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The role of emotionally persuasive messages in the skin cancer prevention campaign
Abstract
Despite a multitude of social campaigns and widely publicized scientific evidence of how excessive, unprotected sun exposure damages the skin and is a key cause of the skin cancer, people continue to crowd the beaches, oftentimes without any sunscreen protection. Also numbers of those who use sunscreen on a daily basis remain low. In this study, we analyze how the attitudes toward tanning and behavior of sunscreen use change under the influence of persuasive messages. We compare the effectiveness of an emotionally neutral persuasive message to an emotionally negative persuasive message. We show that persuasive messages combining fear with other negative emotions are successful, however, those generating negative emotions are not significantly more effective than emotionally neutral messages. Furthermore, our results show that while persuasive messages can change the attitudes toward tanning, they do not directly lead to a behavioral change in terms of sunscreen use intentions. However, as we show, the tanning attitude mediates the relationship between persuasive message and the attitude toward sunscreen use and intentions to use it. The resulting change in the tanning attitude contributes to a change in the attitude toward use of sunscreen.
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This experiment compared the effectiveness of health-based versus appearance-based messages on university students' intentions to protect their skin against the sun's damaging rays. One hundred thirty-four Ss completed a measure of appearance motivation, then responded to 1 of 3 essays about tanning and skin cancer. One essay described the health risks of excessive sun exposure, one essay discussed the deleterious effects of tanning on physical appearance, and a control essay described the process by which tanning occurs. Overall, the essay that dealt with the negative effects of the sun on appearance was most effective in promoting intentions to practice safe-sun behaviors. However, the appearance-based essay was effective primarily among Ss who were low rather than high in appearance motivation.
We examined knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to skin cancer, sun exposure, sunscreen use, and use of tanning booths in 903 female and 800 male adolescents. The effectiveness of a brief, school-based intervention designed to increase teens’ knowledge and preventive attitudes about skin cancer was also evaluated. Females, older students, and those with high-risk skin types were most likely to use sunscreen and to take precautions. However, overall level of protection was low. Intentions to take precautions were associated with levels of perceived susceptibility to skin cancer, attitudes about the benefits of sun exposure, skin type, and sex. Beyond intentions, sunscreen use was associated with perceived susceptibility and skin type. The one-session, school-based intervention significantly increased knowledge and perceived susceptibility to skin cancer but not behavioral intentions.
Key words: skin cancer, sunscreen, intervention, attitudes
Positive organizational change is a paradox. On one hand, natural human inclinations toward the positive and heliotropic tendencies foster a proclivity toward positive change in human systems. On the other hand, human beings react more strongly to negative than to positive stimuli, so the presence of negative events overshadows positive events. Paradoxically, both tendencies—toward the positive and in response to the negative— are important enablers of positive change, but because the negative usually dominates, positive factors have to be given extra emphasis for positive change to occur. The concept of “positive” has created a great deal of controversy and confusion in organizational studies, spawning critics as well as promoters. The major connotations of this concept in organizational scholarship are clarified, and a way to reconcile the paradox of positive change is proposed. New investigations of positive organizational change are introduced that address various aspects of the positive change paradox.
The widespread use of fear appeals in health communication campaigns seems to reflect the existence of a folk theory that predicts message acceptance as a function of induced fright. Whereas there is empirical evidence consistent with that position, recent research also shows that other affects may influence message acceptance as well. Two studies were conducted to determine the extent to which a sample of public service announcements (PSAs) on the topic of AIDS / HIV evoked affective responses, the degree to which those affects predicted message acceptance, and the mechanism by which feelings, including fear; operate on message acceptance. Results showed that a variety of affects were induced by the PSAs, most of which did predict message acceptance. However, considerable variation was observed in both sign and magnitude of the associations. As for mechanism, the data suggested that the effects of affect on message acceptance were mediated by heuristic rather than systematic message processing.
Introduction: Dermatological problems often present
mood disorders, depression, anxiety disorders and
psychological conditions relevant to psychosomatic
conditions. Seborrheic dermatitis and psoriasis, both
characterized by chronic inflammation of skin, have
been linked to emotional states. The aim of our study
was to compare the two emotional profiles of patients
with seborrheic dermatitis and psoriasis, in order to
evaluate, quantitatively and qualitatively, the emotional
picture in the two groups of disease. Methods:
The study group included 33 patients affected by seborrheic
dermatitis (21 males and 12 females, age
range 18 - 67 years, mean age 39.85 ± 15.45 years)
and 36 other patients affected by psoriasis (22 males
and 14 females, age range 18 - 67 years, mean age
41.11 ± 13.72 years). The protocol included clinical
assessment of the skin disorder and psychological
assessment of emotional profile using the test Profile
of Mood States (POMS) and the Toronto Alexithymia
Scale TAS-20. An exploratory factorial analysis was
carried out for the POMS factor D (depression) to
evaluate the composition of the items found in the two
types of skin disorders. Results: The comparison between
patients with psoriasis and patients with seborrheic
dermatitis in relation to the TAS score and
the different aspects of mood and showed a significant
difference concerning factor D (depression) of
the POMS. Conclusions: This study shows the correlation
between depression and two skin disorders,
seborrhoeic dermatitis and psoriasis. In both cases,
the clinical picture falls under the definition of “depression
due to a general medical condition”. However,
qualitative differences make the psychologic
frame of psoriatic patients close to that of “major
depression”, while in patients affected by seborrheic
dermatitis the psychologic frame is more similar to
that of “minor depression” (DSM IV).
Examined individual differences in intrinsic motivation to engage in effortful cognitive endeavors in 2 experiments involving 293 undergraduates. Results of Exp I indicate that Ss high in need for cognition were more likely to think about and elaborate cognitively on issue-relevant information when forming attitudes than were Ss low in need for cognition. Analyses further indicated that Ss low in need for cognition acted as cognitive misers rather than as verbal dolts. In Exp II, individual differences in need for cognition were used to test the prediction from the elaboration likelihood model that Ss who tend to engage in extensive issue-relevant thinking when formulating their position on an issue tend to exhibit stronger attitude–behavior correspondence. Results confirm this hypothesis: The attitudes of Ss high in need for cognition, which were obtained in a survey completed approximately 8 wks before the 1984 presidential election, were more predictive of behavioral intentions and reported voting behavior than were the attitudes of Ss low in need for cognition. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Mathematical properties of eigenfunctions of selected incidence matrices appearing in spatial statistics formulae are summarized. Seven theorems are proposed and proved, and three conjectures are posited. Results summarized here allow the determinant of massively large n×n geographic weights matrices to be accurately approximated. In addition, the behavior of eigenfunctions for graphs affiliated with a linear configuration of connected nodes are better understood.
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 51(2) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2007-16897-001). On page 134, line 8, right column, under the heading Checklist for Evaluating Mediation Analyses Using Multiple Regression, the question incorrectly asks, "Was the relation between the predictor and the outcome (Path b) greater than or equal to the relation between the predictor and the mediator (Path a)?" The correct question is "Was the relation between the mediator and the outcome (Path b) greater than or equal to the relation between the predictor and the mediator (Path a)?"]
The goals of this article are to (a) describe differences between moderator and mediator effects; (b) provide nontechnical descriptions of how to examine each type of effect, including study design, analysis, and interpretation of results; (c) demonstrate how to analyze each type of effect; and (d) provide suggestions for further reading. The authors focus on the use of multiple regression because it is an accessible data-analytic technique contained in major statistical packages. When appropriate, they also note limitations of using regression to detect moderator and mediator effects and describe alternative procedures, particularly structural equation modeling. Finally, to illustrate areas of confusion in counseling psychology research, they review research testing moderation and mediation that was published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology during 2001. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
To examine the impact of a skin cancer prevention intervention that promoted sunless tanning as a substitute for sunbathing.
Randomized controlled trial.
Public beaches in Massachusetts.
Women (N = 250) were recruited to participate in the study during their visit to a public beach. Intervention The intervention included motivational messages to use sunless tanning as an alternative to UV tanning, instructions for proper use of sunless tanning products, attractive images of women with sunless tans, a free trial of a sunless tanning product, skin cancer education, and UV imaging. The control participants completed surveys.
The primary outcome was sunbathing 2 months and 1 year after the intervention. Secondary outcomes included sunburns, sun protection use, and sunless tanning.
At 2 months, intervention participants reduced their sunbathing significantly more than did controls and reported significantly fewer sunburns and greater use of protective clothing. At 1 year, intervention participants reported significant decreases in sunbathing and increases in sunless tanning relative to control participants but no differences in the other outcomes.
This intervention, which promoted sunless tanning as an alternative to UV tanning, had a short-term effect on sunbathing, sunburns, and use of protective clothing and a longer-term effect on sunbathing and sunless tanning.
clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00403377.
The risk for skin cancer is increased among older males and outdoor workers who have high levels of ultraviolet (UV) exposure.
This study was designed to examine the long-term efficacy of UV photography interventions on male outdoor workers, the potential mediators of its impact, and the efficacy of UV photography and skin cancer vs. aging information with this population.
One hundred forty-eight male outdoor workers were randomly assigned to one of four intervention conditions or a control condition in a two by two plus one factorial design. The men in the intervention conditions received or did not receive a UV photo of their face and watched either a photoaging or skin cancer educational video. Participants completed pre-intervention, immediate post-intervention, and 2-month and 1-year follow-up assessments.
Analysis of covariance and structural equation modeling revealed that participants in the UV photography and cancer information interventions reported higher levels of sun protection cognitions, which were significant partial mediators of increases in sun protection behaviors and decreases in skin color.
This study provides evidence for effective sun protection interventions on male outdoor workers that may help reduce skin cancer risk.
Using the terror management health model (J. L. Goldenberg & J. Arndt, 2008), the authors examined tanning outcomes as a function of priming tanning-relevant standards for attractiveness after reminders of death.
Study 1 consisted of 101 female college students recruited from a midwestern university; Study 2 consisted of 53 female participants recruited from a beach in south Florida. In both experiments, participants answered questions about their mortality or a control topic, and were presented with a fashion article that highlighted either the attractiveness of tanned (just in Study 1), pale, or natural-looking skin.
Self-reported suntan intentions (Study 1) and sunscreen intentions (Study 2). Study 2 also assessed participants' interest in various sun protection products.
Study 1 demonstrated that mortality salience led to higher tanning intentions when the association between tanned skin and physical attractiveness was made salient and reduced intentions when the attractiveness of paler skin was highlighted. In Study 2, beachgoers, after reminders of death, reported greater preference for high sun protection sunscreen after reading an article about the attractiveness of paler skin tones. These findings contribute to an emerging understanding of how mortality concerns can influence health-related judgment and behavior.
Little research has been conducted to determine the psychosocial and behavioral impacts of smoke-free policies in middle-income countries.
Cross-sectional data were analyzed from the 2006 waves of the International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation. Survey comparing adult smokers in Mexico (n = 1,080), where smoke-free legislation at that time was weak, and Uruguay (n = 1,002), where comprehensive smoke-free legislation was implemented. Analyses aimed to determine whether exposure to smoke-free policies and perceived antismoking social norms were associated with smokers' receiving cues about the bothersome nature of secondhand smoke (SHS), with smokers' reactance against such cues, and with smokers' level of support for smoke-free policies in different venues.
In bivariate analyses, Uruguayan smokers were more likely than Mexican smokers to experience verbal anti-SHS cues, lower reactance against anti-SHS cues, stronger antismoking societal norms, and stronger support for 100% smoke-free policies in enclosed workplaces, restaurants, and bars. In multivariate models for both countries, the strength of voluntary smoke-free policies at home was independently associated with support for smoke-free policies across all venues queried, except for in bars among Uruguayans. Perceived strength of familial antismoking norms was consistently associated with all indicators of the social acceptability of smoking in Uruguay but only with the frequency of receiving anti-SHS verbal cues in Mexico.
These results are generally consistent with previous research indicating that comprehensive smoke-free policies are likely to increase the social unacceptability of smoking and that resistance against such policies is likely to diminish once such policies are in place.
This article introduces a terror management health model (TMHM). The model integrates disparate health and social psychology literatures to elucidate how the conscious and nonconscious awareness of death can influence the motivational orientation that is most operative in the context of health decisions. Three formal propositions are presented. Proposition 1 suggests that conscious thoughts about death can instigate health-oriented responses aimed at removing death-related thoughts from current focal attention. Proposition 2 suggests that the unconscious resonance of death-related cognition promotes self-oriented defenses directed toward maintaining, not one's health, but a sense of meaning and self-esteem. The last proposition suggests that confrontations with the physical body may undermine symbolic defenses and thus present a previously unrecognized barrier to health promotion activities. In the context of each proposition, moderators are proposed, research is reviewed, and implications for health promotion are discussed.
Skin cancer represents a significant health threat with over 1.3 million diagnoses, 8000 melanoma deaths, and more than $1 billion spent annually for skin cancer healthcare in the US. Despite findings from laboratory, case-control, and prospective studies that indicate a link between youthful indoor tanning (IT) and skin cancer, IT is increasing among US youth. Appearance-focused interventions represent a promising method to counteract these trends.
A total of 430 female indoor tanners were randomized into intervention or no intervention control conditions. Intervention participants received an appearance-focused booklet based on decision-theoretical models of health behavior. Outcome variables included self-reports of IT behavior and intentions, as well as measures of cognitive mediating variables.
Normative increases in springtime IT rates were significantly lower (ie, over 35%) at 6-month follow-up in intervention versus control participants with similar reductions in future intentions. Mediation analyses revealed 6 cognitive variables (IT attitudes, fashion attitudes, perceived susceptibility to skin cancer and skin damage, subjective norms, and image norms) that significantly mediated change in IT behavior.
The appearance-focused intervention demonstrated strong effects on IT behavior and intentions in young indoor tanners. Appearance-focused approaches to skin cancer prevention need to present alternative behaviors as well as alter IT attitudes. Mediational results provide guides for strengthening future appearance-focused interventions directed at behaviors that increase risk of skin cancer.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
Outdoor workers are at high risk of developing skin cancer. Primary prevention in this group can potentially reduce the incidence of skin cancer, and also potentiates the spontaneous remission of existing solar keratoses. A randomized controlled trial was conducted to evaluate a solar protection intervention targeting outdoor workers.
Outdoor workers were randomly allocated to an intervention (n = 65) or control group (n = 77). The intervention group received individual skin screening by a dermatologist and participated in an education session. Pre- and posttest outcome measures included solar protection behavior (assessed using a validated diary), knowledge, and attitudes.
There was a significant increase (16%) in the percentage of outdoor workers who were using a high level of solar protection at posttest compared to pretest in the intervention group, but there was no change in the control group. Although both groups improved in their knowledge score, the intervention group showed a significantly greater improvement at posttest. No changes in attitudes were detected.
The findings suggest that changes in solar protection are achievable with outdoor workers.
Ajzen's (1988) theory of planned behavior (TOPB) was used to examine psychological determinants of high-risk UV radiation exposure-related behaviors (sunbathing, tanning salon use, and sunscreen use). Undergraduates at a midsized southeastern university were assessed on their psychological and behavioral tendencies toward high-risk UV radiation exposure-related behaviors. The results generally supported the utility of the TOPB as an explanatory model for high-risk behavior. Attitudes were strongly associated with high-risk intentions (e.g., not utilize sunscreen, use salons), whereas subjective norms were less so. Perceived behavioral control was found to moderate the relationship among attitudes, norms, and intentions to sunbathe and tan at a salon. Implications for intervention strategies and future model building in this area are discussed.
Our goal was to examine the factors that influence individuals’ intentions to quit body tanning and its relationship with engaging in body-tanning behaviors. Via an online survey, 385 students answered items about their tanning motivations with respect to perceptions of attractiveness of tanning and physical fitness, influence of media, family, and friends, and skin-aging concerns. Structural equation modeling revealed that individuals’ motivation toward perceived attractiveness of a tan negatively influenced their intention to quit tanning, and skin-aging concerns positively influenced their intention to quit tanning. However, the influence of media, family, and friends, and perceived physical fitness were not identified as significant factors in their intention to quit tanning. The attractiveness of a tanned appearance increased the likelihood of body-tanning behaviors, whereas skin-aging concerns decreased the likelihood of body-tanning behaviors. The findings provide important implications for skin cancer prevention strategies. Emphasizing negative appearance-related consequences of tanning would certainly be a body-tanning deterrent, especially for young image-conscious individuals.
The authors develop and test a theory of how public service advertisements function to induce helping responses. Building on Lazarus's general theory of emotion and adaptation, they hypothesize that public service ads designed to reduce the incidence of child abuse stimulate negative emotions; these, in turn, lead to empathic reactions and end with the decision to help. Two field experiments are conducted to test the theory.
This study investigated men’s experiences of an appearance-focussed, facial-ageing, intervention designed to increase sun protection intentions, compared to a health literature intervention. Seventy men took part, with thirty-five in each condition. The men completed questionnaires at baseline, post-intervention and six months post-intervention. There was a significant improvement in sun benefit attitudes, sun risk attitudes and sun protection intentions in both groups, although there was no significant difference between the conditions. At six month follow-up, however, there was a significant difference in sun protection use, with those in the facial-ageing intervention condition using significantly more protection. It is suggested that in the future, interventions that incorporate both health and appearance factors are designed, in order to utilise the strengths of both interventions.
Mass media is an influential source of skin cancer and tanning information for the public, but we know little about its content or emphasis. The objective of this research was to describe the volume and nature of skin cancer and tanning messages in 20 popular U.S. men's and women's magazines (2000-2012). We used a directed content analysis to determine frequency information about risk factors and ultraviolet (UV) behaviors in 608 articles and 930 images. Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests determined coverage differences based on content type (text vs. image) and target audience (women vs. men). UV exposure was the most common risk factor mentioned (37.7 %) and sunscreen use the most common behavior encouraged (60.0 %); information about other risk factors and protective behaviors was uncommon. Both articles (25.2 %) and images (36.9 %) promoted the tanned look as attractive. In most cases, images infrequently contained helpful information on skin cancer risk factors and prevention, except for high-SPF sunscreens. Women's magazines published more articles on skin cancer and tanning than men's magazines (456 vs. 159, χ(2) = 143.43, P < .01), and the nature of the messages differed between them. Magazine skin cancer and tanning content may contribute to inaccurate public understanding of risks and prevention. These findings are relevant to cancer educators, who may wish to counter potentially harmful messages and enhance positive ones through cancer education efforts.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the perceived negative health effect of tanning (PNHET) and body-tanning attitudes and behaviors. A total of 333 college students with an average age of 19.8 years participated in the study. A majority of the participants were female (80.2%) and Caucasian (76.9%). Three body-tanning attitudes emerged from the data: pleasurable activity, physical attractiveness, and healthy behavior. The PNHET was negatively related to all three body-tanning attitudes and methods of tanning behaviors used (i.e., sunbathing, tanning beds, and sunless tanning product use). However, specific body-tanning attitudes independently influence the methods of body-tanning behaviors. Pleasurable activity was a significant attitude influencing indoor and outdoor tanning. College students seek tanning beds and tanning products, particularly when physical attractiveness is concerned. Healthy behavioral attitudes exist for outdoor tanning. Intervention strategies regarding body-tanning behaviors should focus on attitudinal changes, which specifically involve ultraviolet (UV) ray exposure. Educating the public about the negative health effects of tanning is still a very important intervention strategy to help individuals avoid excessive amount of harmful UV exposure and resultant skin cancer. Body-tanning behaviors, as a part of consumer culture, should change to minimize these unhealthy behaviors.
G*Power (Erdfelder, Faul, & Buchner, 1996) was designed as a general stand-alone power analysis program for statistical tests commonly used in social and behavioral research. G*Power 3 is a major extension of, and improvement over, the previous versions. It runs on widely used computer platforms (i.e., Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Mac OS X 10.4) and covers many different statistical tests of the t, F, and chi2 test families. In addition, it includes power analyses for z tests and some exact tests. G*Power 3 provides improved effect size calculators and graphic options, supports both distribution-based and design-based input modes, and offers all types of power analyses in which users might be interested. Like its predecessors, G*Power 3 is free.
Two experiments evaluated the effects of exposure to pictures of suntanned and untanned fashion models on attitudes regarding the importance of having a tan. In Experiment 1, 128 women were randomly assigned to view images of photographer's models that had been digitally altered to make it appear that the model either did or did not have a tan. Participants who viewed images of the models without a tan expressed significantly less positive attitudes toward tanning than did those who viewed the same models with a tan. In Experiment 2, 169 women were randomly assigned to view advertisements taken from fashion and beauty magazines that contained models who appeared to have suntanned skin, models who appeared not to have a tan, or no models at all. The results demonstrated that participants who viewed ads depicting models with untanned skin expressed less favorable attitudes toward tanning than did those who viewed control ads or those who viewed tan models. Given escalating skincancer rates, it is important to examine the role that media exposure may play in promoting risky behaviors.
Le nombre de nouveaux cas de cancers cutanés est en constante augmentation en France depuis ces vingt dernières années. Le rôle de l’exposition solaire explique en partie ce phénomène. Cela justifie la mise en place de campagnes de prévention et d’information pour modifier la conduite des individus vis-à-vis de l’exposition solaire. Pour qu’elles soient efficaces, il importe de savoir quels sont le niveau d’information et les attitudes actuels des individus vis-à-vis du soleil. Si plusieurs travaux ont été consacrés en France aux enfants, peu de données sont disponibles chez les adultes. Ce travail avait pour objectif de mieux cerner les connaissances, les attitudes et les comportements des adultes vis-à-vis du soleil.
Two studies examined the role of emotions, relative to cognitions, in predicting sun protection intentions and practices. In Study 1, 106 females were assessed for baseline sun protection, ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure-related cognitions (perceived susceptibility to skin damage, self-efficacy for regular sunscreen use, perceived costs of sun protection use, perceived rewards of tanning), anticipated negative mood following future risky UV behavior, and future sun protection intentions. Self-reported sun protection behavior was then assessed in the same participants five weeks later. The results of Study 1 demonstrated that the extent to which participants' expected to experience negative feelings if they engaged in future risky UV behavior predicted their intentions to sun protect and their subsequent sun protection behaviors independent of their UV radiation exposure-related cognitions. In Study 2, in addition to the assessments collected in Study 1, participants were exposed to an appearance-based intervention that included visual images of their existing skin damage and were then assessed for their emotional reactions to the intervention. The results replicated those of Study 1 and, in addition, showed that negative emotional reactions to the intervention predicted future sun protection intentions and self-reported behaviors at follow-up, independent of the various cognitive factors that are central to prominent models of health behavior. These studies provide preliminary support for the development of expanded health behavior models that incorporate anticipated and experienced emotions.
Objectives:
According to the terror management health model, conscious thoughts of death motivate productive health behaviours when the targeted behaviour is perceived as an effective route for mitigating the threat and removing death-related thought from focal awareness. The present study thus examined whether messages manipulating the efficacy of a health behaviour moderate health outcomes when participants are presented with a fear appeal that makes death thought conscious.
Design:
A 3 (fear appeal: cancer vs. appearance vs. neutral) × 2 (delay vs. no delay) × 2 (effective vs. non-effective) between-subjects ANOVA was conducted.
Methods:
Beach patrons were randomly assigned to a cancer, appearance, or neutral-threat fear appeal followed by a delay or no delay. Subsequently, they read messages highlighting the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of sun protection behaviours and reported their intentions to engage in those behaviours.
Results:
When fear appeals primed conscious thoughts of death, framing sun protection as ineffective decreased sun protection intentions relative to framing sun protection as effective. In contrast, fear appeals that did not consciously prime death, or appeals followed by a delay that allowed thoughts of death to fade from consciousness, did not interact with efficacy messages.
Conclusions:
The findings revealed that messages impacting sun protection efficacy moderated sun protection intentions only when death was conscious. The findings have implications for understanding the conditions that render certain fear appeals, and accompanying messages of efficacy, more influential than others.
The authors conduct two experiments that indicate that the effectiveness of loss-versus gain-framed messages depends on the affective state of the message recipient. In Experiment 1, the authors find that participants induced with a positive mood are more persuaded by the loss-framed message, whereas participants induced with a negative mood are more persuaded by the gain-framed message. In addition, the authors observe that participants in a positive mood have higher risk estimates and lower costs in response to the loss frame than the gain frame, whereas the reverse is true for participants in a negative mood. The authors replicate these effects in Experiment 2 in which they measure rather than induce the participants' affective state.
Skin cancer can largely be prevented by avoiding unsafe ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure. The evidence on potential drivers of sunscreen and sunbed use is extensive, yet in some cases, such as education, remains rather unclear. Health literacy is receiving increasing attention, but its effect on tanning decisions has not yet been explored.
To explore the association between health literacy and tanning behaviour, in terms of sunscreen and sunbed use.
Self-reported data were collected through a common questionnaire in eight European countries under a common protocol. A three-item measure was used to assess health literacy; one item was collected to measure current sunscreen use and one item to measure current sunbed use. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance tests were applied to explore the profile of sunbed and sunscreen users and health literacy among a number of variables. Univariate and multivariate logistic regressions were used to assess the relation between health literacy and sunscreen and sunbed use.
Univariate results suggested that health literacy has opposite effects on sunscreen use vs. sunbed use. Increased health literacy was associated with the skin cancer protective practice of using sunscreen, but also with more sunbed use. In the multivariate models, health literacy had a significant effect only on sunscreen use.
The findings suggest that health literacy can be an interesting approach for influencing sunscreen use. In the case of sunbeds, based on the findings and contrary to what was expected, it can be argued that interventions targeting health literacy seem less likely to reduce sunbed use. More research is needed to elucidate the effect of health literacy on sunscreen and sunbed use in order to improve UVR prevention strategies.
We wanted to bring together under one cover an integrated treatment of a wide range of research, theory, and application in the realm of social influence.
The result is a book that covers all the major social influence topics, including persuasion, compliance, conformity, obedience, dissonance and self-attribution, conditioning and social learning, attitude-behavior relations, attitude involvement, prejudice, nonverbal communication, and even subliminal influence. The coverage is wide, but also integrated through the use of the recurring theme of "attitude systems" in which attitudes, cognitions, behaviors, and intentions can all be affected by external agents of influence, and all can be influenced internally by each other. We also devote two full chapters to applications of social influence principles that we see as decided "growth areas" now and in the near future. One applications chapter focuses on influence in the legal system and the other on improving the quality of life (the environment, personal health, and mental well-being).
This book is intended primarily for undergraduates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A systematic review and meta-analyses were conducted to identify and review research examining the impact of appearance-based interventions on sun protection intentions and/or ultraviolet (UV) exposure behaviour.
A search of 16 databases including PsycARTICLES, Cochrane Library and Web of Knowledge was conducted to identify studies examining the impact of appearance-based interventions on reducing UV exposure and/or increasing sun protection intentions and behaviours. A total of 21 articles met the inclusion criteria, and these studies were subjected to a systematic review and meta-analyses to determine the effectiveness of the interventions.
Interventions used a variety of techniques including UV technology and photoaging information. Study design and outcome measures varied. The research indicated that appearance-based interventions have a positive effect on UV exposure and sun protection intentions and behaviour.
Findings suggest that interventions based on the appearance-damaging effects of UV exposure, and the positive effects of sun protection, may have a role in health promotion. It is concluded that there is a need for further research incorporating a wider range of participants, and using qualitative and mixed methods designs.
What is already known on the subject? Recreational exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, are the primary causes of all melanomas, leading to skin cancer. A previous systematic review (Dodd & Forshaw, 2010) looking at the efficacy of appearance-focussed interventions in skin cancer prevention, suggested that there were significant effects for UV protection behaviour after such interventions.
What does this study add? An up-to-date systematic review of studies that has carried out appearance-based interventions to reduce UV exposure and/or increase sun protection intentions and behaviours. A meta-analysis of data providing statistical evidence indicating that appearance-based interventions have a positive effect on UV exposure and sun protection intentions and behaviour.
Previous research has illustrated the negative psychological consequences of female body objectification. The present study explores how female body objectification may serve as a defense against unconscious existential fears. Drawing from terror management theory, an experiment was designed to test the potential functionality of female body objectification. Men and women were primed to think about either their own mortality or an aversive control topic, and levels of body objectification were then assessed for both self- and other (women)-objectification. Findings supported the hypothesis that priming mortality would increase both self- and other-objectification among women, and self-objectification among those who derive self-esteem from their body. Implications for this research are discussed.
Drawing from cognitive response models of persuasion, functional emotion theories, and theoretical and empirical work on the influence of message-relevant and message-irrelevant affect on attitudes, this paper presents a model of persuasion that suggests that discrete, message-induced negative emotions influence attitudes through a complex process that centers around the notions of motivated attention and motivated processing. Emotion type, expectation of the message containing reassuring information, argument strength, presence of peripheral cues, emotional intensity, and emotion placement within a message are expected to mediate information processing depth, message acceptance or rejection, and information recall. This model attempts to bridge the gap between the “emotional” and “rational” approaches to persuasion, and it extends current theorizing in the area of emotion and attitude change by (a) linking the concepts of motivated attention and motivated processing to that of expectation of message reassurance, and (b) considering the persuasive effects of negative emotions other than fear, like anger, disgust, sadness, and guilt.
To the extent that many people seek and maintain a suntan because they believe it makes them more attractive, people who are particularly motivated to make good impressions on others or to be seen as physically attractive are at increased risk for skin cancer. This study examined cognitive, motivational, and attitudinal predictors of two factors that are associated with increased risk for skin cancer: engaging in behaviors that increase one's exposure to UV radiation and inadequate use of sunscreen. Self-presentational motives involving a concern for one's personal appearance and the belief that being tan enhances one's attractiveness were the strongest predictors of the degree to which respondents exposed themselves to natural and artificial sources of UV radiation. Sunscreen use was best predicted by knowing someone with skin cancer. Implications for attempts to promote safe-sun practices are discussed.
Objective To examine the importance of tanning among students in relation to attitudes and knowledge regarding skin cancer prevention.
Design A cross-sectional survey.
Setting College students at a major Midwestern university.
Methods Students were recruited to complete a self-administered questionnaire that included information on sun-sensitivity, knowledge and tanning attitudes and behaviours. Survey sampling statistical techniques that account for clustering among the 163 students recruited were used.
Results We found a high level of skin cancer prevention knowledge; however, knowledge was not related to a reduction in the importance of tanning. In many cases, higher levels of knowledge corresponded to a greater emphasis on the importance of tanning. Sunscreen use was low among this population. Those who placed an importance on tanning more often indicated that they believed that ‘sunless tanning creams are safer than the sun’.
Conclusions This population’s belief that they look healthier and feel better with a tan strongly influences the desire to tan. Therefore, future cancer information campaigns or other prevention efforts should directly address the desire to tan by encouraging the use of sunless tanning products as an alternative method of tanning.
Visual images play an important role in educating the public about skin cancer prevention. The objectives of this systematic review were to: 1) determine how visual images are evaluated in skin cancer and tanning qualitative research studies (including theoretical and methodological approaches) and 2) summarize and discuss the image-related findings of the studies with respect to cancer education and public health. Seven databases were searched (PubMed-MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, Social Sciences Full Text, ERIC, and ABI/INFORM) using multiple search terms, including MeSH terms, resulting in 5330 citations. Studies were included if they were in English, peer-reviewed, qualitative in design or methodology, dealt with skin cancer or UV exposure, used visual images, and had a focus on the public or patients (i.e., not medical professionals). Eight studies met the inclusion criteria: seven content analyses and one focus group study. Content analysis studies in this review suggest the mass media portray Caucasian men and women as unprotected from the sun and with tanned skin, and thus, may inform behaviors related to skin cancer risk. The focus group study suggests visible minorities may benefit from the incorporation of images of melanoma on ethnic skin in cancer education materials. None of the studies used visual communication theory to explicitly guide the research, nor were standardized tools used for image assessment. The lack of guiding theory and standardized assessment instruments can introduce bias in how images are selected and used in research on skin cancer education.
We describe the development of a reliable measure of individual differences in disgust sensitivity. The 32-item Disgust Scale includes 2 true-false and 2 disgust-rating items for each of 7 domains of disgust elicitors (food, animals, body products, sex, body envelope violations, death, and hygiene) and for a domain of magical thinking (via similarity and contagion) that cuts across the 7 domains of elicitors. Correlations with other scales provide initial evidence of convergent and discriminant validity: the Disgust Scale correlates moderately with Sensation Seeking (r= - 0.46) and with Fear of Death (r= 0.39), correlates weakly with Neuroticism (r = 0.23) and Psychoticism (r= - 0.25), and correlates negligibly with Self-Monitoring and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Extraversion and Lie scales. Females score higher than males on the Disgust Scale. We suggest that the 7 domains of disgust elicitors all have in common that they remind us of our animality and, especially, of our mortality. Thus we see disgust as a defensive emotion that maintains and emphasizes the line between human and animal.
The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of messages differing in focus (health vs appearance) and frame (gain vs loss) on intentions for sunscreen use and sunbed use, and the potential moderating role of body consciousness. Questionnaire data from 390 young adults were analysed using factorial ANOVA. Results showed a significant interaction between message frame and body consciousness, such that gain-framed health or appearance messages had the strongest effect on sunscreen use intentions for those high in body consciousness, compared to those low in body consciousness. We conclude that message framing effects on precautionary sun behaviour intentions are moderated by body consciousness.
To evaluate the impact of intensive promotion of a new health service to a targeted refugee population, recently resettled in Sydney, and the role of early social connection and membership of social group in promoting health service utilisation of refugees.
Descriptive epidemiological study and survey.
A paediatric refugee clinic at a children's hospital in Sydney.
Newly resettled refugee parents of children seen at the clinic.
An intensive health promotion and education campaign using ethnic media and social networks to increase awareness of and encourage utilisation of a new clinical service for refugee children (above and beyond the standard promotion that accompanied the start of the new refugee clinic) to a targeted group of refugees from Sub-Saharan Africa.
Rates of attendance and utilisation of the new service in targeted versus non-targeted refugee parents; changes in health beliefs, health-seeking behaviour and utilisation of services following clinic attendance.
We interviewed 34 Sub-Saharan African refugee parents (intervention) and 12 non-African refugee parents (non-intervention) attending a paediatric refugee clinic, between June 2005 and May 2006, with a total number of 112 children. The mean ages of the children were 12 and 10 years for the Africans and non-Africans, respectively. Our targeted health promotion campaign appeared to be effective in increasing attendance for target communities compared to the non-targeted communities (OR for African families attending clinic 3.0, 95% CI=1.5-6.2, p<0.001). We observed a significant change in parental knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about infectious diseases after attending the clinic, including decreased stigma around tuberculosis, more awareness of the seriousness of some infections, and increased awareness of the role of immunisation in prevention of infectious diseases.
Our study shows that targeted promotion of service to refugee parents is effective. Such efforts may improve access to care for refugees and may constructively change knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about infectious diseases.
We investigate the conditions under which messages that prompt low and high levels of fear are likely to be effective. Our premise is that when a low level of fear is ineffective, it is because there is insufficient elaboration of the harmful consequences of engaging in the destructive behavior. By contrast, when appeals arousing high levels of fear are ineffective, it is because too much elaboration on the harmful consequences interferes with processing of the recommended change in behavior. We find support for these expectations in the context of a communication advocating that people stop smoking. The elaboration-enhancing interventions used, self-reference and imagery processing, increased the persuasiveness of a low-fear appeal by prompting elaboration on the harmful consequences of smoking, whereas the use of two elaboration-suppressing interventions, reference to others and objective processing, increased the persuasiveness of a high-fear appeal by decreasing the extent to which consumers deny harmful consequences. Copyright 1996 by the University of Chicago.
This study sought to determine the prevalence of the use of sun-protection measures in adolescents, and the variables which predicted use of and failure to use such measures. Three thousand and two school students in Years 9 and 10 from 26 high schools in New South Wales were surveyed in the last term of 1986 and the first term of 1987 as part of the NSW Department of Health's Country Regions Skin Cancer Prevention Campaign. By means of standardized criteria, 70% of the sample were defined as not using adequate protection. Stepwise regression showed that the number of opportunities for sun protection, as well as sex, smoking status, skin-type and area of residence were significant predictors of whether a student used sun-protection measures. Further regression analyses indicated that the attitudes and beliefs of students also were significant predictors of sun-protection use, independent of sociodemographic variables and the number of opportunities for sun protection. Interventions to increase the use of sun protection are more likely to be effective if they are targeted at the modifying of beliefs about the benefits and barriers to sun-screening, the perceptions of an appropriate image for peers and parental influences about covering-up in the sun.
Skin cancer affects 515,000 Americans every year, causing more than 7,000 deaths. Prior studies attempted, with scant success, to increase general knowledge about protection of the skin and to encourage use of sunscreens. The failure was attributed to the allure of the suntan as a symbol of health and affluence and to the "optimistic bias" (belief in one's own invulnerability) displayed by sunbathers. The study detailed here sought to increase the use by subjects of sunscreen by showing computer-altered images of their own faces, aged and disfigured by lesions. That stimulus was designed to counter false impressions and illusions of sunbathers about the benefits of the sun by demonstrating, immediately and personally, negative effects of sun exposure. Data were collected from thirty adolescents in the form of six weekly logs of sunscreen use and time spent outdoors between 10 AM and 3 PM. Results showed that the computer-altered images motivated increased use of sunscreen in the short term: subjects in the experimental groups used sunscreen almost three times as frequently as those in the control group during the experimental period (P = 0.000). Images of aging and disfiguring by lesions produced a more intense and prolonged modification in behavior than images of aging only.