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Mini Review
Volume 10 Issue 2 - October 2022
DOI: 10.19080/JYP.2022.10.555783
J Yoga & Physio
Copyright © All rights are reserved by Luke Del Vecchio
Bodyweight Training for Muscular
Strength & Endurance
Luke Del Vecchio*, Shannon Green and Hays Daewoud
Department of Australian Combat & Exercise, Australia
Submission: September 05, 2022; Published: October 10, 2022
*Corresponding author: Luke Del Vecchio, Department of Australian Combat & Exercise, Australia
J Yoga & Physio 10(2): JYP.MS.ID.555783 (2022) 001
Abstract
The COVID Pandemic and cost of living crisis have created renewed interest in home gymnasiums, and outdoor exercise regimes as the stay-at-
home economy continues to grow. Emerging from the revolution in stay-at-home exercise has renewed interest in bodyweight exercise training
exercise to develop muscular strength and endurance and provides recommendations on using bodyweight training to improve muscular
strength and endurance.
Keywords: Bodyweight training; Strength; Endurance; Calisthenics; Relative strength
Trends in Bodyweight Training
The COVID pandemic has decreased reliance on gym and
population has become more motivated to continue exercising at
home [1]. By way of example, surveys conducted since the COVID
pandemic show only 30% of gym members have returned since
covid [2]. Moreover, home exercise gyms, online exercise classes
and outdoor activities such as hiking, climbing, and running are
increasingly popular as consumers look to reduce discretionary
spending due to the increased cost of living pressures [3,4].
Together, these research and survey data suggest that consumers
environment.
With a move away from gymnasium-based exercise training,
there has been growing interest in programs performed with little
to externally loaded resistance training, bodyweight training
maximizes relative strength while promoting spatial awareness
and gross movement competency [6]. The origins of bodyweight
training can be traced back to the early days of human civilization;
Our ancestors used their bodies to perform various tasks, from
hunting and gathering to farming and building shelter [7]. This
served as a form of recreation. As time went on, bodyweight
training became increasingly formalized. The ancient Greeks and
Romans developed elaborate exercise systems using their body
weight. Historical records suggest that bodyweight exercise was
used by the armies of Alexander the Great and the Spartans [7].
In more recent times, bodyweight training has been popularized
by several different people and groups, including the physical
culturists of the early 20th century, the military, and the counter-
bodyweight training include improved muscle tone, increased
strength and endurance, improved joint stability, cardiovascular
Benets of Bodyweight Training
Bodyweight exercises are divided into two main categories:
callisthenics and bodyweight strength training. Callisthenics
are exercises that use your body weight and gravity to provide
balls, wearable resistance garments, resistance bands, or TRX
suspension trainers [6]. Unlike bodyweight training, gymnasium-
based strength training incorporates many open-kinetic chain
exercises [6]. Open kinetic chain (OKC) exercises are exercises
in which the distal extremity is free to move in space, which is
characterized by a rotary stress pattern to the joint [12]. For
example, when doing a biceps curl with a dumbbell, your hand
holding the weight is free to move throughout the range of
motion. This exercise allows for a greater range of motion and
How to cite this article: Luke Del V, Shannon G, Hays D. Bodyweight Training for Muscular Strength & Endurance. J Yoga & Physio. 2022; 10(2): 555783.
DOI: 10.19080/JYP.2022.10.555783
002
Journal of Yoga and Physiotherapy
for hypertrophy training. However, because the distal extremity
is not stabilized, OKC exercises may not be suited for particular
rehabilitation objectives, such as improving balance [13].
In contrast to gymnasium-based exercise, bodyweight
exercises are performed in a closed-kinetic chain (CKC) pattern.
Closed kinetic chain exercises are exercises in which the distal
movement. This type of exercise is often used in sports training as
it better simulates the movement patterns in many sports [12,14].
strengthening the core and preventing injuries. However, because
the range of motion is more limited, it may not be suitable for
those with existing injuries.
Bodyweight training has many advantages and should not be
For instance, bodyweight training may not match the absolute
strength (the ability to move an absolute amount of load) gains
achieved from free-weight or machine training [6,15]. However,
research suggests that adding resistance bands to bodyweight
strengthening exercises such as push-ups can rival the absolute
strength improvements of barbell training [16]. Furthermore, the
load in bodyweight exercises such as push-ups approach 75%
of body weight [17], which for a 100-kilogram individual would
to meet established guidelines for the development of strength
[18].
On the other hand, bodyweight training develops relative
strength (the ability to move a load, as a certain percentage of
body weight) and cardiovascular endurance. By way of example,
researchers from McMaster University, Canada, reported
inactive adults after completing an 11-minute bodyweight circuit
training program for six weeks. Other researchers have reported
training [8,10]. Taken together, these data suggest bodyweight
progressing to single-limb variations.
Principles of Bodyweight Training
Akin to the conventional strength training guidelines [18],
bodyweight training for enhancing muscular strength should
follow similar principles, with a few important caveats. Firstly, the
assumption that bodyweight exercises are easy must be addressed
to avoid potential injury. Most beginners do not possess the
dip, two common bodyweight exercises for the upper body. Nor
may they in common bodyweight exercises for the legs, such as
trunk 54% of their body weight [19]. This means they will be lifting
approximately 60-70% of their superincumbent body weight each
repetition, which is more than enough to cause excessive muscular
soreness if the starting number of sets and repetitions is too high.
Thus, for heavier individuals, bodyweight exercise becomes more
demanding on the musculoskeletal system.
Secondly, the spinal compressive forces need to be taken into
account. Bodyweight exercises such as push-ups, supine pull-
ups, back raise, and planks position the spine in a perpendicular
position against gravity, which can create tremendous compressive
forces on the spine. These compressive forces can easily exceed
the tissue tolerances of the spine and lead to injury. For example,
the National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH)
recommends spinal compression forces never exceed 3,400
newtons [20]. Repetitive exposure to compression loads above
this level is associated with injury (McGill, 2015). A single-arm
push-up imposes 5,484 newtons of compression [21], whereas
popular core strengthening exercises, such as sit-ups, impose
3,506 newtons of compression on the spine. Collectively, these
that certain variations of popular bodyweight exercises, such as
push-ups and sit-ups, can present a real risk of injury to the spine.
Further examples of the compression loads in various bodyweight
exercises can be seen in Table 1.
Finally, the level of muscle activity must be considered if
there is a desire to use bodyweight training to increase strength.
Electromyographic analysis (EMG) determines muscle activity in
different exercises. (Ekstrom) EMG is normalized and expressed
as a maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). For
improvement, MVIC values should be >45%. In contrast, MVC
or for improving muscle endurance. Examples of Muscle activity
and MVIC values for different bodyweight exercises can be seen
in Table 1.
Notwithstanding these considerations of excessive loading
and spinal compression penalties, bodyweight training, as an
alternative to conventional, gymnasium-based exercise, can target
weight training should adhere to the general principles of exercise
program design which includes the following acute training
variables, described by Hayes et al. [30].
a) Choice of exercise: select bodyweight exercises that
utilize the major muscle groups. According to the minimal dose
approach for resistance training [31-33], As little as 2-exercises
per major muscle group can improve strength and functional
ability in younger and older adults [31]. Therefore, the choice
of exercises should be based on training status, goals and time
constraints.
How to cite this article: Luke Del V, Shannon G, Hays D. Bodyweight Training for Muscular Strength & Endurance. J Yoga & Physio. 2022; 10(2): 555783.
DOI: 10.19080/JYP.2022.10.555783
003
Journal of Yoga and Physiotherapy
Table 1: EMG, MVIC and Compression loads in dierent bodyweight exercises
Variation MVIC % Spinal Compression (N) Muscle Activity
Side plank on knees
RA [22]
EO [22]
ES [22]
Side plank on knees with abduction
Glute Bridge
ES 39% [23]
LM [24]
GMed 28% [23]
GM 25% [23]
Plank on toes
EO 47-76% [23,25] 1600-1800 [26] RA [24,27]
IO 58% [25] EO [24,27]
RA 43% [23] ES [24,27]
Plank on toes with hip extension
GM 106% [28]
GMed 75% [28]
Push-up Plank 1,838 [21] AD [23]
RA [23]
Side plank on toes
EO 69% [23]
2,500 [21]
RA 34% [23]
LM 40-42% [23]
GM 74% [23]
Rotational side plank
EO 60-62% [29]
RA 36-43% [29]
GMed 46-71% [29]
ES 36-46% [29]
LM 14-30% [29]
4-point kneeling with hip extension 2,000 [21]
Bird / dog
LM 36% [23]
3,000 [21]
ES 46% [23]
GMed 42% [23]
GM 56% [23]
Key: MVIC = Maximal Voluntary Isometric Contraction, IES=Erector Spinae, LM = Lumbar Multidus, EO=External Oblique, IO=Internal Oblique,
RA=rectus abdominis, GMed=Gluteus Medius, GM=Gluteus Maximus, HS=Hamstrings, AL; Adductor Longus, LD= Latissimus Dorsi, PM=
Pectoralis Major, AD= Anterior Deltoid, SA=serratus anterior, TB=Triceps Brachii
b) Order of exercise: large muscle groups before small
muscle groups to maximize the expression of strength. The
following program (Table 2) demonstrates how the principle of
exercise order can be applied to bodyweight training.
c) Load: The American College of Sports Medicine
Position Stand on Progression Models in Resistance Training [18]
100% 1RM to maximize muscular strength and 70-100% of 1RM
to maximize hypertrophy. More recent research suggests that
loads (>30% of 1RM) can stimulate improvements in muscular
strength and hypertrophy [34]. For bodyweight training focusing
on strength, a load can be applied by changing the starting position
or adding external objects such as resistance bands. Alternatively,
the load of different bodyweight exercises can be estimated
from known anthropometric data on the weight of varying body
segments [19]. To determine which body segments, contribute
to the load, add the weight of each body segment involved that
moves upward against gravity during the exercise.
How to cite this article: Luke Del V, Shannon G, Hays D. Bodyweight Training for Muscular Strength & Endurance. J Yoga & Physio. 2022; 10(2): 555783.
DOI: 10.19080/JYP.2022.10.555783
004
Journal of Yoga and Physiotherapy
d) Volume (sets x reps x load): The minimal dose
approach should be considered for beginners and time-poor
individuals. According to this theory [31,33], improvements
in muscular performance can be achieved from as little as
two sets per exercise, which means the exercise session can be
completed in as little as 15-minutes. On the other hand, making
gradual increases in volume and gradual decreases in intensity
is an effective training method to increase muscular (Table 3)
endurance [35].
e) Rest period between sets Conventional guidelines, such
as those provided by The ACSM [18], recommends 2–3-minute
rest periods between sets, for conventional strength training
minimal rest between sets or exercises, which has also been shown
to produce modest improvements in strength [36]. Collectively,
bodyweight training focusing on strength development should
use longer rests and, for muscle endurance, minimal or no rest at
between sets or exercises if the program is designed in a circuit
format.
f) Progressive overload Conventional resistance training
guidelines recommend increasing resistance levels by 10% per
week [18]. Bodyweight training programs need to compensate
for the lack of external resistance by adjusting other acute
training variables (sets x reps) and biomechanical factors such as:
increasing the total number of repetitions, adding multiple sets,
completing repetitions for time, speed and tempo manipulations,
varying the base of support, lever manipulation and changing the
starting position such as switching from a base position on the
Table 2: Bodyweight Circuit Complete as a circuit, beginners 1-2 rounds, intermediate 2-3 and advanced 3-5 rounds. Rest 1-2 minutes between
rounds.
Exercise Progressions Regressions Reps Tempo
Single leg 15-Dec 2:01:02
Lunge Bulgarian Lunge TRX lunge 15-Dec 2:01:02
Supine pull-up Chin up Band-assisted pull-up 15-Dec 2:01:02
Push-up Incline push up Wall or knee push-up 15-Dec 2:01:02
Pike-Push up Handstand push up Pike push up on the bench 15-Dec 2:01:02
Bench Dips Bar dips Bench dip with knees bent 15-Dec 2:01:02
TRX Bicep Curls Single-arm TRX bicep curl Isometric bicep curls 15-Dec 2:01:02
Calve Raises Single leg calve raises Isometric calve raises 15-Dec 2:01:02
Plank Push-up plank Plank on a bench or kneeling 60-seconds
Table 3: Minimal Dose Resistance Training Guidelines [31].
Traditional Resistance Training (RT) Minimal Dose RT
The number of exercises and sets per
muscle group.
2-3 exercises per muscle group <2 exercises per muscle group
2-4 sets per exercise < 2 sets per exercise
Session duration 45 minutes + <15-minutes
Sessions per week 2-3 sessions per week 5-7+ sessions per week
Load 30-70% 1-repetition maximum (1RM) Bodyweight to <30% 1-RM
barbells, dumbells, machines Bodyweight, resistance-bands
How to cite this article: Luke Del V, Shannon G, Hays D. Bodyweight Training for Muscular Strength & Endurance. J Yoga & Physio. 2022; 10(2): 555783.
DOI: 10.19080/JYP.2022.10.555783
005
Journal of Yoga and Physiotherapy
Conclusion
Bodyweight training is a versatile mode of exercise that
continues to grow in popularity due to the lasting effects of
the COVID pandemic and cost of living pressures. When safety
considerations such as the percentage of body weight as load
and spinal compression are taken into consideration can produce
favorable outcomes in both strength and endurance. Although
bodyweight training may look simple, proper attention to
remains safe and enduring. However, the purpose of this article
strength training, as both methods can be complementary and
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