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DOI: 10.4018/IJSEUS.312234
Volume 13 • Issue 1
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Mass shootings, COVID-19, political partisanship, and natural disasters have made government
leadership more challenging and more complex. Unfortunately, the government’s current leadership
development approaches have been under resourced, ineffective, not comprehensive, and not
fully infused with the concept of the public stewardship and public trust. This paper explores an
understanding of leadership and its application to government through an exploration of leadership
models from emerging research and the literature. The value of this approach is to take a plethora of
dispersed complex models and combine them in a context suitable for a smart, needed, and relevant
discussion.
Government Leadership, Leadership Education, Leadership Effectiveness, Leadership Skills, Leadership Theory,
Project Leadership, Public Leadership, Public Service
Mass shootings, Covid-19, political partisanship, and natural disasters have made government
leadership more challenging and more complex. Unfortunately, the government’s current leadership
development approaches have been under resourced, ineffective, not comprehensive, and not fully
infused with the concept of the public stewardship and public trust. It is often missing of the kind of
tools and consistent feedback mechanisms required to develop effective leaders.
Over the years, leadership development in government has been primarily focused on senior
leaders in federal government and not focused on the development of effective leaders in every level
of government. In response to this void, the Partnership for Public Service (2022) developed the
Public Service Leadership Model — a guide for federal employees to reach their full potential. The
Public Service Leadership Model (2022) has the following domains and concepts:
Amalisha Sabie Aridi, Capitol Technology University, USA*
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Team or work group member / First-time project leader / Aspiring supervisor / Developing technical
expert / Typically GS-7 to GS-11
In this leadership role, ask yourself the following questions:
• What are my values?
• Am I paying attention to my emotions?
• How am I challenging myself and investing in my personal development?
• What kind of data do I collect, summarize, and analyze to support my work?
• How do I take ownership and responsibility for my work?
• What technology should I learn and master to succeed in my role?
• Am I providing excellent customer service, both externally and internally?
• Am I actively listening when talking to others?
• How can I support collaboration in my team?
• How do I identify counterproductive behavior?
• What biases do I have?
• How am I incorporating innovation into my day-to-day duties?
• Am I establishing credibility in my field by producing high-quality work?
• How do I react to unexpected organizational changes? What are my strategies for adapting?
Team or work group leader / Project leader / New supervisor / Technical expert /Cross-functional
liaison or direct support to principal / Typically GS-12 to GS-13
In this leadership role, ask yourself the following questions:
• Am I seeking feedback from my colleagues?
• How am I receiving and incorporating feedback?
• What are my strengths and weaknesses?
• How am I holding myself and my team accountable toward our goals? How are we being
accountable to our customers?
• Can I interpret data to make effective decisions?
• How does my team or project fit into the larger organization?
• How am I building and supporting a formidable team?
• What are my strategies to manage conflict?
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• How do I engage with stakeholders?
• What are my strategies for mitigating my biases?
• How am I encouraging innovation on my team?
• How does my work fit into the vision of the organization?
• How do I lead my team through organizational change?
• What kinds of calculated risks am I taking?
Office, division or large-team leader / Program portfolio leader / Mid-level supervisor / Technical
leader in the field / Cross-functional convener and leader / Typically GS-14 to GS-15
In this leadership role, ask yourself the following questions:
• Can I communicate my values to those I lead, both in word and action?
• How do I demonstrate humility among those I lead?
• Am I intentionally setting aside time and space for self-reflection?
• Am I celebrating results with those I lead?
• Am I able to connect results to long-term outcomes for the American people?
• How often am I using data to make decisions?
• Am I aware of the system—the stakeholders, the policies, the procedures—around me and how
it affects my ability to achieve results?
• Am I proactively building relationships beyond people who report to me?
• Do I empower first-line supervisors to manage conflict?
• How do my decisions enhance diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace?
• What is my vision for the work I lead in the coming years? How am I communicating that vision
to those I lead?
• How am I supporting others in their risk-taking? Do they know I have their backs?
• Am I aware of the rules, laws and regulations that relate to my work? How can I better navigate
them to achieve results?
Executive and enterprise leader / Cross-sector, interagency and intra-agency convener / Strategic and
organizational change driver / Public-facing leader / Typically SES and political appointees
In this leadership role, ask yourself the following questions:
• How is my leadership style impacting culture?
• Am I leading with integrity?
• Do I have anything to hide? How comfortable would I be with an IG probe or GAO audit?
• How can I balance the demands on my attention?
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• How are my values reflected in my leadership?
• How do I create a culture of accountability in my organization?
• Could I appear before Congress to defend my organization’s people and results?
• Am I using effective systems, processes, and technology to empower my organization to succeed?
• How am I driving toward long-term organizational outcomes?
• How do I build a culture of inclusivity?
• How aware am I of employee engagement in my office? What am I doing to improve it?
• How far do my relationships extend beyond my organization? How can I extend further?
• How can I foster a culture of innovation and risk-taking while navigating the rules and regulations
of my work?
• How am I modeling innovation and risk-taking in my own leadership? How do I communicate
that to those I lead?
Organizations that are sustainable and successful require leaders that can manage projects, people,
and decision- making. Effective government leadership involves the management of an increasingly
diverse range of people, whose cooperation is vital to the success of a project (Lloyd-Walker &
Walker, 2011). To be successful, government leaders must possess the ability to persuade, influence,
and inspire the diverse group of beneficiaries of projects to gain their cooperation, commitment,
and support (Yang, Huang, & Hsu, 2014). In addition, effective government leadership is essential
in the success of projects in the turbulent environments and situations, in which project managers
must operate in the 21st century. Prominent models of leadership include transactional leadership
style, transformational leadership style, and authentic leadership style (Lloyd-Walker & Walker,
2011). The development of government leadership models through the 21st century falls into three
categories (a) non-leadership, with negligence of duty; (b) transactional leadership, where there is a
mutual relationship between a leader and the followers; and (c) transformational leadership, where
a leader motivates the followers by coaxing (Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2011). Understanding the
application of these models is critical to understanding the role that leadership plays in organizational
sustainability and growth.
The purpose of this research is to understand the role that government leadership and leadership
development through the application of significant leadership theories.
The method used is a literature review content analysis of over 130 articles on the most significant
and relevant leadership theories and concepts on leadership success.
Research studies analyzed and models were selected based key words searches for leadership,
leadership models, government leadership, public management, public service leadership, and
government project leadership. Those articles and leadership models under the search terms that had
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the high citations numbers in Google Scholar and Scopus indexes guided the selection of models
and studies in government project leadership, organizational leadership, and leadership. Once the
most cited leadership models and concepts were identified, additional search for articles on these
leadership models included the databases and their hosts (shown in parentheses) included ABI Inform
Complete (ProQuest), Academic Search Premier (EBSCO), Business Source Premier (EBSCO),
Education Research Complete (EBSCO), ERIC (EBSCO), Scopus, and Google Scholar. Usage of
these databases allowed a degree of assurance about the authority of the data retrieved and that the
research went through rigid, meticulous, and controlled evaluation systems, which are the brands of
scholarly research and writing.
Transactional leadership was the first model practiced in the earlier part of the century and is appropriate
for highly process-oriented projects where project managers follow the standard methodologies to
manage projects (Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2011). Additionally, the leadership style develops well-
defined roles and expectations to achieve desired outcomes. The weakness of transactional leadership
is that leaders adopt markedly uncritical view of their leadership (Kissi, Dainty, & Tuuli, 2013).
Research survey to examine the impact of transformational leadership behavior of portfolio
managers on project performance directly and indirectly through other intervening variables such
as climate for innovation and innovation championing (Kissi, Dainty, & Tuuli, 2013).The authors
surveyed 112 project managers in a UK project-based organization to collect the data. The findings
indicated that transformational leadership behavior of portfolio managers has a positive and meaningful
relationship with project performance. In addition, the findings indicated that innovation championing
and climate for innovation partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership
and project performance (Kissi, Dainty, & Tuuli, 2013). The findings implied that portfolio managers
should be conscious of the impact of their workplace behavior on the performance of project managers
and project team members and adopt transformational leadership style in leading their teams (Kissi,
Dainty, & Tuuli, 2013). In addition, the findings implied that given the direct and indirect impact of
transformational leadership on performance, organizations should make efforts to invest in developing
transformational leadership competencies among portfolio managers (Kissi, Dainty, & Tuuli, 2013).
Research conducted by Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch, and Volberda, (2012) examined the
role of leadership behavior as a key antecedent to management innovation. In their research, they
focused on the leadership behavior of transformational and transactional leadership (Vaccaro, Jansen,
Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012). Additionally, the researchers examined the moderating role of
organizational size as it influences the impact of leadership with project managers in a broad range
of industries in the Netherlands (Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012).
The findings indicated that transformational and transactional leadership behaviors contributed
to management innovation (Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012). In addition, the
findings indicated that smaller, less complex, organizations benefit more from transactional leadership
in realizing management innovation (Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012). In contrast,
the findings indicated that larger organizations had to draw on transformational leaders to compensate
for their complexity and allow management innovation to flourish (Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch,
& Volberda, 2012).
Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch, and Volberda (2012) contributed to existing literature on
leadership and innovation by offering new insights regarding the relative influence of transformational
and transactional leadership behaviors on management innovation. Additionally, the study showed
that the effectiveness of these leadership behaviors is dependent upon organizational size (Vaccaro,
Jansen, Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012). Furthermore, the study reflected the role of human
agency in the pursuit of management innovation as they relate to the actions of key individuals within
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the organization that may initiate and drive changes in practices, processes, or structures (Vaccaro,
Jansen, Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012).
In the 1990s, project leaders widely adopted the use of transformational leadership, as the model
appears to work well with the new industrial change from manual work to skilled knowledge work
(Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2011). Transformational leadership model appeals to an elevated level
of motivational reasoning, allowing skilled knowledge workers’ contribution in finding solutions
to potential problems encountered by managers. Furthermore, the leadership style has the attribute
of (a) individual consideration, stimulating motivation through performance and rewards that meet
individual’s value proposition; (b) intellectual stimulation, questioning the status quo and seeking
innovation and continuous improvement; (c) inspirational motivation, articulating desired future
and means of achieving it; and (d) idealized influence, gaining trust, respect and confidence to be
a role model (Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2011). Moreover, the leadership model delivers successful
projects and results in sharing and retention of knowledge, ethical behavior that supports immediate
and future successes, and accordingly contributes to organizational sustainability (Lloyd-Walker &
Walker, 2011; Tyssen, Wald, & Spieth, 2014).
Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, & Dickens (2011) extended the idealized influence of the transformational
leadership model into the concept of authentic leadership. The authors used qualitative research
approach to explore the state of the knowledge on authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2011). The
authors reviewed and analyzed 91 publications on authentic leadership to collect the data. The authors
concluded that authentic leadership model allows managers to lead effectively in a way that enables
them to express their own unique identity and style (Gardner et al., 2011). Furthermore, in addition to
leading, authentic leaders must honor their core values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses to achieve
successful organizational performance (Gardner et al., 2011).
Gardner et al., (2011) stated that authentic leaders demonstrated a passion for their purpose,
practiced their values consistently, and lead with their hearts as well as their heads. In addition,
authentic leaders establish long-term, meaningful relationships and have the self-discipline to get
results. The elements of authentic leadership behaviors and adopted values include hope, trust, and
positive emotions (Gardner et al., 2011). Followers identify with leaders through their demonstrated
hope, trust, and positive emotions and these values influence followers’ optimism, which could lead
to commitment, job satisfaction, meaningfulness, and engagement.
Authentic leadership attributes impact organizations in variety of ways such as (a) developing
individuals, teams, organizations, and the community in which they operate to ensure their success
and prosperity; and (b) help followers recognize their leadership potential and provide a role model
for the development of authentic leadership skills (Gardner et al., 2011). Unlike transformational
leadership, charisma is not an attribute of authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2011). However,
authentic leaders can (a) establish and maintain relationships, (b) lead with purpose based on desirable
leaders’ values, (c) build strong relationships within team members, and (d) demonstrate personal
integrity (Gardner et al., 2011).
The attributes of authentic leadership include (a) trust, (b) integrity, (c) value driven, (d) authentic,
(e) awareness, (f) resilient, (g) relationship centered, (h) fair and unbiased, (i) realistic and confident,
(j) positive and optimistic, and (k) consistent. The level of maturity of authentic leadership falls into
four categories (a) foundational, (b) emerging, (c) developing, and (d) mature.
Government leadership processes vary significantly across geographic regions. Government project
leadership faces the same challenge of how to adapt their leadership style to fit local circumstances to
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achieve corporate objectives. Project leadership is a cultural construct, with the meaning embedded
in the diverse cultures of the location of a project (Sanchez-Runde, Nardon, & Steers, 2014). Hence,
many existing and older government leadership models often do not work because of the diverse
cultures, experiences, and attitudes toward what effective leadership is and what it looks like in
terms of behaviors and actions. For example, in most Anglo-Saxon countries such as U.K., U.S., and
Australia, leadership has positive undertones because the people respect, admire, and value leaders
(Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014). However, in other countries such as Mexico, Egypt, and Romania,
where there is widespread distrust and fear of power, and dislike of privilege, people resent leaders
(Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014). In addition, in individualistic societies such as U.S., Canada, and U.K.,
leadership typically refers to a single person who guides and directs the actions of others in a visible
way (Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014). Similarly, in collectivistic societies such as Korea, Japan, and
China, leadership is associated more with group activities (Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014). Likewise,
in hierarchical societies such as Saudi Arabia, Mexico, and Indonesia, people see leaders as being
separate and apart from their followers, while in more egalitarian societies such as Sweden and
Denmark, people see leaders as more approachable and less intimidating (Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014).
Sanchez-Runde, Nardon, and Steers (2014) research explored the interrelationships between
culture and management practices, and managerial and multicultural skills found to be effective
among global managers. The findings implied that managers must optimize available resources to
outperform their counterparts to achieve business success in the global arena (Sanchez-Runde et
al., 2014). Additionally, managers must understand the environment in which they work to beat the
odds of success (Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014). Furthermore, managers must understand the cultural
differences as well as how the differences influence interpersonal and group relationships (Sanchez-
Runde et al., 2014). The findings identified two lessons for managers, which include (a) managers
facing global assignments have think about how they conceptualize leadership and managing people,
and (b) managers on global assignments must understand the uniqueness of the local environment,
and work hard to accommodate cultural differences where they exist (Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014).
The study contributed to existing literature on global and government leadership by providing insight
into the challenges of collaborating with people from distinct cultural backgrounds, and the potential
reward if managers can engage employees, make sound decisions, and effectively manage both strategy
and projects (Sanchez-Runde et al., 2014).
The concept of project success in the 21st century is about leading organizations to a sustainable
future (Maltz et al. as cited in Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2014). Hence, project efficiency is insufficient
in terms of project success without long-term business sustainability. Project success includes the
traditional measure of completing a project on time, within budget, and acceptable quality; impact on
customers and other shareholders; and provision of knowledge and long-term sustainability for the
organization (Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2014). Furthermore, in addition to projects delivering benefits
to customers, an organization should benefit directly from the success of the project or indirectly
through learning or building competencies (Yang, Huang, & Wu, 2011).
Research by Yang, Huang, and Wu (2011) point to the importance of having the right leadership
style to create a sustainable team and project business culture for success. Yang, Huang, & Wu’s
(2011) research specifies that increases in the levels of leadership might enhance relationships among
team members. Additionally, their findings indicated that leadership style plays a significant role in
creating a culture of teamwork and collaboration, which is critical project performance and project
success (Yang, Huang, & Wu, 2011). Furthermore, the findings indicated that project managers
who adopt transactional and transformational leadership might improve team communication, team
collaboration, and team cohesiveness (Yang, Huang, & Wu, 2011).
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Nauman, Khan, and Ehsan (2010) research examined the relationship of empowerment, leadership
style, and customer service as a measure of effective project management in projects, with varying
degree of vitality. In addition, Nauman, Khan, and Ehsan (2010) made comparisons of empowerment
climate in less and more virtual projects. Furthermore, Nauman, Khan, and Ehsan (2010) examined
the moderating effects of degree of vitality on the relationship between empowerment and leadership
style. Nauman, Khan, and Ehsan (2010) administered survey questionnaires to 117 project management
professionals working in IT companies in Pakistan, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, and USA to
collect the data that they used to three hypotheses.
As a result, leadership research by Nauman, Khan, and Ehsan (2010) indicated that empowerment
climate had a significant effect on (a) concern for task, (b) concern for people, and (c) customer
service; and is higher in more virtual than less virtual projects, hence, leading to effective virtual
project management. Additionally, the authors found that virtually moderated the relationship between
empowerment and concern for people (Nauman, Khan, & Ehsan, 2010). The finding indicated that
for project managers to enhance virtual project leadership effectiveness, and customer service, they
must provide the team an empowered climate. In addition, project managers must train the teams on
using all communication and coordination technology to get the maximum benefit of empowerment
climate (Nauman, Khan, & Ehsan, 2010).
For an organization to remain relevant and competitive in the increasingly complex project
environment, project leadership must develop different approach, attributes, knowledge, and skills
of project management (Nauman, Khan, & Ehsan, 2010). In addition, project leaders must develop
team virtues such as (a) ethics, (b) trust and respect for others, (c) honesty, and (d) using power
responsibly (Nauman, Khan, & Ehsan, 2010). Furthermore, project leadership must extend beyond
efficiency and customer impact, to impact and sustain long-term goal for an organization (Nauman,
Khan, & Ehsan, 2010).
Luntz’s nine principles of winning bear on the attributes of a successful leadership. To be successful,
a project leader must (a) understand the fears and inspirations of the project team members, (b)
encourage collaboration among the project team members to gain their commitment towards the
goals of a project, (c) communicate effectively with the project team members, (d) be a visionary and
trailblazer, and (e) have passion for life (Luntz, 2011). Project leaders must anticipate and tolerate
the chaos and order of projects to achieve a successful outcome. Successful project leaders possess
the attributes of Luntz’s nine principles of winning, which include (a) people-centeredness, (b)
persuasion, (c) prioritization, (d) paradigm breaking, (e) passion, (f) perfection, (g) persistence, (i)
principled action (j) partnership to excel (Luntz, 2011).
Government project leaders and organizational leaders create and change cultures through effective
engagement to encourage teamwork, which is one of the key factors for project success (Laufer, 2012).
Additionally, teamwork enhances mutual interdependence and responsibility for project success.
According to Laufer (2012), key characteristics of a successful project leader include having (a) the
right mix of talent and attitude, (b) a high adaptability, (c) a flexible outlook, and (d) the ability to
willingly make swift decisions and take risks without fear of failing (Laufer, 2012)
When leaders employ the appropriate leadership practices in achieving successful project outcome,
they evaluate ambiguous and changing situations, adapt appropriate practices to unique situations, and
displace great deal of interpretation and judgment of situations based on their experience. In addition,
leaders focus on and generate non-routine interventions. Furthermore, Laufer (2012) developed
nine leadership practices, which include (a) adjusting project practices to specific context, (e) shape
the right culture, (c) challenge the status quo, (b) embrace the living order concept, (d) recruit the
right people, (f) plan, monitor, and anticipate, (g) use face-to-face communication as the primary
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communication mode, if possible, (h) be action-oriented and focus on results, and (i) lead, so you can
manage. The nine leadership practices represent an overall model for project leadership to focus on
turning projects into competitive advantage for organizations and establish long-term sustainability.
Portfolio management allows managers to group government projects that share common characteristics
together and ensure the goals of the projects align with organizational strategy to achieve successful
performance and competitive advantage for the organization (Unger, Gemünden, & Aubry, 2012).
When a portfolio aligns with an organization’s mission and strategic initiatives, Kornfeld and Kara
(2011) posited that the performance of the portfolio contributes to the growth of the organization and
optimizes the organization’s resources. Additionally, an aligned portfolio enables an organization to
make good investments and maximizes and realizes expected benefits. Furthermore, effective portfolio
management lowers the risk of an organization’s investments and enhances the competitive advantage
of the organization (Unger et al., 2012).
In conclusion, organizational leadership plays a significant role in sustainability, growth, and success
of government operations. As part of this role, leaders must effectively make decisions and manage
projects in ways that make the organization a high performance one. An effective project leader must
look beyond the traditional leadership models and adopt more cosmopolitan leadership models to
take a business from ordinary to extraordinary. Working with project team members from distinct
cultural backgrounds to achieve collaboration and commitment is challenging and have significant
impact on the ability of a project leader to motivate, influence, and facilitate collaboration among
the team members (Tyssen et al., 2014). Combining Luntz’ nine principles of wining and Laufer’s
leadership practices can create the right leadership behavior, which is a key factor in achieving a
successful organizational performance and long-term sustainability (Laufer, 2012; Luntz, 2011;
Vaccaro, Jansen, Van Den Bosch, & Volberda, 2012). The nature of government is changing. Social
networks and media are creating a new level of transparency. Generational shifts, technological
advancement, revenue challenges, and ever-present political change underscore the kinds of constant
shifts occurring within the federal space. The capabilities that are needed by government leaders
have never been more important. Through effective leadership coaching and leadership engagement,
the behaviors, skills, mindsets, and attitudes can be learned; the character qualities of leaders can be
shaped within an organization’s culture. The excellent capabilities and the proven character needed
in public service leaders can be “developed” within the organization itself. These conclusions are
emerging from evolving and emerging research by the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) (Van
Velsor et al, 2016). In studies of leaders in the private sector, the nonprofit world, and the public
sector, the findings are highly consistent (Van Velsor et al, 2016).
Successful organizations grow and develop leaders through sets of experiences. CCL’s findings
place leader learning into four broad categories that include some element of coaching (Van Velsor
et al, 2016):
• Challenging job assignments—42%
• Learning from others’ examples—22%
• Hardships and setbacks—20%
• Other events—16% (including training and education)
Challenging job assignments are those that stretch the individual. CCL has identified the types
of job experiences that produce leadership learning (Van Velsor et al, 2016):
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• a change in the scope of a job.
• a job that requires a “fix it” opportunity.
• a job that needs to be started from nothing.
• line to staff or staff to line switches (including headquarters to field).
• projects and task forces that require new skills or learning but where the individual remains on
the job.
All these job-based experiences challenge, stretch, and grow the individual—and produce leader
learning especially when there is a feedback loop for reflection and coaching. For the leader who
wishes to grow and coaching leaders, such an understanding is critical (Van Velsor et al, 2016). This
is, however, a notion that runs counter to the way that government managers typically develop within
their functional, organizational, and geographic “stovepipes,” and through training programs attended
by individuals—”largely serendipitously.”
We are accustomed now to the notion of a leader being a lifelong learner and someone who
helps build a learning organization. “Coaching” and “development are generic terms, which speak
to the critical importance of the transmission of personal learning and wisdom from an effective and
successful leader to others. Exemplary leaders see it as their responsibility and their legacy to grow
the next generation. At the end of the day, which is the only way that successful change is sustained.
In that respect, leaders not only learn to be leaders, but they also learn to be effective coaches and
developers of other leaders. There are several areas of coaching that are critical growing and coaching
the next generation of public service leaders (Van Velsor et al, 2016):
• Growing leaders through personal example—as an exemplar
• Growing leaders through significant relationships—as a mentor
• Growing leaders through varied experiences— as a coach
• Growing leaders through development programs—as a teacher.
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Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M., & Dickens, M. P. (2011). Authentic leadership: A review of the
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of Operations & Production Management, 31(10), 1071–1088. doi:10.1108/01443571111172435
Laufer, A. (2012). Mastering the leadership role in project management: Practices that deliver remarkable
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