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Looking over the builders’ work: foreign architects, artisans, and marble at Meninx (Djerba)

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Abstract and Figures

Throughout the second century AD, the civic centres of the wealthy coastal cities of Africa Proconsularis underwent deep-rooted changes. Up to this point local stone had been largely employed for their buildings, but from the Hadrianic period onwards there was an increasing use of marbles, which were imported with considerable efforts and at great expense. These marbles came primarily from Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, and brought with them new architectural concepts, as well as architects and artisans who have been generally identified as ‘Italian’ and ‘Eastern’ in past scholarship. This article will examine a temple, a structure presumed to be a portico, and a basilica from the harbour city of Meninx, located in southern Djerba (Tunisia). The exceptionally good preservation of these buildings’ architectural components and the documentation produced during their on-site recording in 2017–18 allow for a detailed understanding of their original building processes. This will show how mobile the building industry of the Roman Empire was during the second century AD, which in turn challenges any attempts of an overly schematic territorial placement of architectural concepts, building traditions, and the provenance of the artisans themselves.
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Article
Looking over the builderswork: foreign architects, artisans,
and marble at Meninx (Djerba)
Johannes Lipps*
*
Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Germany
Abstract
Throughout the second century AD, the civic centres of the wealthy coastal cities of Africa Proconsularis underwent deep-rooted changes. Up to
this point local stone had been largely employed for their buildings, but from the Hadrianic period onwardsthere was an increasing use of marbles,
which were importedwith considerable effortsand at greatexpense. These marbles came primarily from Italy, Greece,and Asia Minor, and brought
with them new architectural concepts, as well as architects and artisans who have been generally identified as Italianand Easternin past schol-
arship. This article will examine a temple,a structure presumed to be a portico, and a basilica from the harbour city of Meninx, located in southern
Djerba (Tunisia). The exceptionally goodpreservation ofthese buildingsarchitectural components and the documentation produced during their
on-site recording in 201718 allow for a detailed understanding of their original building processes. Thiswill show how mobile the building indus-
try of the Roman Empirewas during the second century AD, which in turn challenges anyattempts of an overly schematic territorial placement of
architectural concepts, building traditions, and the provenance of the artisans themselves.
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Keywords: Africa Proconsularis, Meninx, imperial public architecture, marbles, working processes
The city of Meninx in south-eastern Djerba rose to become the
main centre of the entire island by the Roman imperial period
at the very latest, and it was henceforth counted as one of the lar-
gest settlements in Roman North Africa (Hobson 2020, 297313).
According to Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia, 9.127), the citys
wealth was based on its blooming purple dyeing industry.
Alongside this, the city benefitted from its fertile hinterland
(Pseudo-Scylax, Periplous, 110) and its ideal topographic location
with a large, well-protected harbour on the edge of the Sahara
between Carthage and Lepcis Magna (Fiederling et al.2022).
In contrast to numerous other cities in northern Tunisia or
Tripolitania, Meninx was long overlooked in the scholarly debate,
which was due to the comparatively poor state of preservation of
its ruins. The citys setting directly on the shore and its permanent
abandonment from the seventh century AD onwards made the
site an ideal target for post-antique stone and marble robbing.
Today, apart from a few walls visible beneath the sand, the only
evidence preserved above ground level of the former urban centre
are countless purple sea snail shells (murex), pottery sherds, and
some scattered architectural elements.
Forthese reasons, the ancient sitewas almost completelyignored in
the literature with only a few exceptions (for example, Duval 1942). It
was leftin a sort of limbo until a first archaeological survey project was
undertaken on the entire island of Djerba from 1996 to 2000, led by Ali
Drine, Elizabeth Fentress, and Renata Holod, which included geo-
physical surveying and some limited excavations at the site of
Meninx (Fentress et al.2009). In 2017 and 2018, there followed a
new project of large-scale archaeological excavations led by Stefan
Ritter and Sami Ben Tahar, which has provided an entirely new
basis for our knowledge and understanding of the ancient city.
Alongside other forms of investigations (including geophysical and
other scientific analyses),the opening of 12 trenchesand the recording
of their archaeological stratigraphy have cast new light on the cityand
its surrounding region. Combined with the surviving literary sources
(Agus and Zucca 2002; Fentress et al.2009,3743), this has allowed
researchers to piece together and sketch out a broad history of the
city from the fourth century BC to the seventh century AD (Ritter
and Ben Tahar 2022).
Survey of architectural elements (201718)
Before the second century AD, the architecture of Meninx was char-
acterized by the use of a local, highly calcareous and soft limestone,
which was sourced directly on the island (Fentress et al.2009, 201
05; Beck 2022) and was easily subject to weathering. Therefore, the
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British Institute for Libyan & Northern African Studies
Cite this article: Lipps J (2022). Looking over the builderswork: foreign architects,
artisans, and marble at Meninx (Djerba). Libyan Studies 112. https://doi.org/10.1017/
lis.2022.11
Libyan Studies (2022), 112
doi:10.1017/lis.2022.11
https://doi.org/10.1017/lis.2022.11 Published online by Cambridge University Press
surface of these pre-second-century architecturalelements isusually
completely corroded, and their original form can no longer be recog-
nized. Alongside these, however, an exceptional series of buildings
was constructed during the second century AD in the centre of
Meninx, for which marble was specifically brought onto the island.
The architectural components of these buildings, which today lie
scattered across the city area, have proven far more weather-resistant
than those produced in the local limestone, and it is still possible to
recognize their original function (for example, as a base or capital)
and assess their stylistic features.
Some of these components had received particular attention in
the work of Naidé Ferchiou (1983;1986; see also Baratte 1995,
8394). Yet it was Thomas J. Morton who first undertook a system-
atic examination of over 100 architectural elements during the late
1990s and early 2000s: the location of these elements in the centre of
Meninx suggested the presence of an ancient open square or plaza.
In his dissertation, completed in 2003, Morton hypothetically
assigned some particularly large elements to four different temples,
while other pieces were attributed to a forum portico and a basilica
(Morton 2003; see further on this Morton 2008;2009, 13453, 155
57; 2016, 28387). Since Morton had not excavated them or under-
taken an autoptic recording, these architectural components
remained of limited use for any further research.
For this reason, an architectural survey was completed in cooper-
ation with the new German-Tunisian project, with the aim of gaining
new insights into the above-ground levels of the buildings constructed
in the ancient city. This was achieved using both the remains visible at
ground level and the newly excavated architectural components from
the ancient city area, as well asthe unpublished architectural elements
that were discovered at Meninx and are currently stored in the Bordj el
Ghazi Mustapha Museum at Houmt Souk. Approximately 150 ele-
ments were documented using SfM (Structure from Motion) tech-
nique; ca. 40 particularly well-preserved architectural components
were documented through sketches, and Vilma Ruppiene examined
the material of ca. 50 samples from selected objects. All the architec-
tural elements that were lying at, or just below, ground level were
unearthed to bring to light their lower portions and were cleaned
up. In this way, new pieces that had not been recorded by Morton
were discovered, and the original function and form of these and of
the other previously recorded architectural components could be
assessed with precision for the first time. Moreover, the ornamentation
of many pieces that were still lying below ground level was especially
well-preserved, which allowed for a more comprehensive stylistic ana-
lysisoftheseobjects.Attheendoftheexcavationandon-siteexamin-
ation, the recorded architectural components were reburied to ensure
their continued preservation.
The marble city centre
Morton and others before him had already identified the ancient
forum thanks to the particular concentration of marble architec-
tural components and the presence of the only monument recog-
nizable at ground level in the area, a Roman basilica discernible
from the column bases remaining in situ (Morton 2002;2003,
7995, 12548, 20129; 2009, 13845; Morton and Aït Kaci
2009). The German-Tunisian excavation was able to add further
details to the known history of the square, and it also unearthed
the foundations of some of the monuments that developed
Figure 1. Meninx, map of city centre showing location of architectural elements in the square and surrounding buildings: (1) southern temple; (2) portico; (3) basil-
ica (image T. Bitterer).
2 Johannes Lipps
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around it (Figure 1). While domestic dwellings dominated this
site during the Punic period (Arndt et al.2022; Lamare 2022),
the foundations of the square date to the early imperial period,
and besides the somewhat low-lying square itself, these include
two shrines referred to as the southern temple (1) (Sheldrick
2022) and northern temple, as well as porticoes (2) (Arndt et al.
2022). Alongside these foundations, only a few isolated antefixes
and architectural elements of local limestone found around the
forum can provide information about the appearance of the archi-
tecture of this early period (Lipps 2022, 185 f.; Scheding 2022).
During the second century AD, the foundations reveal a wide-
ranging rebuilding of the entire area of the square. On the basis of
numerous architectural components and the remains of sculptures
scattered around the area, it seems that this rebuilding activity
transformed the forum, which was previously characterized by
the use of local limestone, into a square filled with gleaming marble
ornamentation (see especially Ritter and Ben Tahar 2022,4547
with references). These remaining architectural fragments can be
assigned to at least three separate monuments, whose placement
within the city can be determined with varying degrees of certainty:
(1) From the mass of architectural components found at Meninx,
there are 13 pieces worked in Pentelic marble that immediately
drew attention, as their large size clearly distinguished them
from all the other architectural elements in the city area. The
fact that they are all worked in the same material, using the
same proportions, and displaying a consistent style of ornamen-
tation and traces of similar carving techniques, suggests they
were probably part of the same building. Morton had already
recognized the unitarity of these components and assigned
them correctly to the shrine which he referred to as the southern
temple (Morton 2003,98101, 23034; 2009, 14547). The size
of these architectural components is comparable (among other
structures) to the Capitolium at Sabratha (Kenrick 1986, 109),
the lower order of the Antonine basilica at Carthage (Gros
1985), and the great temple of Thuburbo Maius (Merlin
1922). In the absence of any excavation of the individual com-
ponents, only three of which were photographically recorded,
Morton was not able to identify with precision the entablature
blocks and to propose a hypothetical reconstruction of the
building. The new excavation allowed for the identification of
these pieces (apart from one block) as: an Attic column base;
two fragments of Corinthian capitals; four architraves; and five
entablature blocks (three from a horizontal geison,andtwo
from a diagonal geison). Apart from the probable monolithic
columns and the frieze, all the components of a full column
order are present, and despite the absence of the lost paintwork,
they can give a fairly complete idea of the original structure.
From this, it is possible to reconstruct a richly decorated
Corinthian, probably prostyle, temple (Figure 2)(cf.themore
comprehensive discussion in Lipps 2022,18791). The only
information missing is the exact number of frontal columns,
and because of this, the overall dimensions of the complete
floorplan are still unclear. Judging by their setting, these build-
ing elements may well have belonged to the excavated corner
foundation of the temple at the southern end of the forum,
which was constructed in the early imperial period and was
rebuilt during the first half of the second century AD
(Figure 1(1)).Thelocation(seeQuinnandWilson2013,150
67) and discovery of a portrait of Antoninus Pius (Gabler
2022), as well as a head of Serapis (Kovacs and Lipps 2022)
in the vicinity, would suggest a sacred context perhaps a
Capitolium or a temple of the imperial cult, and/or the worship
of other tutelary gods.
(2) To the north of the proposed southern temple, 23 fragments
of monolithic columns worked in cipollino rosso marble were
found scattered around the forum, and Morton connected
these to a forum portico (Morton 2003, 49 f., 7579, 197
200). On the basis of the associated location where they
were found and their identical proportions, these can be
probably matched with four composite column bases and
seven Corinthian capitals in Pentelic marble, which allows
for their hypothetical reconstruction as part of the portico
surrounding the square (Figure 3). Morton only saw a selec-
tion of the capitals in the immediate vicinity of the basilica,
and thus assigned these to the first order of the building
(Morton 2003, 51 f., 211 f., no. 98.16.), while he attributed
the composite bases to different temple buildings for which
there is no further evidence (Morton 2003, 103 f.). In the
course of our examination, however, more capitals belonging
to the same series were discovered, which were found not only
in the vicinity of the basilica, but also rather randomly scat-
tered across the entire forum among the red marble columns
and the composite bases. Moreover, the material of the bases
and capitals (Pentelic marble) differs from that of the other
architectural components that can be assigned with certainty
to the basilica, for the latter are worked in Proconnesian mar-
ble (Lipps 2022, 186 f.; Stoeßel 2022, 117, note 689). The
excavated foundation of the portico in the north-east part
of the square (Figure 1(2)) might be related to these architec-
tural elements, yet it is important to note that other sectors of
the square may also have been enclosed by porticoes.
(3) Alongside these two buildings, a basilica built with a frontal
portico in the south-east sector of the square represents a
third significant marble structure, dating from the mid-
imperial period (Figure 1(3)). This appears to have been an
entirely new building, without evidence of any previous con-
struction phases, which was erected abutting the forum at this
later date. This is also the only monument within the city
centre that can be precisely and securely located and whose
components can be recognized without any doubt. Only the
column bases are preserved in situ; the rest of the architec-
tural elements belonging to this structure are found scattered
between these bases (one column is still in the place where it
fell down). The bases were first excavated in 1942 by
Paul-Marie Duval but were only later recognized as compo-
nents of the basilica (Duval 1942). In 2018 a part of this
building was freed from the surrounding sand, which revealed
a rectangular floorplan of a three-aisled basilica. Two rows of
11 columns each stood on the long sides, while four columns
were placed along the short, southern side. A slightly elevated
floor section in the northern part of the building was perhaps
reserved for a tribunal or a similar structure (Stoeßel 2021,
138 f.) (Figure 4). In 2017 and 2018, the archaeologists were
able to record 43 architectural components belonging to the
basilica within the excavation site, and three more were found
at the Borj el Ghadzi Mustapha Museum. In total, these compo-
nents comprise 27 fragments of cipollino marble columns, eight
bases, as well as 11 entablature blocks of Proconnesian marble,
which together attest to the presence of a two-storey structure.
Furthermore, numerous smaller fragments of Corinthian capi-
tals probably also belonged to the basilica (Figure 5).
Foreign architects, artisans and marble at Meninx
A detailed analysis of the three above-mentioned structures, as
well as their individual components, is not only able to provide
insights into the actual building processes of the respective monu-
ments, but it may also enrich and articulate the ongoing debate
over North African architecture of the mid-imperial period.
This architecture is characterized by the novel and extensive use
Libyan Studies 3
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Figure 2. Hypothetical visualization of the southern
temple, based on selected surviving architectural
components shown on Figures 6,8,10 (image
T. Bitterer, after template by J. Lipps).
Figure 3. Hypothetical visualization of portico,
based on the Corinthian capitals shown on Figures
15 and 16 (image T. Bitterer, after template by
J. Lipps).
4 Johannes Lipps
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of imported marble and has thus far been considered as a concep-
tual hybrid of various architectural traditions (see especially
Pensabene 1986;1989;1991).
At this point, attention should be drawn to the strikingly close
similarity of the syntax, motifs, and execution of the ornamenta-
tion of the southern temple (1) with the pieces from the frigidar-
ium of the Antonine Baths at Carthage. Of the two slightly
differing capital types used at Carthage, it is the so-called series
à structure simplifiée(Bessière 2006, 68789; Scheding 2019,
14043) that displays particular similarities with the pieces from
Meninx. This comparability is not limited to the syntax and
choice of motifs of the individual elements, but it also extends
to the execution of details, as can be observed in the finely carved
features such as the preserved central leaf or the cauliculus
(Figure 6 and Figure 7). The soffits of the architraves from both
Carthage and Meninx are framed by the same type of
egg-and-dart motif, with a semi-circular indentation for the
fleuron of the capital underneath, showing a very similar decora-
tive pattern on the scrollworks in terms of craftsmanship and exe-
cution (Figure 8 and Figure 9). The same can be said for the
ornamentation of the remarkably richly decorated geisa from
both cities. On these pieces, we can observe how four almost iden-
tically executed decorative bands lead to the consoles in the upper
register, featuring respectively from bottom to top: a leaf-and-dart
kymation (Scherenkymation) with an accentuated eyelet; a row of
rectangular dentils; an astragal decorated with elongated oval
Figure 4. Reconstruction of floor plan of the basilica (image T. Bitterer, after model by L. Stoeßel).
Figure 5. Reconstruction of cross-section of the
basilica (image T. Bitterer, after model by
L. Stoeßel).
Libyan Studies 5
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beads and rhomboid reels; and an egg-and-dart motif with nearly
open shells (Figure 10 and Figure 11) (Mattern 2001, 43, type 1c;
51, type 4; 5658, 6468, type 6). Furthermore, it is worth draw-
ing attention to the same finely drilled groove used to frame the
lower leaf-and-dart kymation in both pieces from Carthage and
Meninx. In addition, the techniques and types of tools, as well
as the way they were used on the stone blocks, the lifting holes,
and clamping techniques, all correspond precisely in their num-
ber, placement, size, and execution (cf. Lézine 1968,3761;
1969). These analogous technical features suggest that the south-
ern temple of Meninx to our knowledge one of the earliest
Figure 6. Corinthian capital from the southern temple(photo M. Kovacs, reworked
by A. Schurzig).
Figure 7. Corinthian capital from the Antonine Baths at Carthage (photo D. Beck,
reworked by A. Schurzig).
Figure 8. Ionic architrave from the southern temple, detail of soffit (photo
M. Kovacs, reworked by A. Schurzig).
Figure 9. Ionic architrave from the Antonine Baths at Carthage, detail of soffit ( photo
D. Beck, reworked by A. Schurzig).
Figure 10. Console geison from the southern temple(photo J. Lipps, reworked by
A. Schurzig).
Figure 11. Console geison from the Antonine Baths at Carthage (photo D. Beck,
reworked by A. Schurzig).
6 Johannes Lipps
https://doi.org/10.1017/lis.2022.11 Published online by Cambridge University Press
marble structures on the island of Djerba may in fact have been
executed by the same groups of stonemasons who were respon-
sible for the Antonine Baths at Carthage. The idea of itinerant
stonemasons working along the Tunisian coast, as already pro-
posed by Naidé Ferchiou in 1983, is also suggested by the hair
locks of a monumental head of Serapis found at Meninx in
2018. The execution of these locks is so similar to those of an
analogous monumental head of the same god from Carthage,
that it strongly suggests these were the work of the same sculptor,
who was active in both cities (Kovacs and Lipps 2022). Yet there
are qualitative differences between the architectural elements from
Meninx and those from Carthage, which make us recognize the
temple on Djerba as the more elaborate type of building. This
becomes clear, among other things, when one looks at the more
refined working of the egg-and-dart motif on the soffits
(Figure 8 and Figure 9), as well as the more elongated shape
and more accurate execution of the dentils on the geison
(Figure 10 and Figure 11).
The occurrence of models from Italy, particularly Rome, how-
ever, has been pointed out in the literature with regard to the
Antonine Baths. In particular, the Flavian structures on the
Palatine hill and the buildings of Trajans Forum, among others,
have been mentioned in this connection (Harrazi 1982;Gros
1985, 106; Pensabene 1986, 36467; Milella 1989, 418;
Eingartner 2005, 24; Bessière 2006, 68689; Scheding 2019,
140). The shape of the leaves on the capitals from Carthage and
Meninx resemble (among other examples) those from the
Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum, now dated to the
Antonine period, and correspond even more closely to those of
an example currently kept in the so-called House of Liviaon
the Palatine hill (Heilmeyer 1970, 164, plate 59.35; Leon 1971,
225; Freyberger 1990, 103 f.; Caprioli 2007, 15157, 23744; cf.
further on this one capital from Ostia: Pensabene 1972,65f.,
no. 252, 258, plate 24). The architraves of Trajans Forum display
the same division into three fasciae increasing progressively in
height from lowest to highest, and are decorated at the top with
a bead-and-reel motif with elongated oval beads and rhomboid
reels, just like at Meninx. The geisa are even more significant:
their syntax and type of ornamentation are almost identical on
all the pieces from Trajans Forum, Carthage, and Meninx. The
only difference one can point out is that in Rome, the lower
leaf-and-dart kymation (Scherenkymation) is replaced by a
stirrup-framed leaf-and-dart kymation (Bügelkymation) (Leon
1971,5975). The comparison can be extended to the finest typo-
logical details of the individual elements of the ornamentation: if
the shape of the arrow-head placed between the shells of the
egg-and-dart motif can be observed from the later first century
AD (Mattern 2001, 50 f., type 4), the accentuated eyelet of the
leaf-and-dart kymation from Carthage and Meninx only became
common after the construction of Trajans Forum (Mattern 2001,
58). Similarly, the dentils with a Via-Füllung through the horizon-
tal rows on the geison appear for the first time in Trajans Forum
(Mattern 2001,6567). Even the deeply drilled groove we
observed, which was used to frame the leaf-and-dart kymation
in the background relief, is a typical stylistic feature of Roman
reliefs dating from the Hadrianic and early Antonine periods.
Nonetheless, it would be an oversimplification to assume a
relatively straightforward scenario on the basis of these syntactic,
typological, and technical similarities. It would be too easy to sug-
gest a pattern according to which architectural concepts and pro-
duction techniques that were common in Rome from the Trajanic
period onwards travelled in the form of architects and stonema-
sons (at least a generation later!) to Tunisia, where these artisans
created new employment opportunities for themselves. If one
observes more closely the architectural components of the south-
ern temple at Meninx, it is possible to identify details in their
production techniques that would have been exceptional and
somewhat unusual in Rome. This applies to the non-elaborated
ornaments that occur on the narrow side of the geison (particu-
larly noticeable near the leaf-and-dart kymation) (Figure 10),
which display a very effective finishing technique, where the
majority of the ornamentation was completed while the piece
was lying on the ground, while the narrow sides were left roughed
out to be finished once the piece was set into its final position on
the building. In this way, the decorative bands could run seam-
lessly and continuously over the joints between blocks, and the
artisans could also execute most of the ornamentation at ground
level, which was considerably simpler to accomplish than working
such pieces in their final positions. A comparable process can be
observed in the Hadrianeum in Rome, where the stone bosses
near the joints on the inner side of the architrave blocks of the
temple peristasis were not always fully finished (Figure 12)
(Lipps 201011, 122, 127, Figures 37 f.). One more significant
detail suggests an even closer relationship between the architrave
of the southern temple at Meninx and that of the Hadrianeum in
Rome: one of the well-preserved architrave blocks from Meninx
shows a stone boss on the lower surface of the block, which
might have been left in place to protect it during construction
and was never removed afterwards (Figure 13). In Rome it is
only possible to observe a comparable finishing technique on
Figure 12. Hadrianeum in Rome, inner side of architrave block from the peristasis
(photo D-DAI-ROM-2008.2909).
Figure 13. Ionic architrave (upside down) from the southern temple, detail of
fasciae (photo J. Lipps, reworked by A. Schurzig).
Libyan Studies 7
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the lower surface of the architrave in the Hadrianeum (Lipps
201011, 117 f.) (Figure 14), while the technique is, in contrast,
known in both south and south-west Asia Minor and the
Levant (cf. for example, Cormack 2004, 282, Figure 171; Schulz
and Winnefeld 1921, plates 12729). Donald Strong (1953) had
already observed a close relationship between the Hadrianeum
in Rome and the architecture of Asia Minor based on the shared
ornamental syntax. This syntax must have been connected to
some kind of knowledge transfer between Asia Minor and
Rome, which cannot be more precisely determined, but can also
be observed later on in the Temple of Venus and Roma, and in
Hadrians Mausoleum. Similarities between the building decor-
ation of the Traianeum in Pergamon with that of the above-
mentioned buildings in Rome have also been pointed out
among other comparisons (see further on this Strocka 1988;
Plattner 2004). Finally, while the syntax, choice of ornaments,
and technical details of the southern temple at Meninx can lead
us to Rome and Carthage, and further on into Asia Minor, the
Pentelic marble used for the ornamentation of the building
came from mainland Greece.
The seven Corinthian capitals from the proposed portico at
Meninx (2), which are also worked in Pentelic marble, are clearly
comparable in terms of their composition, style, and execution to
the pieces from the southern temple and the architectural compo-
nents from the frigidarium of the Antonine Baths at Carthage.
Accordingly, they may have been completed by stonemasons
working within the same group (Figure 15 and Figure 16).
These pieces all display a fundamentally consistent composition:
the acanthus leaves on both tiers have five leaflets, with the
lower side-leaflet showing four lobes and the top-leaflet having
five lobes. On one of the acanthus leaves from the lower tier, it
is evident that the upper part (which is not preserved) had already
been repaired in antiquity, as indicated by a square hole left where
a newly finished bit of stone would have been inserted (Figure 15).
The helices curl beneath the lip of the abacus, while the volutes
are completely broken off. A calyx with wavy leaves is used as
the axial motif here. Regrettably, the shape of the fleuron on
the abacus can no longer be determined. The relief of the capital
is relatively deeply worked. The acanthus leaves are characterized
by a flat surface and are worked using the drill, creating a rela-
tively strong light-and-shadow effect.
Apart from the similarities mentioned above, which bind this
group of seven capitals together, there are also differences in the
individual execution of the pieces: on certain capitals, the collars
of the cauliculi are simply decorated with parallel-running chan-
nels (Figure 15), while on other pieces, the collars are arranged
into the form of a Lesbian kymation (Figure 16). The eyelets of
the acanthus leaves also seem more elongated in one group of
capitals (Figure 15), and more drop-shaped in the other
(Figure 16). Furthermore, the mid-ribs of the leaves are broader
in one group (Figure 15) than in the other (Figure 16). In this
way, two discernible series emerge. More than 20 years ago,
Jens Rohmann (1998,1130) observed that in the case of the
Traianeum of Pergamon there were two similar series of capitals
that only differed in particular details, but nonetheless belonged
to the same structure, and he sought to explain the existence of
these two series. About a decade later, similar observations were
advanced for the Hadrianeum in Rome (Lipps 201011, 11826).
According to these findings, large numbers of capitals were pro-
duced step-by-step by different stonemasons during construction
of the above-mentioned buildings. Some stonemasons sketched
out the layout of the basic elements surrounding the kalathos,
while others were responsible for the more detailed work involved
in finishing the acanthus leaves and the drilling details. This led
Figure 14. Hadrianeum in Rome, Ionic architrave from the peristasis (photo
D-DAI-ROM-2008.2879).
Figure 15. Corinthian capital from the proposed portico (series 1) (photo M. Kovacs,
reworked by A. Schurzig).
Figure 16. Corinthian capital from the proposed portico, held today at Houmt Souk
(series 2) (photo M. Kovacs, reworked by A. Schurzig).
8 Johannes Lipps
https://doi.org/10.1017/lis.2022.11 Published online by Cambridge University Press
to the creation of two series within the same structure that were
comparable, but also differentiated by certain details: the coexist-
ence of the two series is confirmed by some hybridpieces showing
elements of both. The same kind of working process should also be
envisioned for the capitals of the proposed portico at Meninx. In the
end, the variations between the two series of capitals are as marginal
as those from Pergamon or Rome. Even if we cannot determine the
origin of the artisans and workers, it is reasonable to assert that
the proposed portico from Meninx can be quite clearly linked to
the examples from Rome and Pergamon in terms of carving techni-
ques. This once again reveals how close-knit the trade and exchange
in high-quality marble architecture was across the Mediterranean
during the second century AD.
The third monument, the basilica (3), differs from the other
two structures not only in terms of the material used
(Proconnesian marble instead of Pentelic), but also in its design,
which shows greater similarities to buildings from the eastern
Mediterranean and the region of Tripolitania. Firstly, we can
draw attention to the heart-shaped double columnsof cipollino
marble, which can be observed across the whole of the eastern
Mediterranean, from Cyrenaica to Asia Minor, but are uncom-
mon in Italy (DellAcqua 2013)(Figure 17). Furthermore, Linda
Stoeßel was able to reconstruct the shape of the Corinthian capi-
tals from the basilica on the basis of the numerous small frag-
ments of Proconnesian marble found within the structure. In
terms of decorative features, these correspond to the styles com-
mon in Asia Minor, such as at Pergamon and Miletus, which
are characterized among other things by prickly acanthus leaves
with pointed lobes and deep channels (cf. Rohmann 1998,8
38, tab. 120; 37; 3964, tab. 2137; 6588, tab. 3850; 8993,
tab. 51; Köster 2004, 195, cat. Mi2, tab. 122.4; 195, cat. Mi1,
tab. 121.3) (Figure 18). These features distinguish them from con-
temporary pieces produced in Italy and from the majority of the
northern Tunisian capitals. In contrast, they find parallels in the
cities of Tripolitania (Stoeßel 2021, 148 f.), where one can also
identify examples of the reversed leaf-and-dart kymation
(Bügelkymation)(Figure 19) (Ward-Perkins 1993, pl. 25.c).
In addition, the floorplan of the basilica allows us to determine
further details of the planning and execution of the construction,
something that can be postulated, but not proven, in the case of
the southern temple and the portico. The reconstructions of the
floorplan and elevation of the basilica, as well as its marble archi-
tectural components, were all calculated by using the Roman foot
(29.6 cm) as a module, while the size of the locally sourced stones
used in the foundations corresponds to the Punic foot (51.5 cm).
This was clearly a planning and construction process that amalga-
mated different length units as it brought together local and foreign
artisans, a phenomenon that has often been observed in Africa
Proconsularis for the mid-imperial period and later (cf. among
others Ioppolo 1967; Barresi 1991; Morton 2003, 10810).
In the three monuments discussed above, we can distinguish a
great variety of types of marble, architectural features, and con-
struction methods just by looking at the stone used: only the ori-
gin of these raw materials can be clearly assigned to a particular
geographic context; in contrast, the design concepts and carving
methods provide evidence for a fluid exchange of building tradi-
tions within a broad, interregional network. Our picture would no
doubt become more detailed and complete, if we had further
information on the importation and processing of the other
Figure 17. Heart-shaped double columns of cipollino marble from the basilica
(photo J. Lipps, reworked by A. Schurzig).
Figure 18. Fragment of leaf from a Corinthian capital from the basilica (photo
L. Stoeßel, reworked by A. Schurzig).
Figure 19. Geison from the upper order of the basilica (photo J. Lipps, reworked by
A. Schurzig).
Libyan Studies 9
https://doi.org/10.1017/lis.2022.11 Published online by Cambridge University Press
materials that were necessary for these structures, such as timber,
metal, glass, paint, and stucco (cf. for example Russell 2016). The
observations by Paul Scheding (2022) point out that some of the
early imperial antefixes found at Meninx were imported from
Italy, while some pieces were produced on-site using the Italian
examples as models.
Meninx and the impact of a melting pot for Roman
architectural production
The date of construction of the monumental marble buildings at
Meninx, which so far had relied on stratigraphic data and could
therefore only be placed broadly within the second century AD,
can now be determined with more precision using comparable,
securely dated structures. According to a detail in the Historia
Augusta (Verus, 3.1), the Hadrianeum was inaugurated in Rome
in AD 145. The construction of the baths at Carthage, directly
approved by Antoninus Pius himself, appears to have begun
immediately after this date, in AD 145 or 146 (CIL VIII, 12513;
Horster 2001, 41618; contra Thébert 2003, 141, 490, no. 22). A
second inscription found in the baths (AE 1949, 27) mentions
the proconsulship of Voconius and is dated to AD 161/162
(Horster 2001, 417, with note 755; Thébert 2003, 491, no. 23),
which is why the architectural elements of the Antonine Baths
are most commonly dated to between AD 145 and 162 (Lézine
1968,3761; 1969; Pensabene 1986, 36467; Bessière 2006, 686
f.; Scheding 2019, 14043). However, this Voconius inscription is
found on a frieze block from the frigidarium, which indicatesthe exe-
cution of the building ornamentation in that sector of the baths was
undertaken in the years 161/162. It is therefore possible to imagine
the presence of artisans who came to Carthage in the 140s and
were also actively working on other structures in the city before
or perhaps rather after AD 161/162 (Gros 1985,1029; Bessière
2006, 119 f., with cat. nos 8990; 68285), as well as in other locations
along the African coast. They established a new style of architectural
decoration in Africa Proconsularis, which was to be highly influential
for future buildings and its use is attested over a long span of time
(Scheding 2019,14048). However, the activity of the same groups
of stonemasons in the construction of the southern temple and the
proposed portico at Meninx, as well as in the Antonine Baths at
Carthage, suggests almost contemporary building processes and
points to a dating of the Meninx buildings towards the third quarter
of the second century AD.
This kind of precise dating is not possible for the basilica, how-
ever. Yet, particularly in the case of the ornamentation of the geisa
(Figure 19), we can observe similarities with many monuments
from Carthage and other North African cities that were con-
structed between AD 150 and 175: examples include the
Temple of Hercules (Caputo and Ghedini 1984; Aiosa 2013, 33,
cat. 50) and the South Temple (Joly and Tomasello 1984, 73,
cat. 30) at Sabratha. A simultaneous, or a quickly progressing,
construction of the southern temple, the proposed portico, and
the basilica at Meninx is therefore also probable.
In this way, a picture emerges of a growing city located
between the large cities of Tripolitania and the northern strip of
Africa Proconsularis, whose civic centre was transformed into a
display of sumptuous, richly coloured marble monuments during
the second century AD through the importation of new raw mate-
rials and building expertise. The patrons who sponsored this pro-
cess remain unknown, so we can only advance hypotheses by
looking at analogous situations, which suggest that these benefac-
tors were probably members of the local elite who acted in
cooperation with the respective city council (cf. Pensabene
2001, especially 10118). In contrast, the surviving architectural
components allow us to observe in detail how raw materials,
architects, and artisans from distant areas of the Roman Empire
came to Meninx, thus transforming the city into a melting pot
of Roman architectural production. The well-known pleas of
Pliny the Younger (Epistulae, 10.17 f., 10.3742), asking Trajan
for a suitable architect for his own building projects in Bithynia,
show that access to leading architects, artisans, and the necessary
raw materials was anything but easy to achieve. However, since
the Roman building trade did not usually operate through large,
permanent workshops, but rather necessitated the constant gath-
ering of new groups of artisans and workers for each project, large
building sites like those at Meninx were probably places for an
intensive exchange of both conceptual ideas and production tech-
niques. Such places show how mobile the building trade of the
Roman Empire was during the second century AD, thus proving
that an overly schematic, territorial placement of architectural
concepts, building traditions, and artisans does not really explain
the actual processes that took place. Further targeted and detailed
inspection of the numerous and well-preserved marble architec-
tural components in North Africa will certainly reveal more infor-
mation relevant to this topic.
The impact that the newly erected marble buildings had on the
respective urban community and the people in the neighbouring
towns can hardly be overestimated. Although there are no direct
literary references, the effect of these buildings can probably be
imagined as similar to that of comparable monuments in Rome
and other areas of the Roman Empire, which were described in
detail by ancient authors (Scheithauer 2000). Finally, the monu-
ments from Djerba followed similar aesthetic patterns, which
became manifest through a refined combination of diverse mate-
rials, colours, as well as through the highly advanced building pro-
cesses that aimed to create shiny surfaces, monumental
constructions, and technical masterpieces. At the same time, the
urban self-representation as one of the leading cities of the
Roman Empire was further strengthened by the international
sources of supply of building materials. The resulting heightened
urban self-awareness of Meninx was probably even more evident
because white marble had previously only been experienced in the
form of statues erected here and there, and found no comparison
in the neighbouring cities, such as Gightis, even in later periods.
Even in the context of a supra-regional comparison with northern
Tunisia and Tripolitania, the marble buildings of Meninx belong
to a series of comparably high-level complexes of their kind. The
temple, which was presumably visible from the sea, and the other
buildings around the forum of Meninx probably led to a perceived
advancement and increase in prestige of the city and thus to a new
self-confidence of its inhabitants. This awareness, of course, only
developed through the interaction between the buildings and their
use by the local community in the form of various performative
acts, including religious, political and economic ones.
Acknowledgements. I would like to thank Sami Ben Tahar most sincerely
for permission to carry out and publish the research outlined here, and for
the enormous technical and logistic support on site. I would also like to
thank Stefan Ritter and the entire excavation team for their kind reception
during the 20172018 fieldwork seasons. The identification of the marbles pre-
sented here was made by Vilma Ruppiene. Plans were drawn by Tobias
Bitterer. Furthermore, I would like to thank Marina Milella, Niccolò
Mugnai, Paul Pasieka, Linda Stoeßel, and Elisa Schuster for their critical
and constructive comments, and Rubymaya Jaeck-Woodgate from A Second
Pen for initial help with translation of the text. This article was produced
under the Thematic Area T3 Urbane Verdichtung(Urban Densification)
within the profile area Challengesat JGU Mainz, and in line with my work
on the sub-project A2 in SFB 1391, Andere Ästhetik(Other Aesthetics).
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The Underwater Archaeological Investigations, in: S. Ritter - S. Ben Tahar (eds.), Studies on the Urban History of Meninx (Djerba), Archäologische Forschungen 43 (2022) 165-183
Article
Étude d'éléments architecturaux (consoles, corniches, chapiteaux, bases) en onyx, marbre Pentélique, marbre de Proconèse. Une partie de ces éléments est importé, l'autre groupe peut être attribué à des ateliers locaux de marbriers itinérants, car on retrouve des vestiges comparables dans les villes antiques côtières de Proconsulaire.