been widely used as a threshold for reading 'at grade level' statewide in the Unites States, including RtI initiatives and in tools such as DIBELS (Jimerson et al., 2016;Mellard & Johnson, 2008), and worldwide (e.g., in Australia; Reynolds, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011). Children attending schools in the Simplicity GPC condition received the Simplicity GPC intervention and children attending schools in the Control condition received the Letter Name intervention (see below). ...
Article
Full-text available
We evaluated the impact of teaching complex grapheme–phoneme correspondences (GPC) derived from the Simplicity Principle (Vousden, Ellefson, Solity, & Chater, 2011) to at-risk poor readers in Grade 2 classrooms, using a two-arm dual site matched control trial intervention. Poor word readers (n = 149) were allocated to either a) Simplicity GPC (n=79) or b) Letter-Name Control (n=70) small group reading programs, and received intervention for 12-15 hours over 12 weeks. Students were matched on baseline reading, language, parent demographics, and observed regular classroom teaching quality. Results of hierarchical data modeling showed advantages for the GPC-group for word reading, pseudoword reading, and sentence comprehension at post-test moderated by pre-test phonological awareness skills. The results provide support for teaching complex GPCs derived from a ‘Simplicity Principle’ as an approach to intervention for word reading, but suggest that children with low PA need additional supports.
... DI broadened from teacher-designed instructional responses to perceived student differences to include standardized procedures and materials. This approach was also fueled by the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act that included RtI as a way for districts to identify students with learning disabilities and provided funding to start programs in states and districts (Mellard & Johnson, 2007). This approach shifted teacher responsibility and control from perceiving student differences and creating tailored instructional activities to implementing assessments mandated by the institution and providing instruction also mandated by the institution. ...
Article
This rigorous literature review analyzed how 28 U.S.-based research studies conducted between 2001 and 2015 have defined, described, and measured changes in teaching practices related to implementation of Differentiated Instruction (DI) in P–12 classrooms. Research questions examined frameworks that defined DI, classroom operationalization of DI, key barriers and facilitators, and how changes in teacher practices across studies did not lead to a common definition of DI. Extracted data were analyzed by study type, DI purpose, theoretical framework, research questions, methodology, analysis method, expected/reported change in teacher practice, expected/reported impact on student learning, key barriers, facilitators, contextual factors, and implications for teaching and research. Findings demonstrated how the many different frameworks used to define DI shaped a variety of changes to teacher practices and roles. The purpose of DI varied widely from a systematic response to policy to informal teacher perception of student differences. Barriers included the DI decision source (institution vs. teacher). Facilitators focused on teacher view of time, resources, control, and dispositions toward differences and ambiguity. The need for systematic replicable studies with greater methodological rigor is discussed and a more integrative definition of DI focused on teacher instructional reasoning and decision making is proposed for future research.
... Educators and administrators are constantly looking for strategies to best support their diverse student population by providing systemic change in school culture and moving away from deficit models. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that may assist educators in this endeavor (Echevarr´ıa & Graves, 2011;Hernandez Finch, 2012;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
Article
Full-text available
Alaska is rich with cultural and ethnic diversity. In fact, it is one of the three most diverse parts of the country. Culturally relevant practice both needed and required in Alaskan schools. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that may assist educators in this endeavor. While UDL provides a framework for implementing instruction, the Alaska Cultural Standards for Educators tell us what best practice looks like for our diverse student population, especially our Alaska Native students. This article explores examples of implementation of the Alaska Cultural Standards for Educators within a UDL framework.
... Bagi memantau pematuhan pelaksanaan Modul Lit-A, pengkaji mendapatkan maklum balas tentang pelaksanaan setiap aktiviti Modul Lit-A daripada pendidik dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik. Ini kerana pematuhan pelaksanaan merupakan merupakan aspek penting dan berperanan sebagai moderator bagi hubungan antara intervensi dengan pencapaian partisipan (Carroll, Patterson, Wood, Booth, Rick, & Balain, 2007;Mellard & Johnson, 2008). ...
Conference Paper
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Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti kesan Modul Literasi Awal (Modul Lit-A) terhadap pencapaian kemahiran literasi awal yang merangkumi lima komponen, iaitu (i) bahasa dan komunikasi; (ii) konsep cetakan dan cetakan persekitaran; (iii) fonemik dan fonetik; (iv) bacaan dan kefahaman naratif; dan (v) tulisan awal mengikut umur kanak-kanak. Kajian ini berbentuk kuantitatif yang menggunakan kaedah kuasi eksperimen terhadap 56 orang kanak-kanak iaitu 25 orang kanak-kanak berumur 3+, dan 31 orang kanak-kanak berumur 4+ tahun. Pengkaji menggunakan Instrumen Literasi Awal (Instrumen Lit-A) untuk mengukur pencapaian kemahiran literasi awal kanak-kanak. Analisis data menggunakan analisis kovarian iaitu Analysis of Covariance Test (Ujian ANCOVA) dan Multivariate Analysis of Covariance Test (Ujian MANCOVA). Dapatan kajian menunjukkan Modul Lit-A mempunyai kesan yang lebih baik terhadap kanak-kanak berumur 4+ tahun berbanding kanak-kanak berumur 3+ tahun dalam pencapaian kemahiran literasi awal, konsep cetakan dan cetakan persekitaran, dan tulisan awal. Walau bagaimanapun, Modul Lit-A mempunyai kesan yang sama terhadap kanak-kanak berumur 3+ dan 4+ tahun dalam pencapaian bahasa dan komunikasi, fonemik dan fonetik, dan bacaan dan kefahaman naratif. Oleh itu, umur mempengaruhi kesan Modul Lit-A terhadap pencapaian kemahiran literasi awal bagi kanak-kanak yang berumur 3+ hingga 4+ tahun.
... A major tenet of the RtI model is to conduct universal screening to identify students at increased risk for poor outcomes. Screening is often seen as the first gate of the RtI process (Mellard and Johnson 2008). The development of an efficient mathematics screener is critical for grades K-2 as early identification and intervention efforts are much more effective than waiting until the child has experienced significant difficulties. ...
Research
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We propose a mathematics assessment that screens and provides diagnostic information in six domains that are important to building a strong foundation in mathematics. The Primary Math Assessment (PMA) includes a screener to identify students at risk for poor math outcomes and a diagnostic tool to provide a more in-depth profile of children’s specific strengths and weaknesses in mathematics.
... To address the needs of children from low income backgrounds, a self-regulation framework used to inform this model was developed at a center that provides psychoeducational evaluations, academic coaching, and intervention and counseling support to students with learning and attention challenges. The model is situated within a multitiered systems of support (MTSS) framework, to focus on the importance of implementing strategies through a preventive approach (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). MTSS frameworks are consistent with public health models of intervention, in which the most efficient interventions are provided for all students, and more intensive supports are designed to meet the needs of students for whom primary prevention is insufficient to achieve successful outcomes. ...
Article
Self-regulation is the control mechanism that enables a student to manage attention, emotion, behavior, and cognition to engage in goal-directed actions, such as learning. Too often, students at risk for poor school outcomes do not enter school with strongly developed self-regulation skills and have difficulty developing them on their own. Self-regulation skills can be taught and are especially effective when introduced within the school setting. This article describes a school-based model for fostering self-regulation.
... Measures that reach all students are at the heart of Tier I for RTI and PBIS. Tier I universal instructional fidelity seeks to make sure that all students get research-validated quality instruction (Mellard & Johnson, 2007). This is not a strict assumption that one size of instruction fits all students. ...
Article
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Inclusive school leaders consider students showing disorderly behavior as their most vexing problem. Seeking to move away from disciplinary responses, they regard Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) as their most useful systematic tool. The purpose of this research was to understand the discourses that leaders employed in one phase of that work: establishing Tier I universal protocols and expectations. This study conducted a Foucauldian discourse analysis of medicalization and order as expressed by these leaders. The critical discourse analysis unpacked a shift from regarding behavior in a good/bad binary as per dis- cipline codes to a normal/deviant continuum as per the pyramidal struc- ture of PBIS. Rooted in codes of conduct, orderly and compliant behavior fundamentally defined the good student, and in PBIS, the normal student. Practices and protocols such as the ubiquitous and consistent promulga- tion of behavioral expectations, and the use of Office Discipline Refer- rals as the primary screening data point highlighted the normalization of compliance. Having been established as normal, compliance was then the baseline condition against which the more diagnostic and therapeutic discourses of upper tiers of PBIS would be measured.
... screening procedures are needed to assess all students within a schoolwide approach or at selected grade levels to identify those who are at risk and in need of further assessment and/or educational supports (Mellard & Johnson, 2007). ...
Article
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Early identification of student behavioral needs allows educators the opportunity to apply appropriate interventions before negative behaviors become more intensive and persistent. A variety of screening tools are available to identify which students are at risk for persistent behavior problems in school. This article provides two examples in which the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS) was used to identify students at risk of emotional or behavioral problems. Example 1 demonstrates how the EBS can be used within a schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports framework to inform decision making. Example 2 demonstrates how the EBS can be used to inform behavioral intervention decisions in an individual teacher’s classroom. Finally, suggestions for using the EBS across various school formats are provided.
... Second, as students demonstrate challenges with core skills such as writing, teachers in general education and special education should have more collegial opportunities (e.g. multidisciplinary teaming) in the design and application of intervention programming (Mellard & Johnson, 2008). Third, there was a growing discontentment with the use of standardized tests for classifying students from diverse backgrounds for special education (Klingner & Edwards, 2006). ...
Article
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For a struggling writer, step-by-step instruction can be a helpful means to manage organizing and producing elaborate text. This mixed-methods project offered four struggling writers a mnemonic strategy called Ask, Reflect, Text (ART) in 45-minute sessions over 22 days. The second- and fourth-grade students attended a public school in the US Pacific Northwest. As a parallel component to the project, the students’ teachers and intervention specialist met with the author for 4 one-hour sessions to discuss: 1) the children’s intervention programming and progress, and 2) the paradigm of response to intervention (RTI) and their thoughts about its feasibility in classrooms. The end-of-project assessment data demonstrated that the children made progress with writing skills, but the teachers and intervention specialist felt that support personnel would be needed to manage RTI-type intervention programming in general education classrooms.
... This finding is in line with some studies that found that most rural schools lack of facilities, face financial problems and arrive at the stage where it is difficult to sustain the schools as compared to the urban schools [27], [28]. However, recorded observations in the present study show that the headmaster's office and general office are equipped with facilities such as computers, LCD projector, fax machine and internet but some of the facilities are not functioning well. ...
... One of the most effective means of identifying students at risk for poor reading outcomes is the use of a data-driven, tiered instructional delivery system that relies on the use of screening measures that are accurate, efficient, and highly predictive of the outcome of interest (Mellard & Johnson, 2008;Wayman, Wallace, Wiley, Ticha, & Espin, 2007). For middle and high school students, the use of a maze measure has been found to be highly predictive of reading performance on more general measures of reading, and in some recent studies has been found to produce more valid measures of student growth in reading than oral reading fluency (Allison & Johnson, 2012;Espin & Foegen, 1996;Espin, Wallace, Lembke, Campbell, & Long, 2010;Tolar et al., 2012;Wayman et al., 2007;Wiley & Deno, 2005). ...
Article
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The use of Curriculum-Based Measures is rapidly expanding to the middle school level, where maze passages are frequently used to monitor progress in reading. At secondary grade levels, the focus of reading is on reading to learn, especially in the content areas. Therefore, we were interested in developing maze passages based on grade-level science texts to determine whether maze passages constructed from expository texts would have sufficient reliability and validity to serve as reading and science benchmarking tools. Participants included 367 seventh-grade students from three states. Students completed eight maze passages over three testing periods, a reading measure at two testing periods, and 182 students completed a science state assessment. Alternate form reliability of the science maze passages ranged from .56 to .80. Concurrent and predictive correlation coefficients with other measures ranged from .63 to .67. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
... RtI has been broadly described as a process in which students are provided quality instruction and their progress is monitored. RtI initiatives have been conceptualized in a variety of ways, however they have specifically been noted to involve dual application of high quality instruction and continuous progress monitoring of students (Mellard & Johnson, 2007). Although several variations of the model have been proposed, in general RtI is based upon three components: the use of multiple tiers of increasingly intense interventions, a problemsolving approach to identify and evaluate instructional strategies, and an integrated data collection and assessment system to monitor student progress and guide decisions at every level (Coleman, Buysse, & Neitzel, 2006). ...
Article
Response to Intervention (RtI) has been recommended in IDEA (2004) as an alternative approach for addressing the needs of all learners. This article discusses the role of dynamic assessment (DA) within the RtI Model for school-age English Language Learners (ELLs). This article provides an overview of DA and RtI, notes their similarities and differences, and discusses the usefulness of DA and RtI in helping speech-language pathologists (SLPs) discriminate language differences from language disorders and monitor progress in ELLs. A case study is presented to demonstrate how SLPs can use DA and RtI in the assessment of ELLs.
Article
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The data analysis highlights the importance of several crucial factors in the educational context. Firstly, it underscores the significance of fostering strong student-teacher relationships and recognizing the influence of economic status on academic performance, as perceived by both parents and teachers. Moreover, it reveals that school policies and practices are perceived to have a role in shaping student-teacher relationships, albeit to a somewhat lesser degree. These findings collectively emphasize the multifaceted nature of educational dynamics and the critical need for institutions to prioritize strategies that enhance teacher-student bonds and address economic disparities. Effective communication and collaboration between educators, parents, and students emerge as key drivers for improving the overall educational experience and academic outcomes. This abstract provides a succinct overview of the valuable insights gained from the data analysis, offering guidance to educators, policymakers, and stakeholders seeking to enhance the quality of education in their institutions.
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The impact of emotions on professional identity development in the field of second language teacher education has become a focus of research quite recently. In many French teacher-training contexts the construction of a mainly rational professional identity has been thought relevant, emotions such as fear, anger or sadness being very often considered as a nuisance. Paradoxically, pre-service teachers continue to stress the emotional aspects of their work without really being heard by the educational authorities who keep emphasizing linguistic and didactic proficiency. This chapter addresses both the negative and positive impacts of emotions on the construction of second language teachers’ professional identity at the start of their career and proposes concrete ideas for pre-service and in-service training. After presenting a theoretical and conceptual framework (Plutchik in Emotion a psycho-evolutionary synthesis. Harper, New York, 1980; Psychological Review, 99(3), Jul 1992, 550–555, 1992; Belzung in Biologie des émotions. de Boeck, Louvain-la-Neuve, 2007; Jonczyk in Affect-language interactions in native and non-native English speakers. Springer, 2016) and a literature review about emotions, the authors analyse logs kept by seven pre-service teachers over a school term and comment on the results of a survey they conducted on four groups of teachers at different stages of their teaching career. They conclude by suggesting some concrete ways to empower language teachers as they build a well-balanced professional identity.
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Despite federal and state mandates regarding the use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) service delivery model and its widespread adoption in school districts across the nation, many issues still surround the model and its implementation, particularly at the secondary level. This chapter focuses on some of the more prevalent issues, including the importance of determining whether the RTI model as a whole is effective within middle and high school educational environments, how much time students should spend within each tier, how the roles of certain school personnel have changed with the implementation of the RTI model, the importance of providing transition services for all struggling students within RTI, how involved parents should be in the RTI process, how assessments are conducted within the model, and how gifted and talented students fit into the model.
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RtI (Response to Intervention) process is implemented in each and every U.S. kindergarten thru 12 public schools and it is the major intervention program before the students are identified as students eligible for special education services, English as a Second Language services, Bilingual Education services, services provided under Section 504, and services for Gifted and Talented students, which are all major educational programs that are subject to direct or indirect extra funding. In this review, legal aspects of RtI Program currently implemented in kindergarten thru 12 U.S. Public School System that may be applicable to educational systems of other regions and countries are discussed within the context of legal basis as well as instructional basis, program objectives, 3-tier RtI Model, assessments, progress monitoring, curriculum based measurement, using an RtI model to address behavioral concerns, personnel legally accountable for RtI process, and referral. Basis Legal Basis NCLB (No Child Left Behind) and 2004 IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) both focus on prevention, fund intervention for at-risk students, use assessment to drive instruction, provide instruction for K-3 students, including K-12 special education, and provide professional development for teachers. Although no state or federal funds are specifically appropriated for RtI (Response to Intervention) implementation, several funding sources such as academic funds, which related to drop-outs and special education services may appropriately be accessed by districts to support this initiative. Examples for academic funds are ARI/AMI (Accelerated Reading Instruction/Accelerated Math Instruction), and Reading First; examples for funds related to drop-outs are Compensatory Education Funds, High School Allotment; and examples for funds related to special education services are up to 15% of funds allotted by IDEA-B Early Intervening Services, and Title I, Part A funds. Legal requirements for RtI are usually translated by states roughly into following procedures: (1) monitoring a student's progress in the general curriculum using appropriate screenings or tests (assessments); (2) choosing and implementing scientifically proven interventions to address a student's learning problems; (3) following formal guidelines to decide which students are not making sufficient progress or responding to the Volkan Cicek, Dr., lecturer at Faculty of Education, Ishik University.
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