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The great (volunteer) resignation:
An evidence-based strategy for
retaining volunteers
Dr Vivien W. Forner, Dr Djurre Holtrop, Dr Darja Kragt and
Associate Professor Anya Johnson
September 2022
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 2
About the Volunteering Research Papers Initiative
The Volunteering Research Papers aim to capture evidence on a wide range of topics
related to volunteering and outline key insights for policy and practice. The Volunteering
Research Papers are peer reviewed, and insights will directly inform the development of
the National Strategy for Volunteering.
The Volunteering Research Papers are an initiative of the National Strategy for
Volunteering Research Working Group.
For more information contact policy@volunteeringaustralia.org
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 3
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based
strategy for retaining volunteers
Dr Vivien W. Forner1, Dr Djurre Holtrop2, Dr Darja Kragt3
and Associate Professor Anya Johnson1
Key Insights
• 44 per cent of the global volunteer workforce stopped volunteering over a four-year
period, from 2018 to 2021, a loss equivalent to 48 million full-time volunteers.
• To enable more effective turnover monitoring and management, there needs to be a
revised denition and measures of turnover that are suitable for volunteer involving
organisations. We recommend the following denition of volunteer turnover be
adopted — “Turnover occurs when a volunteer withdraws their participation with
their current organisation out of their own free will” (Forner et al., 2022). To measure
turnover, we suggest volunteer involving organisations; 1) calculate turnover rate
with organisational data, 2) track volunteer participation – if a volunteer is not
present at any event or activity over 1 year, we would consider the person has
withdrawn their participation with the organisation, or 3) assess turnover intentions.
• Our systematic review and meta-analysis of volunteer turnover research identied
four factors that prevent volunteer turnover; 1) support from paid staff, supervisors,
and peers, 2) affording volunteers autonomy, 3) roles where volunteers feel they
are contributing productively, and 4) preventing burnout.
• Evidence-based recommendations for key actions that will have the greatest impact
on minimizing turnover rates in volunteer involving organisations include:
• Increase social support – create stronger social connections and encourage
support from staff, supervisors, and other volunteers.
• Improve the experience of autonomy – when possible, grant volunteers
decision making authority, and when not possible, provide a clear rationale.
• Help volunteers feel productive – design volunteering tasks to be
stimulating and clearly related to organisational goals.
• Minimize burnout – regularly check with volunteers if they have enough
social, cognitive and physical resources to deal with their task demands.
• This paper is intended to inform and guide the volunteering sector, national
volunteering strategy and government policy to address the serious and ongoing
decline in volunteer numbers.
1 University of Sydney. Correspondence regarding this paper can be directed to Dr Vivien Forner,
vivien.forner@sydney.edu.au
2 Tilburg University
3 University of Western Australia
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 4
Addressing turnover in the volunteer sector as a strategic
imperative
The volunteering sector globally is experiencing a signicant and unprecedented decline
in volunteer numbers, the seriousness of which cannot be overstated. From 2018 to
2021, 44 per cent of the global volunteer workforce stopped volunteering.4 This is a loss
equivalent to 48 million full time volunteers in just a four-year period.5 In Australia, the
steady decline in volunteering over the past 15 years has been further exacerbated by
the COVID pandemic and covid-related restrictions and lockdowns that followed.6 In 2020
the percentage of Australians who volunteered for an organisation or group (25 per cent)
was not only lower than in 2019 (30 per cent), but also the lowest rate ever recorded by
the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Implementing an effective and evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteer workers
will be a vital part of strategies to ensure the future sustainability of the Australian
volunteer sector, so it can continue to deliver critical services to the community. Such
strategies require a clear understanding of the reasons underlying volunteer turnover.
Dening and measuring turnover of volunteers
Turnover of volunteers is poorly understood and difcult to measure. Current knowledge
about turnover, including turnover theories, models, and denitions, unequivocally
reect the paid work context. For instance, turnover is often dened as an employee’s
voluntary severance of his or her current employment ties.7 This denition narrows
turnover down to behaviours that an organisation does not control directly (as opposed
to being red from a position), but would like to control indirectly; making it the most
vital type of turnover behaviour to understand and manage. However, these traditional
denitions of turnover do not transfer well to volunteerism, in part because there is often
no formal severance. Volunteers rarely “quit” formally, they simply stop showing up.8 It is
challenging to calculate the annual turnover rate in a volunteering context as it requires
access to accurate and up-to-date data about the number of people who have left the
organisation as well as the total number of people volunteering during a given period.
Challenges with maintaining accurate workforce data and estimating volunteer numbers
4 Forner et al., 2022
5 United Nations Volunteers (UNV) programme, 2018; 2021
6 ABS, General Social Survey Results 2006; 2010; 2014; 2019; 2020
7 Mobley, 1982; Price, 1977
8 Jamison, 2003
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 5
are well acknowledged issues in the volunteering sector in Australia and globally.9
Consequently, the volunteering sector needs a way of conceptualising, dening, and
measuring turnover that reects its unique needs and context.
Specically, we propose that “turnover of volunteers occurs when volunteers withdraw
their participation with an organisation out of their own free will”.10 We contrast turnover
with retention and “volunteers are considered retained when they recurrently choose
to be present at volunteer activities and willingly donate their time to an organisation’s
activities and cause”.11 Having an agreed denition of turnover and retention is important
as it provides volunteer involving organisations a way to track their retention and to
identify how changes (both targeted and naturally occurring) inuence turnover. We offer
three suggestions for how volunteer turnover can be operationalised and measured in
volunteer involving organisations, in order of preference based on methodological rigour;
1) calculating turnover rate with organisational data, 2) creating organisational data
tracking volunteer participation, and 3) assessing turnover intentions.
Calculating turnover rate with organisational data.
Some volunteer involving organisations have access to accurate, up-to-date volunteer
records. This is often the case for membership-based organisations that have an annual
registration process, such as some sporting groups or Surf Life Saving. If reliable
organisational data is available, the traditional turnover rate formula can be applied.
Annual turnover rate (%) = number of volunteers who left over the year
total number of volunteers over the year
Creating organisational data – tracking volunteer participation.
As a rule of thumb, if a volunteer is not present at any event or activity over a year, we
would consider the person has withdrawn their participation with the organisation (ie.
turnover). We recommend organisations record attendance at each volunteering event
or activity, tracking the number of times each individual volunteer participates over the
course of the year and comparing it year-on-year. Tracking attendance/participation
would enable the organisation to create an accurate register of volunteers and, by
comparing data from the previous year, calculate the number of volunteers who left
over the period. The approach of tracking volunteer participation would make data
available about a) the total number of volunteers over the year and b) the total number
of volunteers who left over the year, which are the two pieces of information required to
9 https://audit.wa.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/report2015_17-Emergency.pdf; United Nations
Volunteers (UNV) programme, 2018
10 Forner et al., 2022
11 ibid
x 100
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 6
calculate annual turnover rate. It would also provide information about the extent to which
volunteers are engaging with the volunteer involving organisation over the year and how
this varies.
Measuring turnover intention
Turnover intentions are frequently used in turnover research as a proxy measure of
turnover behaviour. Volunteer involving organisations can get an indication of volunteers’
intention to stay or leave through organisational surveys or questionnaires. There are
well established measures of turnover intentions from the management literature that
predict turnover over time.12 Examples of the questions that are typically used include,
“I often think about leaving [organisation name]” and/or “It is likely that I will leave
[organisation name] in the next 12 months”. Volunteers can be asked to respond to these
questions on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5/7 (strongly agree). Alternatively, the
following multiple-choice question may be useful, “Which of the following statements best
describes your feelings about volunteering at [organisation name]?” Choices are A, “I
want to leave, but I feel like I have to stay”, B, “I want to stay, but may have to leave”, C,
“I want to stay, and can stay if I want to”, and D, “I want to leave, and can leave if I want
to”. To gauge the percentage of people who intend to leave, tally up the portion of people
who responded A or D. However, unless all the volunteers in the organisation completed
the survey, survey data may only provide an approximate indicator of turnover intentions
across the organisation.
What are the strongest predictors of volunteer turnover
and retention?
Our broader research team (Forner, Holtrop, Bozeman, Slemp, Kotek, Kragt, Askovic &
Johnson, 2022) undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of existing volunteer
retention and turnover research. The aim of the research was to delineate the strongest
predictors of turnover amongst volunteer workers. In this Volunteering Research Paper,
we provide a narrative synthesis of the key ndings for industry, summarising what is
currently known about turnover in volunteer organisations and which factors are most
important for retaining volunteer workers.
Overall, three work-related attitudes were found to be most strongly associated with
turnover. These were volunteers’ self-reported engagement, commitment, and job
satisfaction. Whilst it is not surprising that psychological variables were most closely
related to turnover, for the purpose of this policy paper we are focusing on those aspects
that organisations can take practical action on – the way volunteer work is designed
12 For example, Cohen et al., 2016; Van Dick et al., 2004
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 7
and the support structures organisations have in place for their volunteers. Following
the three work-related attitudes above, the next strongest predictors of retention/
turnover of volunteers were; 1) support, from paid staff, supervisors and peers, 2)
affording volunteers autonomy, 3) roles where volunteers feel they are contributing
productively, and 4) burnout. We unpack each of these in more detail.
1. Support from paid staff, supervisor and peers
An area that is particularly important to retaining volunteers is the broad area of social
support or a role that is rich in relational characteristics. Social support includes both
emotional support, such as listening and caring, and instrumental support, such as
tangible assistance or practical help with tasks.13 Support from paid staff and supervisors
were amongst the strongest drivers of retention amongst volunteers. For example,
quality leadership is a critical factor for supporting volunteers, providing recognition and
feedback and creating an overall positive and satisfying volunteering experience.14 The
evidence suggests that support from paid staff and supervisors are strong incentives to
stay, and potentially an even stronger factor in volunteers’ decision to leave when such
support is absent. Tensions between paid staff and volunteers are well documented,
and our research provides further evidence of the importance of this relationship.15 One
way that volunteer involving organisations can improve retention is to focus resources
on training and developing leaders, whether paid employees or volunteers (see also
the Volunteering Research Paper Without leadership there is no volunteering: The
importance of strategic investment in leadership development in Australia by Kragt et al.
for an extensive discussion of leadership in volunteering context).
Supportive peer relationships were also a strong predictor of volunteer retention.
Opportunities for social interaction, where volunteers can socialise and engage in
quality interpersonal interactions to develop supportive and strong relationships, even
friendships, with other volunteers, is an important aspect of the volunteer role.16 Feeling
connected and part of a community of committed volunteers who share similar beliefs
and values about the volunteer cause is an important contextual condition that promotes
volunteer retention. At the same time, it is important to recognize that this is reciprocal
and volunteer involving organisations also play an important role in creating social capital
in a community. Social connection therefore is both a key lever for retaining volunteers
and for creating a stronger community.
13 Semmer at al., 2008; Shakespeare-Finch & Obst, 2011
14 Forner, 2019; Henderson & Sowa, 2018
15 Rimes et al., 2017
16 Nencini et al., 2016
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 8
2. Affording volunteers autonomy
Our ndings also show that autonomy and voice were both strong predictors of
volunteer retention. This means that volunteers who had more freedom to carry out
activities in their chosen way (autonomy) and/or were able to speak up about their
views and inuence matters that affect them (voice) were more likely to remain with the
organisation. Where possible, volunteer involving organisations should seek to empower
volunteers and design volunteering work in a way that affords volunteers freedom to
make decisions, have choices, provide input, and to have some level of control in how
they carry out their volunteering activities.17 For example, whilst volunteer emergency
management organisations cannot allow autonomy in operational tasks, there are many
non-operational tasks, including the day-to-day running of the unit, in which autonomy is
possible and should be encouraged.18 At the same time, when there is a need to follow
standard operating procedures, meaning a lack of autonomy, the rationale should be
communicated and potential volunteer frustrations acknowledged.
Encouraging voice, by providing a platform for volunteers to express their ideas and
suggestions, is also an important element of volunteer retention. If volunteers offer
suggestions or views on changing some aspects of how tasks are performed, these
should be considered. When soliciting feedback, it is important that the organisation
communicates how the feedback was taken into account, because not acknowledging
solicited feedback can have detrimental consequences for morale.
3. Roles where volunteers feel they are contributing productively
Our ndings also revealed that the extent to which volunteers feel they are contributing
productively during volunteering activities was a strong contributing factor in their
decisions to stay or leave. Although volunteers generously give their time to a chosen
cause, volunteers’ time is incredibly valuable. Volunteering has to be time spent
productively. Research and anecdotal evidence suggest that often, due to operational
inefciencies or lack of planning, volunteers ‘sit around’ waiting to contribute, which
leads to their dissatisfaction and turnover.19 Efforts should therefore be made to design
volunteer work to be stimulating and productive, with a clear link to the organisation or
group’s cause or purpose.
4. Burnout
Burnout was strongly associated with more volunteer turnover. Burnout is often
considered to be a combination of two underlying factors: exhaustion and disengagement
17 Forner et al., 2020
18 Muhammad Farid et al., 2020
19 Kragt et al., 2018
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 9
or cynicism.20 When volunteers experience these feelings, they are likely to withdraw from
volunteering.21 Burnout is a known outcome from imbalanced demands and resources,22
meaning that volunteers who experience great demands and who receive little support
are likely to burn out and eventually leave. Following this rationale, providing volunteers
with the resources to overcome the demands of their roles can avert negative outcomes
and even lead to work engagement.23
Policy and practice implications
Existing denitions and models of turnover, that have been developed for paid work
contexts, do not transfer well to volunteerism. We propose an alternative and more
appropriate way to think about turnover in volunteer involving organisations and offer a
list of important drivers of turnover to enable more effective turnover management and
prediction. Our research ndings provide the volunteering sector with an evidence-based
framework for retaining volunteers and minimising turnover rates in volunteer involving
organisations. By delineating which aspects of the volunteering experience have the
strongest impact on intentions to continue or withdraw participation in volunteering
activities, our research offers a valuable resource for addressing the serious and ongoing
decline in volunteer numbers.
Recommendations
Based on the results from our meta-analysis and research, we offer the following
evidence-based recommendations for key actions that will have the greatest impact on
volunteer retention and minimise turnover rates in volunteer involving organisations.
• Measure and monitor turnover of volunteers. Effective measurement and
monitoring of turnover is critical to enable organisations to understand and act on
retention issues. We recommend the following measures, in order of preference
1) calculate turnover rate with organisational data, 2) create organisational data
tracking volunteer participation, and 3) assessing turnover intentions via survey
questions.
• Improve support from paid staff, supervisors, and peers. Greater clarity
on the role of paid staff and volunteer coordinators, and developing positive
relationships and attitudes towards volunteers, will drive more consistent and
quality support. Focus resources on training and developing those who lead
20 For example, Demerouti et al., 2008
21 Huynh et al., 2012
22 Demerouti et al., 2001
23 Lesener et al., 2019
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 10
and supervise volunteers, including paid employees and leaders who are also
volunteers themselves. Creating opportunities for volunteer socialisation to facilitate
the development of high quality and supportive relationships between volunteers.
The importance of inducting new members into the group is also emphasised.
Onboarding provides both the instrumental and emotional support (e.g making
resources available, welcome activities, assigning a guide or “buddy’) needed to
help the new volunteer socialise and navigate their new team and role.24
• Provide volunteers more autonomy and voice. Volunteer activities need to be
designed in a way that affords volunteers freedom to make decisions, have choices
and, where possible, to self-manage their own teams and activities autonomously.
At the same time, volunteers need a platform to voice concerns, offer suggestions,
and have input in decisions that affect them.
• Ensure volunteers’ time is utilised productively to make a valuable
contribution. Design volunteer activities to be stimulating and productive, with a
clear link to the organisation or groups cause or purpose. Minimise time volunteers
spend waiting around, by ensuring the volunteer activity or event is well organised/
coordinated and volunteer time is spent contributing in a productive and meaningful
way towards the cause or purpose they are there to serve.
• Enhance awareness and management of burnout amongst volunteers.
Burnout is a primary contributor to volunteers leaving an organisation, and a major
issue amongst active volunteers. Monitoring and managing burnout is critically
important to ensure that volunteering activities are not detrimental to the well-
being and mental health of people who volunteer. Effective management involves
minimising the demands placed on volunteers and, at the same time, providing
enough social, physical, and cognitive resources and support. We recommend
organisations regularly check in with their volunteers about their well-being and
identify opportunities where the organisation can minimise the demands and
pressures that volunteers face. Some volunteer positions, by virtue of their task
requirements, might be more likely to create feelings of burnout and should be
monitored especially closely.
Knowledge Gaps and Future Research
Existing theories and current understanding of turnover are unequivocally based on
research with employees in paid work. A model or theory of turnover that reects the
unique volunteering context has yet to be established. The meta-analytical research of
our team is a rst step in this direction, however, further theoretical development and
knowledge about turnover processes amongst volunteers will be required.
An important but unanswered question is, what is a “normal range” for volunteer turnover
rate? We currently lack benchmarking information needed to understand whether an
24 Klein et al., 2015
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 11
organisation is doing well or poorly in regard to its turnover, compared to other volunteer
involving organisations. Turnover statistics in the Australian volunteering sector are not
currently available, in part due to the challenges associated with measuring turnover of
volunteers. We recommend that the sector adopt our suggested measures of volunteer
turnover, which would enable consistent data to be collected and turnover benchmarking
statistics to become possible. Statistics may even differ depending on the type of services
an organisation provides (emergency services, sports, education, health care etc.).
Lastly, like other reviews, we observed that many studies of volunteer turnover are
based on one-off self-report surveys of volunteers’ intentions to leave (ie. cross-sectional
designs), rather than collecting data about real turnover behaviour using organisation
turnover data.25 We strongly recommend future research to draw more often upon
theoretically sound longitudinal and experimental designs. For example, future research
might measure and monitor how factors impact turnover over time (longitudinal designs)
and/or evaluate the impact of interventions designed to improve turnover.26 Additionally,
researchers should work closely together with organisations to obtain data on real
turnover behaviour that is estimated accurately.
Conclusion
Implementing an effective and evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteer workers
will be critical to ensure the future sustainability of volunteering. This policy paper offers
an ‘industry summary’ of key ndings from our recent systematic review and meta-
analysis of volunteer turnover research.27 These ndings provide the volunteering
sector with insights about the strongest determinants of volunteer turnover and,
conversely, the key levers for retaining volunteers. We offer a revised denition and
measures of turnover, with improved relevance and utility for the volunteer context.
The recommendations outlined in this paper are intended to inform and guide volunteer
involving organisations, the new National Strategy for Volunteering, and government
policy more broadly, on how to effectively address the devastating decline in volunteers
across Australia and globally.
25 Kragt & Holtrop, 2019
26 Kragt et al., 2020
27 Forner et al., 2022
The great (volunteer) resignation: An evidence-based strategy for retaining volunteers 12
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