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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: A Survey on Monitoring Advancements for Port Infrastructure Applications
Abstract
Ports play a significant role in the economic and social activities of the areas they serve. However, the adverse effects of the harsh and highly corrosive environments that ports operate in, along with phenomena related to the climate crisis and insufficient maintenance practices, increase port infrastructure's susceptibility to rapid degradation. This degradation can be aesthetic, functional, or structural and often leads to loss of serviceability at either a component (local and national) level or a global level. Moreover, many port structures have reached the limit of their lifetime, thus introducing the concept of extending their lifespan as a financially attractive alternative to constructing new facilities. Therefore, port operators pursue monitoring the structural integrity of the structures through an inspection plan aiming to reduce their maintenance and rehabilitation costs and ensure the safety of both the port infrastructure itself and the human lives. Optimising monitoring approaches to enable damage detection and condition assessment can be achieved through the employment of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) and Remote Sensing (RS) techniques. The current surge of using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for both RS and NDT monitoring practices has proved promising since UAVs provide improved accessibility, increased inspection speed, and reduced safety hazards. The present paper is focused on investigating and evaluating the recent advances in UAV-driven port infrastructure monitoring. For this purpose, a comprehensive review of UAVs applications combined with NDT Infrared Thermography (IRT) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) or RS Close Range Photogrammetry (CRP) and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is carried out to assess the potential and the limitations of the UAV-based monitoring approaches. This research provides valuable information on enhancing management strategies by upgrading port monitoring practices.
... Nowadays, equipping UAVs with NDT and remote sensors is examined to upgrade traditional SHM given the higher accessibility to hard-reached elements, the reduced inspection duration, and the limited safety risks (Abdelkhalek & Zayed, 2023). Indicatively, a conceptual research work undertaken by Chelioti, Tsaimou, and Tsoukala (2023), suggested that inspections with IRT and GPR equipment mounted on UAVs are positively affected in terms of speed and capability of damage detection. On the other hand, UAVs may increase cost inspection and affect ease of use, thus compromising their applicability. ...
Port engineering planning and management seek to confront challenges affecting the functional and structural capacity of port systems. To achieve this, design, maintenance, and rehabilitation strategies should be enhanced by dynamic approaches that help minimize the impacts of potential degradation due to climate change, natural hazards and aging of port infrastructure. Introducing Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) practices to asset management frameworks can improve port sustainability and
resilience. Recently, new aspects for assisting SHM approaches with Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) applications have emerged. Therefore, the present research is focused on investigating the capabilities of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) monitoring program to advance current SHM practices for port infrastructure. For this purpose, four in-situ inspections were conducted by the Laboratory of Harbour Works (LHW) of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) at a Greek port in central-eastern
Greece, namely Lavrio port. Data analysis was performed with Close Range Photogrammetry (CRP) methods and Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. The overall research showed that the UAV-driven SHM supports the condition assessment of port infrastructure, thus assisting practices for smart maintenance.
UAV-based technologies are evolving and improving at a rapid pace. The abundance of solutions and systems available today can make it difficult to identify the best option for construction and civil projects. The purpose of this literature review is to examine the benefits and limitations of UAV-based sensing systems in the context of construction management and civil engineering, with a focus on camera-based and laser-based systems. The risk factors associated with UAV operations at construction sites are also considered.
Seaport infrastructure monitoring promotes the development of an effective management system that ensures functionality, structural capacity and safety. Monitoring approaches are considered to be a useful tool in an attempt to deal with growing global trends, such as seaport “smartness”, or with challenging issues such as climate crisis, while enhancing the financial performance and the capability of a seaport to remain competitive in the trading environment. Therefore, the present paper proposes a framework for integrating monitoring processes and relevant data analyses to improve seaport smartness and adaptive capacity to climate change. The framework is applied at the seaport of Lavrio, located in central-eastern Greece, where in-situ inspection and condition assessment is performed through utilizing modern monitoring techniques. The research outlines the significance of establishing a robust monitoring system such as the one hereto described to minimize the impact of natural hazards, perform suitable maintenance strategies and optimize the required periodic control of seaport facilities.
Reduced maintenance costs of concrete structures can be ensured by efficient and comprehensive condition assessment. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been widely used in the condition assessment of reinforced concrete structures and it provides completely non-destructive results in real-time. It is mainly used for locating reinforcement and determining concrete cover thickness. More recently, research has focused on the possibility of using GPR for reinforcement corrosion assessment. In this paper, an overview of the application of GPR in corrosion assessment of concrete is presented. A literature search and study selection methodology were used to identify the relevant studies. First, the laboratory studies are shown. After that, the studies for the application on real structures are presented. The results have shown that the laboratory studies have not fully illuminated the influence of the corrosion process on the GPR signal. Also, no clear relationship was reported between the results of the laboratory studies and the on-site inspection. Although the GPR has a long history in the condition assessment of structures, it needs more laboratory investigations to clarify the influence of the corrosion process on the GPR signal.
The process of digitalization i.e. implementation of digital technologies is widely present in the seaports. Digitalization encourages seaports to adjust and implement digital technologies in providing their services, while constantly striving to stay efficient, profitable and competitive. The implementation of digital technologies results in altered perspective of seaport service quality. Since seaport service quality is not prescribed and strictly defined, the importance of digitalization should be taken into consideration, which includes redefining the seaport service quality factors. Worlds’ leading seaports, especially leading European seaports, recognized the possibilities of digital technologies in providing quality seaport services and are investing in their implementation. In this paper, seaport service quality is analysed in the context of digitalization i.e. the implementation of digital technologies. The purpose of this paper is to define the quality factors and opportunities for improving seaport service quality based on the analysis of digital technologies implemented in seaports.
The vast number of deteriorated bridge infrastructure highlights the importance of implementing efficient and timely maintenance and rehabilitation strategies. Non-contact testing (NCT) technologies are potential tools for bridge condition assessment, facilitating fast and easy measurement with minimal traffic disruption, compared to conventional methods. The foremost objective of this study is to conduct a comprehensive review of the common NCT technologies for concrete bridge condition monitoring including defect detection, rebar corrosion, delamination, and cracking. Four NCT technologies, namely, ground penetrating radar, close-range photogrammetry, infrared thermography, and terrestrial laser scanning have been identified and analysed in depth. The review compiled one hundred and thirty-five laboratory and field studies, spanning from 2000 to 2019, on non-invasive assessment of bridge condition monitoring. In addition to comparison of stand-alone NCT methods, the study analysed integrated NCT systems, data acquisition tools, and processing and simulation platforms. Additionally, challenges and future perspectives of the reviewed NCT technologies are highlighted.
Small unmanned aerial system(s) (sUAS) are rapidly emerging as a practical means of performing bridge inspections. Under the right condition, sUAS assisted inspections can be safer, faster, and less costly than manned inspections. Many Departments of Transportation in the United States are in the early stages of adopting this emerging technology. However, definitive guidelines for the selection of equipment for various types of bridge inspections or for the possible challenges during sUAS assisted inspections are absent. Given the large investments of time and capital associated with deploying a sUAS assisted bridge inspection program, a synthesis of authors experiences will be useful for technology transfer between academics and practitioners. In this paper, the authors list the challenges associated with sUAS assisted bridge inspection, discuss equipment and technology options suitable for mitigating these challenges, and present case studies for the application of sUAS to several specific bridge inspection scenarios. The authors provide information to sUAS designers and manufacturers who may be unaware of the specific challenges associated with sUAS assisted bridge inspection. As such, the information presented here may reveal the demands in the design of purpose-built sUAS inspection platforms.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also referred to as drones, equipped with various kinds of advanced detecting or surveying systems, are effective and low-cost in data acquisition, data delivery and sharing, which can benefit the building of infrastructures. This paper will give an overview of applications of drones in planning, designing, construction and maintenance of infrastructures. The drone platform, detecting and surveying systems, and post-data processing systems will be introduced, followed by cases with details of the applications. Challenges from different aspects will be addressed. Opportunities of drones in infrastructure include but not limited to the following. Firstly, UAVs equipped with high definition cameras or other detecting equipment are capable of inspecting the hard to reach infrastructure assets. Secondly, UAVs can be used as effective tools to survey and map the landscape to collect necessary information before infrastructure construction. Furthermore, an UAV or multi-UVAs are useful in construction management. UVAs can also be used in collecting roads and building information by taking high-resolution photos for future infrastructure planning. UAVs can be used to provide reliable and dynamic traffic information, which is potentially helpful in building smart cities. The main challenges are: limited flight time, the robustness of signal, post data analyze, multi-drone collaboration, weather condition, distractions to the traffic caused by drones. This paper aims to help owners, designers, engineers and architects to improve the building process of infrastructures for higher efficiency and better performance.
This paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the subject of ground penetrating radar (GPR) methods for the investigation of reinforced concrete structures. An overview of the use of concrete and reinforced concrete in civil engineering infrastructures is given. A review of the main destructive and non-destructive testing methods in the field is presented, and an increase in the use of GPR to reinforced concrete structures is highlighted. It was also observed that research in some application areas has been predominantly or exclusively carried out at a laboratory scale, and that similarly, other more application-oriented research has been developed only on real-life structures. The effectiveness of GPR in these areas is demonstrated. Furthermore, a case study is presented on a new methodological and data processing approach for the assessment of reinforced concrete structures using a high-frequency dual-polarised antenna system. Results have proven the advantages of using the proposed methodology and GPR system in order to improve the detectability of rebars, including secondary bottom lines of reinforcement. The horizontal polarisation was proven to be more stable compared to the vertical. Finally, it has been demonstrated that a more accurate location of the rebars in a high-density grid mesh arrangement can be obtained by means of data migration processing with a scan spacing of 5 cm and wave velocity information through the use of the hyperbola fitting method from at least 30% of the targets.
Comparison of different bridge inspections shows that they vary greatly. Their implementation is dependent on the amount and type of data that has to be obtained for each individual bridge. Detailed inspection provides reliable data but it is costly, time consuming and not suitable for large scale use. Regular bridge inspection, on the other hand, is cost-effective, quick and, in general, the most suitable for conducting large numbers of annual inspections. However, data gathered is in most cases based on visual observation only, and as such, it is less reliable. In order to improve the quality of acquired data, certain non-destructive tests (NDTs) could be integrated into regular bridge inspection practice, while maintaining the above-mentioned advantages of visual inspection. Evaluation of NDT methods commonly used for bridge inspection is therefore performed. It is based on several relevant criteria: time consumption, procedure standardization, data reliability, diversity of use, complexity of results' interpretation. The relative importance of the selected criteria is determined by experts from COST Action TU1406 by using Analytical Hierarchy Process. For each of the selected criteria, the assigned values are based on the literature survey. As a final step the utility function is defined, the NDTs with the same applicability level are compared, and their possibilities for use in regular bridge inspection are assessed.
Structure Health Monitoring is a topic of great interest in port structures due to the ageing of structures and the limitations of evaluating structures. This paper presents a cloud computing-based stability evaluation platform for a pier type port structure using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors in a system consisting of a FBG strain sensor, FBG displacement gauge, FBG angle meter, gateway, and cloud computing-based web server. The sensors were installed on core components of the structure and measurements were taken to evaluate the structures. The measurement values were transmitted to the web server via the gateway to analyze and visualize them. All data were analyzed and visualized in the web server to evaluate the structure based on the safety evaluation index (SEI). The stability evaluation platform for pier type port structures involves the efficient monitoring of the structures which can be carried out easily anytime and anywhere by converging new technologies such as cloud computing and FBG sensors. In addition, the platform has been successfully implemented at “Maryang Harbor” situated in Maryang-Meyon of Korea to test its durability.
The field of computer vision based civil infrastructure defect detection is constantly evolving with steady advances being made in sensing technologies, hardware, and image processing techniques. Although a number of image processing techniques have been proposed over the years with varying degrees of success, real-world situations (e.g., lack of background illumination, shadow changes) pose a significant challenge to the wide adoption of such techniques, especially for routine analysis. With the emerging application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or drones for civil infrastructure inspection and condition monitoring, an added level of complexity is introduced in vision-based crack detection as the process of acquiring images using UAVs is not yet standardized resulting in images of widely varying sizes, resolutions, blurriness, etc. In recent years, Deep Learning, a generalized form of Deep Neural Network (DNN) algorithms that can learn very complex mappings between inputs and outputs directly from the data, has achieved huge success in diverse fields such as automatic speech recognition, image recognition, Natural Language Processing (NLP), drug and materials discovery, etc. However, the large number of hidden neurons and layers used in DNNs result in computationally-intensive matrix and vector computations involving millions of parameters, requiring the use of high-performance computing systems. Also, it is practically impossible to get labeled “big data” samples in many domains to be able to train an entire DNN from scratch. In such situations, the use of a pre-trained deep learning model and fine-tuning it to the novel task at hand with smaller datasets, has shown to be successful across domains. In this paper, we propose the use of pre-trained deep learning models with transfer learning for crack damage detection in UAV images of civil infrastructure. The robustness of the proposed approach is tested on a small set of real-world, complex UAV-sourced infrastructure images not used during training and validation. The results show that the proposed method can rapidly and easily achieve up to 90% accuracy in finding cracks in realistic situations without any augmentation and preprocessing.
A previous literature review indicated that there is little published experimental data that can be used to determine quantities such as bias, accuracy, reliability, and cost of common Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) methods as far as their use on bridges is concerned. This study attempts to quantify these parameters for common bridge NDE methods through a four-round Delphi method survey with experts in the NDE bridge field. The survey results indicate that most commonly used bridge NDE methods tend to be underbiased and relatively reliable. Furthermore, the accuracy of commonly used bridge NDE methods tends to be relatively variable with the average test measuring a true response between 80% and 85% of the time. In general, it was shown by the participant responses that the more expensive the method was, the better the bias, accuracy, and reliability the method had, and vice versa. The information presented in this paper can serve as a starting point for characterizing different NDE methods for use in bridge management and inspection planning and identifies the type of information that is still needed. As such, this research has the potential to promote further research on this subject.
Structural health monitoring offers significant benefits in reducing whole of life costs of infrastructure ownership, and improves the reliability and availability of high value assets. There are significant works towards applying structural health monitoring (SHM) to aircraft, maritime and civil structures. Numerous techniques have been developed to facilitate the monitoring of the structural components and the different classes of defects expected. One of the distinct advantages of SHM is the ability to monitor hard-to-inspect areas of an operating structural component. There is another attractive feature of SHM; incorporating SHM into new design offers a perspective into concept of “safety in design”. The integrated sensing system can be used initially to verify the design safety factors used when the structure is first commissioned and subsequently for integrity assessment purposes. In both purposes, the challenge remains with sensor placement, and the durability and reliability of the sensing elements located on the structure. Recent advances in non-contact measurement techniques have overcome some of these limitations. In most of these works, the inspection region is limited due to the constraints associated with the hardware requirement. This paper will discuss the use of displacement measurements using remotely piloted aerial vehicles (RPV) for the condition assessment of a large membrane floating cover that is approximately 170 m x 420 m. It is envisaged that the health monitoring of the membrane can be assisted by the periodic monitoring and assessment of the deformation of the large membrane cover. The collation of the profile of the membrane over time will provide important information for the structural integrity assessment of the floating cover.
Nowadays maritime infrastructure is heavily exploited, which requires the monitoring. The article presents the implementation of spatial information which are point clouds for monitoring and analysis of the area around the port (buildings and wharves). For this study point clouds coming from terrestrial (TLS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS), each of them has a different accuracy, was used. An important part of the analysis was the integration of the two data sources. Through the integration the acquisition information on areas not covered by the measurement in the case of one of the methods was possible (e.g. the roofs in case of TLS, or the lack of some of the walls of the building in case of ALS). Another aspect was to use this data. Measurement of the shape and geometry of objects was executed. Additionally, the planeness analysis of individual elements of port infrastructure has been carried out. An interesting analysis was to determine the water level, based on relation to specific characteristics of the light reflectance.
This paper intends to point out the possibility of using Internet photogrammetry to construct 3D models from the images obtained by means of UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles). The solutions may be useful for the inspection of ports as to the content of cargo, transport safety or the assessment of the technical infrastructure of port and quays. The solution can be a complement to measurements made by using laser scanning and traditional surveying methods. In this paper the authors recommend a solution useful for creating 3D models from images acquired by the UAV using non-metric images from digital cameras. The developed algorithms, created and presented software allows to generate 3D models through the Internet in two modes: anaglyph and display in shutter systems. The problem of 3D image generation in photogrammetry is solved by using epipolar images. The appropriate method was presented by Kreiling in 1976. However, it applies to photogrammetric images for which the internal orientation is known. In the case of digital images obtained with non-metric cameras it is required to use another solution based on the fundamental matrix concept, introduced by Luong in 1992. In order to determine the matrix which defines the relationship between left and right digital image it is required to have at least eight homologous points. To determine the solution it is necessary to use the SVD (singular value decomposition). By using the fundamental matrix the epipolar lines are determined, which makes the correct orientation of images making stereo pairs, possible. The appropriate mathematical bases and illustrations are included in the publication.
Considering the colossal backlog of deteriorating bridges, transportation agencies need to systematically evaluate bridge deck conditions in order to optimize the timing, scope, and approach of preventive maintenance, repair, and replacement. Over the last few years, there have been growing interest among bridge infrastructure stakeholders in using non-destructive methodologies for bridge inspection, evaluation, and maintenance. Nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques can provide needed information about the " under-the-surface " deteriorated condition of bridge decks. This paper examines the most common NDT technologies for assessing bridge decks. Each technology was rated based on five performance measures: capability to detect subsurface defects, speed of data collection, simplicity of analysis and interpretation, accuracy of results, and cost of measurement. The study has particular emphasis on reinforcement corrosion, delamination, and internal cracking. The information sought to identify the significance of the factors affecting the analysis process was collected through a survey questionnaire. In order to incorporate the imprecise information and vagueness of human judgment in the decision-making, the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) is employed, as per the fuzzy preference programming method. Results demonstrate the capabilities of each technology and its ability to address bridge challenges. In order to assist bridge engineers and decision makers, recommendations were made with respect to the selection of the most appropriate technologies to identify specific deterioration mechanisms.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods have been developed and employed as a means of rapid and effective structural inspection. Despite the various kinds of NDT methods developed for bridge inspection, not much study has been performed on their usage and effectiveness at a practical level. This paper presents an evaluation of NDT methods to identify how they are implemented in state agencies in the U.S. The findings and analysis presented herein were based on the results obtained from a survey questionnaire, targeted at Departments of Transportation (DOTs) in all U.S. states and territories. The survey questionnaire was initiated to clarify multiple issues regarding NDT implementation, such as identifying the types of inspection that involve NDT methods, bridge components that are most likely to be inspected with NDT, effective methods of inspecting concrete or steel structures, and so on. A total of 40 state agencies participated in the survey processing, and the major findings obtained from the states are illustrated and explained in detail in this paper. In addition, bridge defects that are hard to detect in the course of inspection and current research efforts to develop novel NDT methods were investigated.
The transportation sector is a strong factor in terms of economic and regional balanced development, as well as also having a great influence on national integration to the world economic market. India has a rich history of trade across seas. Ports constitute an important economic activity in coastal areas. The higher the throughput of goods and passengers year-on-year, the more infrastructure, provisions and associated services are required. These will bring varying degrees of benefits to the economy and to the country. Ports are also important for the support of economic activities in the hinterland since they act as a crucial connection between sea and land transport. As a supplier of jobs, ports do not only serve an economic but also a social function. In terms of load carried, seaway transportation is the cheapest and most effective transportation system compared to other systems. Industries require a safe and cheap means of exporting finished goods and importing raw materials. Hence the majority of industries in the world are located in the coastal belts, in the vicinity of major ports. These industries in turn, influence the lives of the employees and indirect benefactors. This report seeks to study the role played by ports in the development of a nation.
The field application of three different nondestructive tests (NDTs)-air-coupled impact echo (IE), infrared (IR) thermography, and sounding (chain drag)-are evaluated in this paper, where an actual in-service concrete bridge deck is tested. Two different contactless IE test equipment sets are deployed as part of an effort to develop new rapid measurement methods. The IE data are presented as two-dimensional frequency maps, and the IR data are presented as temperature maps over the tested area. Sounding (chain-drag) result maps are also presented. For verification of the location of near-surface delamination damage, eight drilled core samples were extracted from the test area. The results obtained from each of the individual NDT methods show reasonably good agreement with the drilled cores in terms of locating near-surface delamination. Finally, the NDT methods are compared across general performance criteria, considering accuracy, testing practicality, and costs. The analysis shows that all of the evaluated NDT methods are comparable, and the chain-drag method is not more accurate and reliable for detection of shallow delamination in the deck. DOI:10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000441. (C) 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Improving transportation infrastructure inspection methods and the ability to assess conditions of bridges has become a priority in recent years as the transportation infrastructure continues to age. Current bridge inspection techniques consist largely of labor-intensive subjective measures for quantifying deterioration of various bridge elements. Some advanced nondestructive testing techniques, such as ground-penetrating radar, are being implemented; however, little attention has been given to remote sensing technologies. Remote sensing technologies can be used to assess and monitor the condition of bridge infrastructure and improve the efficiency of inspection, repair, and rehabilitation efforts. Most important, monitoring the condition of a bridge using remote sensors can eliminate the need for traffic disruption or total lane closure because remote sensors do not come in direct contact with the structure. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate 12 potential remote sensing technologies for assessing the bridge deck and superstructure condition. Each technology was rated for accuracy, commercial availability, cost of measurement, precollection preparation, complexity of analysis and interpretation, ease of data collection, stand-off distance, and traffic disruption. Results from this study demonstrate the capabilities of each technology and their ability to address bridge challenges. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000303. (C) 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods are typically utilized to thoroughly inspect existing defects in the concrete bridge deck and tackle the limitations of common inspection practices (e.g. visual inspection). Nevertheless, the reliability of inspection outcomes crucially depends on choosing the most appropriate NDT technologies. In this regard, a comprehensive Performance Assessment Model (PAM) was developed. The developed model incorporated 40 parameters to precisely assess the performance of different NDT technologies from diverse perspectives (e.g. defect detection capability, ease of use, speed, and cost). The required data were collected through a survey questionnaire. The model utilized the Analytic Network Process (ANP) technique to calculate the importance weight of each parameter, whereas the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) was exploited to compute the performance index (PI) of NDT technologies. The outcomes of this study clearly illustrate the disparity in the performance of different NDT technologies. Furthermore, it was shown that none of these technologies could either exhibit the best performance in all the proposed parameters or efficiently identify all types of defects. Based on the PAM results, a selection model was proposed to assist bridge authorities and consultants in choosing the most efficient NDT technologies for inspection purposes.
Concrete delamination is a common type of defects in concrete bridge decks and rigid pavements. While it was reported that ground-penetrating radar (GPR) was able to visualize such types of defects in many instances, it is still unclear about the conditions of success for that application. In such a context, this study aimed to explore various factors that might affect the detectability of concrete delamination in GPR images/signals. In terms of methodology, the study was conducted using both synthetic data generated from a GPR simulation program, and real data collected on a concrete slab specimen. The analysis of such image data revealed the following. First, there is always a waveform reflected from concrete delamination. However, its strength is affected mainly by the thickness of the delamination, the material (air or water) within it, and the peak (most energetic) frequency of the emitted signal. Second, the depth of delamination and its location relative to neighboring steel bars might impact its detectability in GPR images.
Understanding building envelope thermodynamics is an essential foundation of building sciences, mainly due to the envelope’s role as a boundary layer for exterior environments, as well as a container and regulator of internal microclimates. This paper presents a scoping literature review of select Non-destructive Testing (NDT) techniques for building envelope scanning and surveying for thermodynamic diagnostics. The investigation focuses specifically on reviewing six NDT techniques: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)/Laser Scanning, Thermography, Ultrasound, Close-Range Photogrammetry and Through Wall Imaging Radar (TWIR). The aim is to identify knowledge gaps in terms of their use in accurately characterizing envelope compositions for further integration in Building Energy Modeling (BEM). Each technique was evaluated according to set categories imbibed from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineering (ASHRAE) Standard 211P that showcase the technique’s ability to extract various relevant information. A framework is then developed to inform users on how to use hybrid NDT-based workflows applied in building envelope energy audits. The paper concludes by discussing possibilities of utilizing NDT in large-scale audit automation, BEM integration, and developing built environment policies focusing on increasing existing building performance through retrofitting design.
Recently, the rapid development of commercial unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has made collecting images of bridge conditions trivial. Measuring the damage extent, growth, and location from the collected big image set, however, can be cumbersome. This paper proposes a streamlined bridge inspection system that offers advanced data analytics tools to automatically: 1) identify type, extent, growth, and 3D location of defects using computer vision techniques; 2) generate a 3D point-cloud model and segment structural elements using human-in-the-loop machine learning; and 3) establish a georeferenced element-wise as-built bridge information model to document and visualize damage information. This system allows bridge managers to better leverage UAV technologies in bridge inspection and conveniently monitor the health of a bridge through quantifying and visualizing the progression of damage for each structural element. The efficacy of the system is demonstrated using two bridges.
Conventional visual bridge inspection methods are time consuming and may put the inspector in dangerous situations. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have been recently introduced as an effective tool for bridge inspection. This paper proposes a 3D path planning method for using a UAV equipped with a Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) scanner for bridge inspection. The method integrates a Genetic Algorithm (GA) and A* algorithm to solve the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) considering the potential locations of bridge surface defects such as cracks. The objective is minimizing time of flight while achieving maximum visibility. The method provides the potential locations of surface defects to efficiently achieve perpendicular and overlapping views for sampling the viewpoints. Calculating the visibility with respect to the level of criticality leads to giving the priority to covering the areas with higher risk levels. The results reveal that considering overlapping views based on the level of criticality of the zones and perpendicular view for all viewpoints result in accurate and time-efficient data collection.
Given recent technological advances, small size UAV provide a suitable mean for accurate 3D modelling of sensible (maritime) infrastructures. Such models provide a valuable source of information in general port safety and security planning as well as emergency response operations. This aspect is particularly crucial as ports belong to a nation’s critical infrastructure, where its multiple supply chains and hinterland connections are sensitive to disruptions of any kind. Dealing with a rising number of disrupting externalities and increasing occupancy rates, ports have a constant need for affordable technological innovations with regard to risk management. Based on practical experiments, this paper reveals the possibility of generating realistic 3D models on the example of port facilities. It further reveals that initial states of a 3D model can be generated in a short timeframe, providing a valuable quick-response information source for first responder in emergency scenarios.
This paper is intended to provide the state-of-the-art and of-the-practice on visual inspection, monitoring, and analysis of infrastructure using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Several researchers have inspected various civil infrastructures, including bridges, buildings, and other structures, by capturing close-up images or recording videos, while operating UAVs. Various image analysis tools, such as the algorithm Morphological Link for Crack (Morpholink-C), were able to conduct precise measurements of crack thickness and length. Corrosion has also been detected using texture and color algorithms to investigate UAV-based images. Other analysis methods include structurally integrated sensors, such as digital image correlation equipment, which have helped to capture structural behaviors using UAVs. After the literature review was completed, a nationwide survey was distributed to Departments of Transportation (DOTs) to evaluate the current UAV-enabled inspection techniques that different DOTs have used or are planning to use for visual damage assessment for critical transportation infrastructures, especially bridges. Furthermore, a pertinent UAV selection was completed to indicate suitable UAVs for bridge inspection. Primary findings have shown that UAV-enabled infrastructure inspection techniques have been successfully developed to detect a broad variety of damage (including cracks and corrosions), and a few DOTs have used UAVs to inspect bridges as a more economical and versatile tool.
This paper presents the capabilities and limitations of high-definition (HD) imaging and infrared thermography (IRT) using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for bridge inspections. Regarding HD imaging, this study shows the potential to detect the required minimum, 0.1 mm, width of cracks using simulated cracks at a distance of 1-3 m from the bridge. As for IRT application with UAVs, the effect of vibration caused by the drone was investigated. This paper concludes that the hovering flight of drones was extremely stable and IRT with UAVs can provide reliable data for bridge inspections. If IRT is used without hovering flight, the effect of flying speed must be investigated since it might also affect the IRT results. This paper shows great potential of image-based technologies with UAVs for bridge inspections without any traffic disturbance as a complimentary approach to current practices.
Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) offer unparalleled and unprecedented opportunities for performing cost-effective and efficient health monitoring and management of transportation infrastructure systems. This paper introduces a network of UAS that can be utilized to perform an array of tasks such as surveillance, 3-D rendering, high definition (HD) visual monitoring, light detection and ranging (LiDAR) tests, infrared thermography, and non-destructive evaluation (NDE). These methods can be used for monitoring infrastructure defects to accomplish detailed inventory, survey, and condition assessment of transportation infrastructure systems. The modular and multi-purpose nature of UAS wherein UAS can be equipped with a variety of application-specific payloads such as LiDAR and infrared thermal imaging camera resulting in a range of civil and transportation applications is highlighted. Overall, the paper delivers a vision for next-generation, autonomous health monitoring of transportation infrastructure systems using UAS.
In order to minimize the costs, risks, and disruptions associated with structural inspections, robotic systems have increasingly been studied as an enhancement to current inspection practices. Combined with the increasing variety of commercially available robots, the last two decades have seen dramatic growth in the application of such systems. The use of these systems spans the breadth of civil infrastructure works, and the variety of implemented robotic systems is growing rapidly. However, the highly interdisciplinary nature of research in this field means that results are disseminated across a broad variety of publications. This review paper aggregates these studies in an effort to distill the state of the art in inspection robotics, as well as to assess outstanding challenges in the field and possibilities for the future. Overall, analysis of these studies illustrates that the design of inspection robots is often a case-specific compromise between competing needs for sophisticated inspection sensing and for flexible locomotion in challenging field environments. This review also points toward the growing use of robots as a platform to deploy advanced nondestructive evaluation (NDE) technologies, as well as the expanded use of commercially available robotic systems. Two key outstanding challenges for future researchers are suggested as well. The first is the need for more sophisticated, and inspection-driven, robot autonomy. The other is the need to process and manipulate the massive data sets that modern robots generate.
The seas play an essential role for the peoples living on their coastal regions, since the marine infrastructure is located in the coasts. Seawater is a corrosive environment that affects infrastructure particularly in polluted seawater. Corrosion and pollution are pernicious chemical, physical processes that impair the quality of the environment and the durability of the marine structures and materials. They are aggravated by the discharge into the sea coast of municipal, industrial and agricultural effluents, which contain and produce toxic and highly corrosive components by biological and chemical degradation. Reinforced concrete and carbon steel are the main engineering materials used for the construction of marine installations and equipment but other metals and alloys: aluminium; copper, stainless steels are applied, too. Laboratory and field corrosion tests in seawater were carried out applying gravimetric, electrochemical and surface examination methods, based on American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) and National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) standards. This work is the result of a cooperation between academic institutions in Mexico and Israel. The data generated advance the management of sea corrosion prevention and mitigation, and provide a guide for marine infrastructure maintenance and corrosion control. Several cases of corrosion in the sea coasts based on the authors experience and knowledge are presented.
Detection and characterisation of defects and damage that arise in marine composites is imperative, to ensure the safe and reliable operation of marine vessels and structures. This chapter discusses the types of defects occurring in marine composites, and introduces the concept of nondestructive testing (NDT) to inspect structures for flaws without reducing their future usefulness. The methodologies of point inspections, wide-area NDT and structural health monitoring are discussed, and examples are given of the performance of a range of techniques that fall within these categories.
The current state of the national bridge infrastructure network highlights the need for solutions to mitigate the evolution of deterioration, but also the need to develop innovative solutions to evaluate conditions on regular intervals. Solutions to this evaluation challenge need to be cost-effective and not interrupt traffic, but also need to align with current assessment strategies for adoption. The concept of remote sensing applied to transportation infrastructure evaluation presents a viable option, as the tools are noninvasive and can be used to provide analogous information to that which is typically collected through standard evaluation practices. This paper presents the results of a field study focusing on the deployment of commercially available remote sensing technologies for evaluating in-service bridges. The selected remote sensing technologies were used on three concrete bridges in the State of Michigan to evaluate the capabilities of each technology and their ability to provide condition measurements comparable to those derived from traditional hands-on inspection practices typical for in-service bridges. Results from the field study highlight that these technologies do provide comparable and even more comprehensive condition measurements in a more efficient manner than standard practice, but also highlights the need for the fusion of measurement techniques to provide a more robust condition assessment.
The Strategic Highway Research Program 2 (SHRP 2) supported a study to assess performance of nondestructive testing (NDT) technologies that have potential to identify and characterize deterioration in concrete bridge decks. The study focused on deterioration of the highest importance to transportation agencies: delamination, reinforcement corrosion, concrete degradation, and vertical cracking. Performance of a number of promising NDT technologies was evaluated on a fabricated slab, a section of a removed bridge deck, and an in-service bridge. The technologies included ground penetrating radar, impact echo, infrared thermography, electrical resistivity, half-cell potential, galvanostatic pulse measurement, ultrasonic surface waves, and chain drag/hammer sounding. The technologies were graded and ranked based on five performance measures: accuracy, speed, repeatability, ease of use, and cost. It was determined that no single technology was capable of characterizing all four deterioration types, and that comprehensive condition assessment could be done only by using multiple NDT technologies. Recommendations were made with respect to the selection of the most appropriate technologies to identify specific deterioration types and for their most effective use. The information was summarized in an electronic repository named NDToolbox. The results of the study are applicable to many similar reinforced concrete structural elements, including those used in geotechnical engineering. The scope of the study and the summary of the most important results of the study are presented.
Position of the European Sea Ports Organisation in Contribution to the Public Consultation Accompanying the Impact Assessment for the revision of the TEN-T Regulation (EU)1315/2013
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ESPO. (2021). Position of the European Sea Ports Organisation in Contribution to the Public Consultation Accompanying
the Impact Assessment for the revision of the TEN-T Regulation (EU)1315/2013. Retrieved from
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Monitoring of Playa Caldera and coastal structures with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
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Govaere, G., Viquez, R., Alfaro, H., and Cornejo, D. (2018). Monitoring of Playa Caldera and coastal structures with
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV). 7 th International Conference on The Application of Physical Modelling in Coastal
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Coasts, Oceans, Ports and Rivers Institute (ASCE), and Waterfront Facility Inspection Committee
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Heffron, R., Coasts, Oceans, Ports and Rivers Institute (ASCE), and Waterfront Facility Inspection Committee. (2015).
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Implementation of a low-cost RTK positioning system for drone-assisted structural inspections
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Remote sensing of concrete bridge decks using unmanned aerial vehicle infrared thermography. Automation in Construction
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Civil and Architectural Engineering, Structural Engineering and Bridges
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Evaluation of commercially available remote sensors for highway bridge condition assessment
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- T M Ahlborn
- C N Brooks
- K A Endsley
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- J W Burns
- R Dobson
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Detection of common defects in concrete bridge decks using nondestructive evaluation techniques
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She is currently a research assistant at the Laboratory of Harbour Works (LHW), NTUA. Her diploma thesis was entitled "Multi-Criteria Analysis of Port Infrastructure Monitoring Methods
- H Konstantina
Konstantina H. Chelioti is a senior student at the School of Civil Engineering of National Technical
University of Athens (NTUA). She is currently a research assistant at the Laboratory of Harbour
Works (LHW), NTUA. Her diploma thesis was entitled "Multi-Criteria Analysis of Port
Infrastructure Monitoring Methods". Her research interests include monitoring and assessing the
condition of port infrastructure.