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Individuals increase well-being by acting on their values rather than merely endorsing them. We developed a novel intervention ("Acting on Values," AoV), motivating individuals to initiate values-related behavior over four weeks. Building upon the theory of Basic Human Values, we expected that intervention recipients would increase their hedonic and eudaimonic well-being relative to a control group. We also expected the AoV interventions to cause similar effects as a mindfulness group. 783 volunteers (N = 268 completers) were assigned into three groups: AoV intervention, mindfulness, and a waiting list. Individuals who completed the AoV intervention achieved higher satisfaction with life, positive affect, and eudaimonic well-being, and lower negative affect than the control group. The well-being effects of the AoV intervention did not differ significantly from the mindfulness intervention effects. Our findings suggest that the AoV intervention is an efficacious method of increasing hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. It contributes to the diversity of well-being facilitation methods. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10902-022-00585-4.
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Vol.:(0123456789)
Journal of Happiness Studies (2022) 23:3889–3908
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00585-4
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RESEARCH PAPER
Acting onValues: ANovel Intervention Enhancing Hedonic
andEudaimonic Well‑Being
AgnieszkaBojanowska1 · ŁukaszD.Kaczmarek2 · BeataUrbanska1·
MalwinaPuchalska1
Accepted: 17 September 2022 / Published online: 4 October 2022
© The Author(s) 2022
Abstract
Individuals increase well-being by acting on their values rather than merely endorsing
them. We developed a novel intervention (“Acting on Values,” AoV), motivating individu-
als to initiate values-related behavior over four weeks. Building upon the theory of Basic
Human Values, we expected that intervention recipients would increase their hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being relative to a control group. We also expected the AoV interventions
to cause similar effects as a mindfulness group. 783 volunteers (N = 268 completers) were
assigned into three groups: AoV intervention, mindfulness, and a waiting list. Individu-
als who completed the AoV intervention achieved higher satisfaction with life, positive
affect, and eudaimonic well-being, and lower negative affect than the control group. The
well-being effects of the AoV intervention did not differ significantly from the mindful-
ness intervention effects. Our findings suggest that the AoV intervention is an efficacious
method of increasing hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. It contributes to the diversity of
well-being facilitation methods.
Keywords Well-being· Values· Satisfaction with life· Positive affect· Negative affect·
Mindfulness· Interventions
1 Introduction
Individuals tend to talk about their values more than they actually act on them (Sheldon
& Krieger, 2014). This value importance/behavior gap is problematic because individu-
als become happier once they increase acting on their values (Sheldon & Krieger, 2014;
Tessier etal., 2021). The value importance/behavior gap also suggests that individuals miss
opportunities to enhance their lives via values engagement. Thus, most people might per-
sonally benefit from psychological assistance in the active pursuit of value-related goals.
* Agnieszka Bojanowska
abojanowska@swps.edu.pl
1 Department ofPsychology, SWPS University ofSocial Sciences andHumanities, Chodakowska
19/31, 03-815Warsaw, Poland
2 Department ofPsychology andCognitive Science, Adam Mickiewicz University,
Szamarzewskiego 89, 60-568Poznan, Poland
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Over the last two decades, an extensive literature has accumulated data regarding inter-
ventions that increase well-being or Positive Psychological Interventions (PPIs) (Seligman
etal., 2005). However, none of these interventions has addressed the human values system
explicitly. Most intervention studies have focused on increasing the hedonic aspect of well-
being, e.g., subjective well-being (Diener, 2000). Many studies also examined eudaimonic
well-being related to self-discovery and self-expression as reflected in engagement in per-
sonally relevant pursuits (Bolier etal., 2013; Weiss etal., 2016).
Building upon the theory of Basic Human Needs (Schwartz, 2012), we aimed to
develop and examine the effects of a novel intervention that serves individuals in initiat-
ing more value-related actions in their daily life. We sought to account for a broad range of
intervention outcomes, including subjective and eudaimonic well-being. Finally, we aimed
to contribute to the literature by establishing how the novel intervention compares to a
mindfulness-based intervention. This might provide more insight into whether behavioral
engagement of values via an intervention (a more personalized approach) meets the effects
of an intervention that has established efficacy but is less values-based.
Increasing the diversity of PPIs by engaging various positive emotions and positive
behaviors is necessary for several reasons. Using diverse PPIs is likely to counter the
effects of hedonic adaptation (Bao & Lyubomirsky, 2014). More extensive diversity in
PPIs might also minimize several PPIs problems, such as differential effectiveness across
cultures (Carr etal., 2020; Ng & Ong, 2021) or across personality traits and individual dif-
ferences (Enko etal., 2021; Oltean etal., 2022; Wellenzohn etal., 2018). Finally, PPIs are
more efficacious in multicomponent programs that engage several processes (van Agteren
et al., 2021). In summary, the development and examination of this novel intervention
might contribute to PPIs’ repertoire expansion. It also helps refine and progress functional
theories of values that address the value importance/behavior gap (Schwartz & Sortheix,
2018; Sheldon & Krieger, 2014).
2 Basic Human Values
Values reflect what individuals consider important and worth pursuing in life (Schwartz
& Sortheix, 2018; Schwartz etal., 2012). They are broad personal goals such as cultivat-
ing tradition, seeking stimulation and pleasure, or contributing to the welfare of others.
There are individual differences in values, e.g., some values are essential to one person and
unimportant to someone else. Values form a circular structure that reflects how they are
related to each other: neighboring values share similar goals that can be realized through
common behaviors, e.g., seeking achievements and power (Schwartz etal., 2012). Values
on the opposite sides of the circle contradict one another, e.g., seeking stimulation vs. secu-
rity. The circle of values forms higher-order groups. The most common division lists four
higher-order constructs: openness to change (self-direction, stimulation, hedonism), self-
enhancement (power, achievement), conservation (conformity, tradition), and self-tran-
scendence (benevolence, universalism) (Schwartz etal., 2012).
Some values are considered healthy because they promote higher subjective well-
being. Others hamper well-being and are considered unhealthy (Sortheix & Schwartz,
2018). Theorists suggest that healthy values reflect growth. In contrast, unhealthy values
reflect deficiency and anxious self-protection. Openness to change and self-transcendence
have proven to be the healthiest values (Bobowik etal., 2011; Cohen & Shamai, 2010;
Sortheix & Schwartz, 2018). They motivate people to pursue new opportunities, satisfy
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their personal needs, and maintain good relationships with others. Self-enhancement and
conservation were more often related to lower hedonic and eudaimonic indices of well-
being (Bobowik etal., 2011; Bojanowska & Piotrowski, 2017 Sortheix & Schwartz, 2018).
Yet, these effects were not consistent. Less frequent endorsement of unhealthy values is
observed in numerous populations (Cieciuch, 2013). For instance, power is the least and
benevolence the most endorsed value globally (Schwartz, 2007). Therefore, in our inter-
vention, we left the participants the autonomy to act on any values they have (rather than
suppressing some). We expected that healthy values would dominate their systems.
3 Hedonic andEudaimonic Well‑Being
The possible effects of a values-based intervention cover a wide range of well-being out-
comes. Accounting for the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives is essential to capture the
specific impacts of value-based interventions. Hedonic well-being is often represented by
the theory of subjective well-being, which includes cognitive and affective components
(Diener, 2000). The cognitive component refers to satisfaction with life, i.e., an individual’s
general belief that their life is similar to or different from their subjective ideal. The affec-
tive component emphasizes the abundance of positive emotions and the absence of nega-
tive emotions in daily life. Eudaimonic well-being represents the realization and expression
of human and individual potential toward personal excellence (Kaczmarek, 2017; Water-
man, 1990). This perspective focuses on developing a person’s most essential skills and
resources used to achieve self-concordant goals. Hedonists primarily strive toward specific
feelings, whereas eudaimonists strive toward specific self-congruent goals (Kaczmarek,
2017). These two broad aspects of well-being are necessary to encompass the potentially
unique effects of value-oriented interventions. Nonetheless, eudaimonic well-being is less
studied as the PPIs’ outcome relative to hedonic well-being (Koydemir etal., 2021). Devel-
oping new methods to increase eudaimonic well-being via interventions is particularly
important because existing methods produce much smaller effects for eudaimonic well-
being than subjective well-being (Koydemir etal., 2021).
4 Acting onValues andits Eects onWell‑Being
Theorists argue that individuals maximize the benefits of their value systems once they
start to act upon them, i.e., "walking the talk" (Sheldon & Krieger, 2014). This has practi-
cal importance because research presents that a value importance/behavior gap exists in
human values systems, such that individuals act on values ("walk") less than they explic-
itly endorse these values ("talk") (Sheldon & Krieger, 2014). A similar approach has been
highlighted in the character strengths perspective(Seligman etal., 2005). Initiating actions
that reflect personal moral traits leads to greater well-being (Schutte & Malouff, 2019).
Pursuing values is likely to increase well-being for several reasons. First, individuals are
intrinsically rewarded for thoughts and actions congruent with their values and punished
for incongruent thoughts and actions (Feather, 1996; Rohan, 2000; Schwartz & Sortheix,
2018). Thus, individuals acting on values more often in response to an intervention might
experience more positive emotions (reward for congruence) and less negative emotions
(less punishment for incongruence), making their lives more satisfying (Kim-Prieto etal.,
2005). Second, individuals who act upon their values are more likely to experience the
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satisfaction of important goal achievement (Schwartz & Sortheix, 2018). This might result
in increased eudaimonic well-being (Sheldon, 2002; Waterman et al., 2010). Moreover,
individuals who initiate values-related behaviors in response to an intervention (e.g., help-
ing others resulting from self-transcendence) are likely to generate more positive events
in their lives. Thus, the AoV intervention recipients might derive more positive emotions
(e.g., empathic joy) from the new events that would not take place otherwise.
These arguments support the development of PPIs based on individual value systems.
The Theory of Basic Human Values (Schwartz, 1992), which focuses on personal beliefs
and value-related actions, provides an excellent framework for developing tailored inter-
ventions. Such interventions would provide individuals with more opportunities to fill their
attitude/behavior gap. This involves planning to act on their personal values and keeping
to these plans (Hagger & Luszczynska, 2014). Therefore, our primary hypothesis was that
an intervention that activates values would enhance subjective and eudaimonic well-being.
5 Mindfulness Interventions
Mindfulness is a state of attention characterized by openness, acceptance, and an enhanced
ability to respond to the present moment. It is the quality of awareness that arises through
intentionally attending to the present moment experienced in a non-judgmental and accept-
ing way (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness interventions enable individuals to experience
the present moment with greater attention and awareness, fostering clear thinking, compo-
sure, compassion, and open-heartedness. Although mindfulness has its roots in Buddhist
meditation, most evidence-based mindfulness interventions are now secular and practiced
worldwide (Chen & Murphy, 2019). A standard mindfulness intervention is mindfulness-
based stress reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1982), which includes a series of practices in
increasing awareness of thoughts, breath, sounds, and other sensations. Mindfulness inter-
ventions range from 2 to 5-week brief mindfulness meditation interventions (Lim etal.,
2015; Mrazek et al., 2013; Sass et al., 2019) to extensive 8-week programs (Vonderlin
etal., 2020).
Meta-analyses have shown that mindfulness interventions increase satisfaction with
life (Klussman etal., 2020), increase positive affect and decrease negative affect (Lindsay
etal., 2018; Snippe etal., 2017), and enhance eudaimonic well-being (Bartlett etal., 2019;
Vonderlin etal., 2020). Moreover, mindfulness interventions present the greatest efficacy
in increasing well-being in clinical and non-clinical populations in comparison with dis-
tinct types of psychological interventions (van Agteren etal., 2021). Mindfulness interven-
tions are also efficacious when delivered online (Howells etal., 2016; Kappen etal., 2019).
Therefore, mindfulness interventions are a good reference point for comparing the effec-
tiveness of the value-related intervention. As stated in the literature, the effects of novel
interventions should be compared with other well-established interventions (Heintzelman
& Kushlev, 2020). Mindfulness interventions meet these criteria. They have been proven
effective over various samples and contexts. A recent meta-analysis indicated that mind-
fulness interventions are the most efficacious interventions on a par with multicomponent
PPIs delivered over an extended period (van Agteren etal., 2021). Additionally, mindful-
ness interventions are more universal than values-based interventions. Fewer individual
preferences are considered in what individuals want to pursue and what actions to perform.
Thus mindfulness interventions can be contrasted with a value-related intervention that is
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more personalized and has the potential for a better person-activity fit (Lyubomirsky &
Layous, 2013).
6 Online PPIs
There are several delivery vehicles for PPIs: face-to-face programs (e.g., Seligman etal.,
2006), automated online methods, e.g., webpages (Seligman etal., 2005), or smartphone
applications (Boucher etal., 2021; Rebedew, 2018). In online or app services, individuals
interact with reading materials, pictures, or pre-recorded videos. The online format pro-
vides more standardization, easier intervention delivery, and progress tracking at the cost
of communication quality and the absence of physical contact. PPIs with personal con-
tact have been identified as producing stronger effects (Koydemir etal., 2021; Malouff &
Schutte, 2017). However, more general work on interventions aimed at well-being (includ-
ing PPIs) indicated that face-to-face and online interventions’ formats produced similar
results (van Agteren etal., 2021). This suggests that the findings regarding the intervention
delivery methods are inconclusive. Moreover, previous research indicated that online PPIs
are more effective when efforts are taken to engage individuals and, thus, prevent attrition
(Parks, 2014).
7 The Present Study
We aimed to examine the effects of a novel six-week-long online intervention to increase
well-being via enhanced value-related actions in daily life. Building upon the Theory of
Basic Values (Schwartz, 2012; Schwartz & Sortheix, 2018), and research documenting the
benefits of acting on values (Sheldon & Krieger, 2014), we expected that stronger engage-
ment in value-expressive behavior would increase hedonic and eudaimonic well-being.
Furthermore, we aimed to test our intervention against two groups: a neutral control group
and a mindfulness intervention group (Bartlett etal., 2019; Klussman etal., 2020; Snippe
etal., 2017). This design allows examining whether the AoV intervention provides benefits
relative to neutral conditions and other interventions. We addressed hedonic and eudai-
monic well-being for outcomes, which is particularly important to capture the effects of
values.
We primarily aimed to deliver the intervention face-to-face. However, the outbreak of
the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown required that we turn to online methods. Thus,
we tailored the intervention to be administered and completed online. Consequently, we
tested this intervention using an intervention delivery vehicle that seems especially needed
if similar crises and restrictions on face-to-face contact occur in the future.
Our approach based on values and well-being during a pandemic is essential if we con-
sider an earlier observation that individuals modified their values during the lockdown and
significantly declined all aspects of well-being (Bojanowska et al., 2021; Bonetto et al.,
2021). Interventions that assist individuals in discovering new ways to act on their val-
ues despite restrictions might contribute to well-being preservation during pandemics.
These interventions might also be worthwhile when the COVID-19 pandemic is over to
strengthen individuals and further build their value-based resources (such as openness to
change) that might buffer against other forms of social turmoil (Bojanowska etal., 2021).
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8 Method
8.1 Participants
A power analysis using G*Power 3.1 (Faul etal., 2009) indicated that detecting medium
effect sizes of f = 0.25, with the power of 0.95, would require a final sample size of at
least 251 participants for an ANCOVA with three groups and one covariate. To account
for the expected dropout, we tripled the initial sample size. A total of 783 participants
signed up for the experiment. They all gave informed consent to participate in the study
and provided information regarding gender, age, education, and email address. Partici-
pants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: AoV, mindfulness, and the control
group. Participants entered the mindfulness training group only if they had not received
mindfulness training in the past. A total of 268 participants (34% of all enrolled and
55% of those who completed baseline questionnaires) completed the study (Fig.1). Of
the participants, 239 (89.2%) were female, and 29 (10.8%) were males. Their age was
between 18 and 55years (M = 34.09, SD = 9.49). The dropout size (Fig.1) was compa-
rable to other online studies (Melville etal., 2010; Morledge etal., 2013). The experi-
ment was conducted between September 2020 and February 2021. Due to COVID-19
pandemic restrictions, we conducted the intervention online. We recruited participants
among Polish psychology students and Facebook users (via Facebook ads). Psychology
students received credits for participating in the study. We report how we determined
our sample size, all data exclusions, all manipulations, and all measures in the study.
Ethical Committee approved this study (SWPS University Ethics Committee, decision
nr 38/2019).
n= 783 enrolled
Randomization
Values Intervention
n= 263
Control group
n= 226
Mindfulness intervention
n= 294
n= 34 removed
(previous mindfulness training)
n= 107 completed
the questionnaires
n= 81 completed
the training
n= 80 completed
the training
n= 165 completed
baseline questionnaires
n= 162 completed
baseline questionnaires
n= 160 completed
baseline questionnaires
Fig. 1 Flow diagram for study participants
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8.2 Procedure
8.2.1 Values Training
After completing the baseline questionnaires, respondents participating in values training
received information regarding their four most important values (based on the PVQ question-
naire) along with a characteristic of these values. We used a framework that emphasizes ten
values (Schwartz, 1992).
8.2.2 Mindfulness Training
Participants from the mindfulness training group received information about the level of their
intentional attention measured with the Polish version of the Short Form Mindful Attention
Awareness Scale (MAAS-SF-PL, Brown & Ryan, 2003; Radoń, 2014). There were four levels
of interpretation: early beginner, beginner, intermediate, and advanced. The levels correspond
to the points received in a questionnaire. Each level was described with behavioral language
and indicated the pros and cons of each attention state and the advantages of participating in
mindfulness training.
8.3 Values Training Procedure
After getting feedback on their four most essential values, participants received the first read-
ing material about the role of values according to Schwartz’s theory. Their task was to plan
how to act on their most important value over the upcoming week and put this plan into prac-
tice. Participants used an online journal to report what value they would be working on and
what actions they planned to take (Supplement A). Participants received additional reading
materials each week and planned to realize the subsequent values. Using their online diaries,
they also reported how successfully they implemented their plans in the previous week and
what actions they took.
We did not suggest the frequency of acting on values because participants planned activi-
ties that followed different patterns depending on the value. For instance, some values-related
activities might be performed daily (e.g., being more helpful to others), weekly (going to the
swimming pool), or less often (e.g., going to the opera). Moreover, some participants might
perform different one-time tasks (e.g., buying geolocation trackers to increase children’s
outdoor security). Finally, some activities might be less plannable and more dependent on
increased awareness and readiness to respond to emerging opportunities (deciding to actively
participate in a social protest).
The materials that the respondents read each week addressed (1) the role of the values
(according to Schwartz’s theory); (2) the advantages of knowing one’s value hierarchy and
acting accordingly; (3) factors influencing which values are most important to people (includ-
ing cultural factors); (4) the importance of regularity in acting on values. After the training,
the participants completed post-test questionnaires. They also received feedback on how their
well-being changed after the training.
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8.4 Mindfulness Intervention Procedure
Participants took a short form of a 4-week MBSR course, adjusted from an original 8-week
program (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). After getting feedback on their mindfulness levels, partici-
pants received a 10-min guided meditation each week. They were encouraged to use daily
situations to practice mindfulness and report them in an online journal. The meditations
were: body scanning, sitting with the breath, sound, and walking meditation (Kabat-Zinn,
1990). The program started with mindfulness fundamentals (awareness of body sensa-
tion and breathing) and led towards more complex and challenging exercises (walking
meditation).
As in the value intervention, participants completed the online diary reporting their
engagement in the process (how often they planned to practice and how well they did in
this task in the previous week). With each voice meditation, participants received one read-
ing material per week (1) an introduction to mindfulness—what is mindfulness and how
it is practiced; (2) advantages of practicing mindfulness—what changes participants can
expect from regular practice; (3) mindfulness in different cultures—the Eastern and West-
ern perspective on attentive awareness; (4) importance of the regular practice of mindful-
ness—information on the negative consequences of being in an unaware state of mind and
how to enhance motivation to practice mindfulness. As in the value intervention, partici-
pants completed post-test questionnaires and received feedback.
The intervention plan is presented in Table1.
8.5 Intervention Engagement
Participants rated their intervention engagement on a scale from 1 ("very poor") to 10
("very intense") after the study. We also monitored how many diaries the participants
completed. The mean engagement was relatively high (M = 7.03, SD = 1.95), and 85% of
the participants completed each assignment. We included all participants in the analysis
regardless of their compliance. This is in line with the intention-to-treat rule ("once ran-
domized, always analyzed"), providing an unbiased estimate of treatment effects (Gupta,
2011).
8.6 Control Group Procedure
Participants assigned to the control group completed baseline questionnaires. After four
weeks, they completed post-test questionnaires and received materials from the interven-
tion they chose as a benefit.
8.7 Measures
8.7.1 Eudaimonic Well‑Being
We used the Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-being (Waterman etal., 2010; adapted into
Polish by Kłym-Guba & Karaś (2018). It consists of 21 items (e.g., ’I believe I know what
my strongest skills are and I try to develop them whenever possible’), with answers ranging
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Table 1 Intervention design
Week Intervention
Acting on values Mindfulness
Baseline measurement Baseline measurement
1 Feedback on personal values Feedback on mindfulness levels
Text material: The role of values Text material: Introduction to mindfulness
Applying the most important value in life “Awareness of body sensation” meditation to practice during the next week
Online diary Online diary
2 Text material: Advantages of knowing the hierarchy of values Text material: Advantages of practicing mindfulness
Applying the second most important value in life "Sitting with the breath" meditation to practice during the week
Online diary Online diary
3 Text material: Factors shaping the values (including culture) Text material: Mindfulness in different cultures
Applying the third most important value in life Sound meditation to practice during the week
Online diary Online diary
4Text material: The importance of the regular practice of acting upon values Text material: Importance of regular practice of mindfulness
Applying the fourth most important value in life Walking meditation to practice during the week
Online diary Online diary
Final measurement & feedback Final measurement & feedback
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from 1 (’strongly agree’) to 7 (’strongly disagree’). Higher scores indicated higher eudaimonic
well-being. This scale had satisfactory reliability with Cronbach’s α = 0.84 and McDonald’s
ω = 0.84.
8.7.2 Positive andNegative Affect
Positive affect and negative affect were measured using the Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (Watson etal., 1988; Bojanowska & Zalewska, 2015). This measure comprises a list
of ten adjectives referring to positive (e.g., interested, excited) and ten adjectives referring to
negative (e.g., guilty, ashamed) affective states experienced over the previous two weeks. Par-
ticipants responded on a scale from 1 (’slightly or not at all’) to 5 (’extremely’). Higher scores
represented higher intensity of affect. The scales had satisfactory reliability with Cronbach’s
α = 0.70 and McDonald’s ω = 0.77 for positive affect and Cronbach’s α = 0.89 and McDon-
ald’s ω = 0.89 for negative affect.
Satisfaction with Life. We used the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al.,
1985; Bojanowska & Piotrowski, 2017) to assess participants’ global evaluation of their life
(’In most ways, my life is close to my ideal’) on a scale from 1 (’I definitely disagree’) to 7 (’I
definitely agree’). Higher scores represent higher satisfaction with life. This scale had satisfac-
tory reliability with Cronbach’s α = 0.83 and McDonald’s ω = 0.84.
8.8 Analytical strategy
We used a 3 (group: the AoV intervention, the mindfulness intervention, and control) × 2 (gen-
der) ANCOVA with post-test values as the outcome while controlling for baseline values as
a covariate. Such models assess the difference in post-test means while accounting for pre-
test values, which provides more statistical power (Clifton & Clifton, 2019; Van Breukelen,
2006). We present partial eta-squared (η2) with η2 > 0.14 for large, η2 > 0.07 for medium, and
η2 > 0.02 for small effect sizes. We included in the supplementary materials a repeated-meas-
ures ANOVA, which does not adjust the outcomes for pre-test values (Supplement B). We
performed these analyses with SPSS 26.0 (IBM, USA).
Furthermore, we tested the intervention’s effects equivalence (Lakens, 2017). Accounting
for equivalence allows testing if the effects are robust enough to differ from 0 to a meaningful
extent, i.e., beyond a predefined range of equivalence. Thus, the equivalence test goes beyond
the traditional testing if the difference is at least higher than 0. This procedure is identical to
testing if the effect’s 90% two-sided confidence interval falls entirely within the set equiva-
lence range. The equivalence lower and upper bounds represent effects considered too small to
be meaningful. We set the Cohen’s d equivalence bounds of ΔL = − 0.23 and ΔU = 0.23. Such
positive interventions’ overall effect size was identified in a meta-analysis that accounted for
mindfulness interventions (Koydemir etal., 2020). Consequently, we tested if each increase in
outcomes from the baseline to the post-test was meaningful relative to the effects observed in
other studies. We tested equivalence using jamovi software (The jamovi project, 2021) and the
TOSTER module (Lakens, 2017).
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9 Results
Preliminary analyses. Groups did not differ in baseline satisfaction with life, F (2,
265) = 1.92, p = 0.15, η2 = 0.01, eudaimonic well-being, F (2, 265) = 0.16, p = 0.85,
η2 < 0.01, and negative affect, F (2, 265) = 0.80, p = 0.45, η2 = 0.01. There were small base-
line differences in positive affect, F (2, 265) = 3.58, p = 0.03, η2 = 0.03. Thus, we accounted
for baseline in determining intervention outcomes.
The frequency of values endorsement is presented in Table2. We present raw and ipsa-
tive scores of values. Ipsatization is a correction of variables by their common component,
which involves within-individual centering. As recommended (Schwartz, 1992), we calcu-
lated the ipsative scores by subtracting an overall individual mean of all value items from
every specific value index based on subsets of these items. We present raw and ipsative
scores because simulation studies indicate that raw and ipsatized scores have their advan-
tages and limitations; thus, both are best presented (Rudnev, 2021). Participants tended to
endorse openness to change and oelf-transcendence values more often (higher raw score
means and ipsative scores are above 0). They endorsed self-enhancement and conservation
less often (lower raw score means and ipsative scores below 0).
Intervention effects. We found that individuals involved in the AoV intervention and
those involved in the mindfulness intervention achieved higher levels of satisfaction
with life, F (2, 264) = 12.27; p < 0.001; η2. = 0.09), positive emotions, F (2, 264) = 13.26,
p < 0.001, η2. = 0.09), and eudaimonic well-being, F (2, 264) = 10.66, p < 0.001, η2. = 0.08,
and lower levels of negative emotions, F (2, 264) = 19.39, p < 0.001; η2. = 0.13, than t he
control group (Fig.2). These effects were moderate in size. There were no significant dif-
ferences between the effects of the AoV and the mindfulness intervention.
The equivalence analysis indicated similar results (Table 3). There were significant
differences in pre- vs. post-test outcomes. As expected, the levels from pre-test to post-
test were generally significantly different and non-equivalent in the interventions groups.
Repeated-measures ANOVA that did not adjust for the baseline produced similar results
(Supplement B).
10 Discussion
We developed and examined a novel values-based intervention aimed at increasing well-
being. As expected, individuals who completed the AoV intervention achieved higher
subjective and eudaimonic well-being than a neutral control group. Namely, the AoV
intervention recipients were more satisfied with their life, enjoyed more self-expression
(eudaimonic well-being), and felt more positive and less negative affect than individuals
who did not initiate any intervention. Moreover, the results of the AoV intervention were
comparable to the effects of well-established mindfulness intervention. Our findings also
Table 2 Values endorsement. Mean and standard deviations (in brackets) for each higher-order value
Higher scores reflect stronger values endorsement
Openness to change Self-enhancement Conservation Self-transcendence
Raw scores 4.43(.71) 3.45(.85) 3.79(.72) 4.93(.62)
Ipsative scores .27(.61) − .70(.67) − .38(.47) .77(.42)
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indicated the feasibility of the novel AoV intervention relative to the mindfulness interven-
tion, as their dropout rates were similar. We tested this intervention under restrictions on
daily activities during the COVID-19 lockdown.
We provided systematic and well-controlled evidence that individuals who intensify act-
ing on their values are more likely to increase their well-being. This finding contributes to
the Basic Human Values framework discussion regarding the relationship between values
and well-being (Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000). Our results support the existence of the value
importance/behavior gap (Sheldon & Kireger, 2014) because participants realized their
well-being potential after receiving more motivation and assistance in acting upon their
values, i.e., walking the talk. This change indicates the significance of the gap as well as
the feasibility and relative ease of reducing it by interventions. Finally, our findings also
addressed classical philosophical (Kaczmarek, 2017) and psychological (e.g., Waterman
et al., 2010) accounts of eudaimonia that emphasize that individuals pursue happiness
effectively when they pursue what they consider essential in life.
We found that the novel AoV intervention produced similar outcomes as a well-estab-
lished mindfulness intervention. Both interventions had comparable moderate effects
on each well-being facet. It indicates that the AoV intervention meets the domain stand-
ards. This finding also corroborates previous meta-analyses indicating that mindfulness
Fig. 2 The effects of the interventions on well-being. Note Covariate-adjusted means. Post hoc comparison
with Bonferroni correction. Error bars represent 95% CIs. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001
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Table 3 Descriptive statistics and equivalence tests
dfAoV = 79, dfmindfulness = 80, dfcont = 106
a p < .07, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001
Group Variable M (SD) Paired t-test Equivalence t-test (TOST) Statistical interpretation
Pretest Posttest Lower bound Upper bound Difference Equivalence
Acting on values Life satisfaction 4.15(1.06) 4.63(1.22) 5.33*** 7.39** 3.28 Yes No
Eudaimonic WB 4.86(0.74) 5.06(0.80) 3.10*** 5.16*** 1.04 Yes No
Positive emotions 3.34(0.71) 3.49(0.66) 1.81a3.87*** − .24 Marginally No
Negative emotions 2.67(0.91) 2.21(0.86) − 4.66*** − 2.60 − 6.71*** Yes No
Mindfulness Life satisfaction 4.00(1.21) 4.72(1.21) 6.22*** 8.29*** 4.15 Yes No
Eudaimonic WB 4.91(0.76) 5.2(0.76) 5.96*** 8.03*** 3.89 yes No
Positive emotions 3.10 (0.75) 3.53(0.73) 6.22*** 8.29*** 4.15 Yes No
Negative emotions 2.63(0.81) 2.12(0.90) − 6.84*** − 4.77 − 8.91*** Yes No
Control Life satisfaction 3.82(1.21) 4.02(1.18) 2.27*4.65*** − 0.11 Yes No
Eudaimonic WB 4.85(0.79) 4.84(0.80) − 0.23 2.14*− 2.61** No Yes
Positive emotions 3.07(0.73) 3.05(0.78) − 0.18 2.19*− 2.56** No Yes
Negative emotions 2.79(0.95) 2.82(0.98) .39 − 1.99*2.76** No Yes
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interventions produce results comparable to PPIs delivered over an extended period (van
Agteren etal., 2021). Having intervention alternatives is essential as the hedonic adapta-
tion theories emphasize the need for different activities and experiences in building endur-
ing well-being (Bao & Lyubomirsky, 2014; Wilson & Gilbert, 2008). Our effort also fol-
lows recommendations to increase new PPI development’s scientific quality (Heintzelman
& Kushlev, 2020). We present that further work on the effects of PPIs might benefit from
comparing interventions against each other.
We covered a broad range of well-being facets from affect to cognition and from the
hedonic to eudaimonic perspective. However, we observed similar effects of the inter-
ventions for each well-being measure. This reveals the strength of the AoV intervention
because the effects of PPIs are usually less pronounced for eudaimonic well-being than for
subjective well-being (Koydemir etal., 2021). Moreover, these uniform outcomes across
each well-being facet address whether distinguishing between different aspects of well-
being makes practical sense (e.g., Disabato etal., 2016). We found that interventions oper-
ated in the same direction and had similar strength in their effects on each well-being facet.
This supports the notion that they might operate together in daily life. Of note, we observed
the strongest effect of the intervention (on the verge of moderate and strong effects) for
negative affect. It might suggest that the AoV intervention might be the most effective in
reducing distress. This finding might address new questions regarding the primary role of
emotions in the PPI’ working mechanisms (Moskowitz etal., 2021).
We focused on the general positive effect of walking the talk identified in previous stud-
ies (Sheldon & Krieger, 2014; Tessier etal., 2021). Thus, participants were free to act upon
any of their dominant values. Most of our participants more frequently endorsed openness
to change and self-transcendence. These two groups of values are considered healthier
because they reflect a growth orientation, whereas self-enhancement and conservation (less
frequently endorsed in our sample) might be driven more by managing anxiety and self-
protection (Sortheix & Schwartz, 2018). Such a structure of value endorsement, especially
the less frequent endorsement of self-enhancement, is observed in numerous populations
(Cieciuch, 2013) and can be deemed representative of the broader population.
Our study also provides a new replication of the benefits of mindfulness interventions
(Bartlett et al., 2019; Klussman et al., 2020; Lindsay et al., 2019; Snippe et al., 2017;
Vonderlin etal., 2020). We used this intervention primarily as a benchmark for our novel
intervention. However, the results contribute to mindfulness research. First, we replicated
previous findings that practicing mindfulness provides benefits for well-being. Notably,
whereas most previous studies used more extended mindfulness programs, we present
moderate benefits reached in a four-week mindfulness training. Moreover, we report evi-
dence that mindfulness interventions increase eudaimonic well-being, a facet of well-being
studied as the outcome of mindfulness interventions less often. Finally, few studies com-
pared mindfulness training with other interventions. Thus, we present that the mindfulness
intervention does not offer superior effects when used to increase well-being. The effects
were moderate and comparable to another intervention that did not focus on mindfulness.
10.1 Practical Implications
This study has some practical implications. First, we offer a novel intervention that prac-
titioners of psychology might use with clients to improve their well-being. As diversity is
essential for PPIs to work effectively (Bao & Lyubomirksy, 2014), the AoV intervention
might be a worthwhile addition to the PPIs repertoire. Second, despite the AoV intervention
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devised as a life-enhancing method with a positive focus, we observed its particular effi-
cacy in reducing negative feelings. This might indicate that the AoV intervention might
be used to counter negative feelings in non-clinical samples. Third, we present evidence
that motivating individuals toward a life more infused with values does not provide costs
to their well-being. In contrast, individuals activating their values enjoyed these activities
and were more satisfied with life. Practitioners can use this finding to build positive atti-
tudes and expectations towards values and value-related actions among their clients. This
might be considered from the sociotherapeutic perspective that often emphasizes the devel-
opment of values systems. Fourth, our findings regarding values and mindfulness might be
relevant to Acceptance and Commitment Therapy because value-expressive behaviors and
mindfulness training constitute this approach’s base (Hayes etal., 2006). Finally, our work
provides some of the earliest interventions whose effectiveness was tested in the context
of the COVID-19 pandemic (Dennis etal., 2021; Grasedieck, 2021; Xiaomei etal., 2020).
Thus, we recommend the AoV intervention (as the mindfulness intervention) to practition-
ers who need evidence for an intervention to work in this particular social context, e.g.,
using a format that respects social distancing or an intervention that individuals perform
despite pandemic restrictions on daily behavior.
10.2 Limitations andFuture Directions
This study has several limitations. First, we conducted this study in Poland. Due to national
differences in dominating values and their link with well-being, the outcomes might differ
in other countries (Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000). Second, we delivered interventions online.
Further studies might test how the technology moderates the outcomes of this interven-
tion. It is not unlikely that the effects might be more pronounced using face-to-face ses-
sions because previous analyses indicated that personal contact increases the influence of
PPIs (Koydemir etal., 2021; Malouff & Schutte, 2017). Third, most of the volunteers who
responded to our invitation were female. With few men in our sample, we could not reli-
ably test whether gender moderated the effects of the intervention. Further studies might
examine whether these findings generalize to men. Fourth, we provided the interven-
tion during the COVID-19 lockdown. This pandemic had substantial adverse effects on
well-being and transformed some personal values, e.g., by reducing hedonistic pursuits
(Bojanowska etal., 2021). We know little whether the effects of the AoV intervention
would be the same if individuals had higher baseline levels of well-being and if extraordi-
nary circumstances did not influence participants’ values. Fifth, despite the random assign-
ment to groups, we observed a minor baseline difference in positive affect. Our analytic
approach aimed to minimize these effects by adjusting the outcomes for what might be
expected if both groups had equal starting levels of positive affect (Clifton & Clifton, 2019;
Van Breukelen, 2006). Nevertheless, this analytical method does not rule out the possibil-
ity that it might have been more difficult for individuals in the AoV group to improve on
positive affect if the participants in the other groups had more room to improve (Pearl,
2016). Sixth, we experienced a considerable dropout from the intervention. Although the
dropout rate was comparable to other intervention studies, some methods to reduce dropout
might be employed. For instance, our intervention might be more tailored to smartphone
use as smartphones become increasingly popular in delivering PPIs (e.g., Howells etal.,
2016). Seventh, we tested this intervention in a non-clinical sample. Thus, this efficacy test
does not generalize to clinical samples, e.g., depressed or anxious individuals. Mindful-
ness interventions and many PPIs have been efficacious in clinical settings (Geerling etal.,
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2020; Lai etal., 2019). Thus, further studies might seek ways to adjust this intervention
to facilitate well-being among individuals representing clinical groups. Eight, the control
group did not perform any activity. They may have experienced lower well-being, espe-
cially due to the COVID-19 lockdown and restrictions. Further testing of the AoV inter-
vention might benefit from a comparison with a group performing a neutral or a placebo
activity. Ninth, mindfulness was a fixed schedule intervention, whereas the AoV interven-
tion allowed for a broader range of behavioral patterns. Further studies might dissect and
optimize this behavioral aspect by manipulating the frequency of AoV and mindfulness
interventions. Tenth, we used a mindfulness intervention as a reference point. However,
it would also be worth comparing the AoV intervention’s effects with other interventions,
including those that provide less pronounced effects. This would allow observing more
relative benefits of the AoV intervention and presenting our intervention within a broader
context of existing research and practice. Finally, further studies might use designs pow-
ered enough to address the engagement of risky values. Acting upon some values might
be less or inversely related to well-being, e.g., power-seeking (Sarkova etal., 2013). Such
studies might identify if the AoV intervention is likely to backfire for individuals endors-
ing specific values despite its general positive effect on a group level. This might add to the
literature regarding individual differences in predicting PPIs outcomes (e.g., Enko etal.,
2021; Oltean etal., 2022; Wellenzohn etal., 2018).
11 Conclusions
We presented a successful development of a new method to increase well-being, i.e., the
AoV intervention. This method increases the diversity of PPIs and aims to engage indi-
viduals in personally valued activities. Such methods are crucial in everyday life for indi-
viduals who cultivate their well-being, including those under the burden of a pandemic
lockdown. Our work contributes to the development of the PPIs as a validated instrument
of personal change.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi.
org/ 10. 1007/ s10902- 022- 00585-4.
Funding The study was supported by the Polish National Science Center Grant (number 2017/26/D/
HS6/00439) awarded to AB.
Data Availability Study’s data available at: https:// osf. io/ e9xr7/
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
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... Kruskal-Wallis H test revealed no significant differences in college students' perceptions of eudaimonic wellbeing by way of ethnicity and age, while Mann-Whitney U test showed no significant differences in terms of gender (see Table II). (1) found it easy to get really invested in the things that they did, (2) would find it worthwhile to do something difficult, (3) were clear about what their talents really were and (4) would get intensely involved in many of the things they did each day. Only 60.87 to 67.4 percent strongly agreed/agreed that they (1) felt fulfilled by the activities that they engaged in, (2) felt really alive when engaging in activities that involved their best potential, (3) felt it was important to know if their actions matched the purposes, (4) could understand why some people worked so hard on things, (5) would continue doing things that they found rewarding, (6) knew better what would be good for them to do than other people, (7) felt it was more important that they really enjoyed what they did and (8) did not expect things to come easily to them in life (see Table III). ...
... Special interventions can be implemented to enhance college students' eudaimonic wellbeing. According to Bojanowska et al. (2022), individuals can increase wellbeing by acting on their values rather than merely endorsing them. The researchers developed a novel intervention ("Acting on Values" or AoV) to motivate 268 individuals to initiate valuesrelated behaviour over four weeks. ...
... Values can provide insight into cultural fit, likelihood of quitting, and possibly even job performance. Furthermore, congruence between OPEN ACCESS EDITED BY values and behavior is associated with well-being and reduced stress (Bojanowska et al., 2022). Research supports correlations to relevant outcome variables based on values (Glazer et al., 2004;Fischer and Smith, 2006;Anglim et al., 2022) such as attitudes toward diversity (Anglim et al., 2019), organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors (Arieli et al., 2020). ...
... The short questionnaire with contextualized items can be used for a thorough assessment of employees' or applicants' value structure. The knowledge about what people value at work can provide powerful insights (Arieli et al., 2020;Anglim et al., 2022) and be beneficial for employers and employees (Bojanowska et al., 2022). The face validity of value assessment in work contexts may increase due to the contextualized work values. ...
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Objectives Addressing the lack of German-language instruments, this study aims to develop a questionnaire that enables the measurement of work values. According to the theory of basic human values (Schwartz, 1992), a culturally fitting questionnaire is validated by covering constructs in the four broader dimensions of Social, Prestige, Intrinsic, and Extrinsic work values. Convergent, discriminant and incremental congruent validity are assessed. Method Data were collected in a cross-sectional online-based panel survey. Individuals working more than 20 h per week were included (N = 1,049). Using a genetic algorithm, an economical and valid questionnaire was designed to assess work values. Results The 11 work values are measurable with three items each. They provide a good fit to the data with support for strict measurement invariance. The empirical associations to estimate construct validity overall reflect expected relations to social and individualistic work motives, neuroticism, environmental awareness, and basic values. Furthermore, congruent incremental validity is supported with relations to value congruence of the person–organization fit, and multidimensional scaling supports the assumed theoretical circularity of the work values. Implications This study developed a questionnaire that enables a theory-based valid measurement of work values. The questionnaire allows practitioners to economically collect information about the value structure of employees or applicants. Future research should consider the development of work values over time and investigate whether more distinctive constructs provide a better fit in the nomological network.
... This approach is consistent with calls for a more personalised approach to wellbeing promotion (Ciarrochi et al., 2022), aligning with coaching-based practice. Over a period of four weeks students are introduced to a variety of PPIs from which they select specific interventions that they are intrinsically motivated to carry out, guided by processes known to be effective in groups of people, including strengths (Schutte & Malouff, 2019), personal values (Bojanowska et al., 2022), positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998), psychological flow (Tse et al., 2021), equanimity (Eberth et al., 2019), fierce-compassion (Kirby et al., 2017), kindness (Hui et al., 2020), active hope (Pleeging et al., 2021), meaning and purpose (Vos & Vitali, 2018), meditation (Agteren et al., 2021), goal setting (Klug & Maier, 2015), physical activity (Buecker et al., 2021) and other health behaviours (Stenlund et al., 2022) (see also Agteren et al., 2021;Carr et al., 2020). ...
... Mindfulness-based interventions and meaning-oriented programs, such as the Meaning of Life, Meaning of Education program, and Acting on Values intervention (Baatouche et al., 2022;Bojanowska et al., 2022;Terzioğlu et al., 2022), offer promising avenues for nurturing eudaimonic well-being among students. These programs can help students cultivate a sense of purpose and direction in their academic pursuits. ...
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Positive education emphasizes the importance of student well-being as a critical outcome. Well-being is a complex construct involving both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects. However, existing literature predominantly concentrates on hedonic well-being, with less attention given to eudaimonic well-being. Furthermore, how these two aspects of well-being are associated with academic outcomes is underexplored. To address these gaps, this study examines the hedonic and eudaimonic well-being profiles of 41,396 15-year-old students from six high-performing East Asian regions (Mainland China, Macao SAR, Hong Kong SAR, Chinese Taipei, Japan, and Korea) using a person-centered approach (latent profile analysis). Students from the six regions exhibited both commonalities and differences in their well-being profiles. Across the six regions, we identified three standard profiles: flourishing (high well-being), moderate (average levels of well-being), and discouraged (low well-being) profiles. While in mainland China, aside from the three standard profiles, we identified a fourth profile characterized by low hedonic and high eudaimonic well-being (i.e., resilient). Overall, students in the flourishing group demonstrated the best academic outcomes, while those in the discouraged group showed the poorest. An interesting finding was the emergence of the resilient group among mainland Chinese students. This group displayed academic outcomes that were superior to the moderate and discouraged groups, but slightly worse than the flourishing group. The study reveals the importance of adopting an integrative perspective that includes both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. It offers valuable insights into the intricate associations between different well-being profiles and academic-related outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... The theory explains that the pursuit of intrinsic goals and values, achievement of mindfulness and self-awareness, as well as fulfillment of individual needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy can lead to eudaimonic well-being. This claim has received empirical support from, for example, a study that confirmed a cross-sectional relationship between pursuits of intrinsically valued goals and eudaimonic well-being (Kiaei & Reio, 2014) and an intervention in which frequent participation in behaviors consistent with one's values resulted in greater eudaimonic well-being (Bojanowska et al., 2022). In the present study, we used self-determination theory as a lens, using ikigai as a proxy for eudaimonic well-being. ...
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Objective: Ikigai is a Japanese concept of a life worth living and related to eudaimonic well-being. Supporting the pursuit of ikigai is of central importance to recovery-oriented psychiatric rehabilitation for people with serious mental illnesses (SMI). While research suggests that work, leisure, and social relationships are potential sources of ikigai, people with SMI have restricted access to these as they encounter systemic barriers to participating in such activities. This study investigated how people with SMI in Japan pursued sources of ikigai in the face of barriers. Methods: A total of 21 community-living individuals who had SMI and were recruited from community psychiatric rehabilitation service providers in Japan participated in the study. Photo-elicitation interviews were conducted, and the interview transcripts were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Results: Three themes were generated: (a) self-determination as a key to ikigai, (b) explorations needed to identify sources of ikigai, and (c) navigating the challenges to engage in the explorations. It was found that a self-determined activity tends to be a source of ikigai. However, participants had to grapple with challenges because identifying a source of ikigai involved the exploration of their personal interests, and the exploration could not be continued without managing the stigma of mental illness. Conclusions and Implications for Practice: Results suggest that ikigai cannot be achieved instantly. To achieve eudaimonic well-being outcomes, psychiatric rehabilitation professionals should allow consumers to choose activities based on their personal interests and encourage them to try out various activities while they provide continued support to overcome stigma.
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Numerous studies have reported that the built environment plays a key role in promoting prosocial behaviors. However, to date, the potential positive psychological mechanisms underlying the association between built environment and prosocial behaviors in urban adult residents have not been well examined. To fill this research gap, the present study explored the mediation pathway from the perceived built environment to prosocial tendencies from a positive psychology perspective. Moreover, the present study focused on the moderating effects of depression and anxiety on this mediation pathway. A sample of 1150 urban community-dwelling adults completed questionnaires that assessed the perceived built environment, flourishing, prosocial tendencies, depression symptoms, and severity of anxiety. The results of the mediation model analysis demonstrated that the positive effect of perceived built environment on prosocial tendencies was partially mediated by flourishing. Furthermore, using a moderated mediation model analysis, we found that depression and anxiety moderated the link between perceived built environment and prosocial tendencies via flourishing. More specifically, the effect of the perceived built environment on flourishing was stronger for residents who experienced high levels of depression and anxiety than for those who experienced low levels of depression and anxiety. Additionally, we found that depression and anxiety moderated the mediating effect of flourishing. Compared with residents without a risk of depression and anxiety, individuals experiencing high levels of depression and anxiety obtained more psychosocial benefits derived from the high quality of the built environment. Overall, these findings provide an empirical contribution to the human-environment interaction research field and increase the precision of urban-based interventions and policies for the promotion of human well-being in urban contexts.
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COVID-19 caused a global change in the lifestyles of people around the world. It provided a unique opportunity to examine how external circumstances impact two crucial aspects of functioning relating to "who I am" (values) and "how I feel" (well-being). Participants (N = 215) reported their values and subjective and eudaimonic well-being, nine months before the first lockdown in Poland and two weeks and four weeks into the first lockdown. We observed increased valuing of self-direction, security, conformity, humility, caring, and universalism and a decrease in valuing hedonism. Individuals experienced decreased subjective and eudaimonic well-being, with women responding with stronger negative affect intensity relative to men. Finally, we identified that individuals who were more open to change before the COVID-19 pandemic responded with higher eudaimonic well-being two weeks into lockdown relative to their less open to change peers. This study is unique in that it shows that well-being and individually held values are flexible and adaptive systems that react to external circumstances such as global critical events.
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This study examines the evolution of Schwartz’s Basic Human Values during the COVID-19 outbreak, and their relationships with perceived threat, compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing. An online questionnaire was administered to a heterogeneous sample of French citizens (N = 1025) during the first French lockdown related to the outbreak. Results revealed a significant evolution of values; the conservation value was higher during the outbreak than usual, and both self-enhancement and openness-to-change values were lower during the COVID-19 outbreak than usual. Conservation and perceived threat during the outbreak were robustly and positively related to both compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing. Conservation during the outbreak emerged as a significant partial mediator of the relationship between perceived threat and outcomes (i.e., compliance with movement restrictions and social distancing). Implications of these results for the malleability of values and the COVID-19 modelling are discussed.
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Using structural equation modeling (SEM), this study examines how adolescents’ rated importance (talk) and enactment (walk) of extrinsic values (wealth, beauty, and fame) and intrinsic values (affiliation, self-acceptance, and community) relate to their well-being and risk-taking. An online questionnaire was filled out by 647 adolescents (57.1% girls), aged between 14 and 17 years old (Mage = 15.5 years). Talk intrinsic values were positively associated with well-being, whereas talk extrinsic values were non-significantly related to it. As for the walk measures, we found an interaction between extrinsic and intrinsic values in the prediction of well-being. Extrinsic values enactment and well-being were positively related among adolescents reporting lower intrinsic values enactment, but not among adolescents who reported higher intrinsic values enactment. Finally, using either talk or walk measures, only extrinsic values were associated with higher risk-taking behaviors.
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Background: Loneliness is a growing area of concern, attracting attention as a public health concern due to its association with a variety of psychological and physical health problems. However, interventions targeting loneliness are less common than interventions for other mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety, and existing interventions focus primarily on building social skills and increasing opportunities for social interaction despite research suggesting these techniques are not the most effective. Furthermore, although there is an increasing need for scalable and convenient interventions, digital interventions for loneliness are even less common. Objective: Using a qualitative approach, we explored how adults (18-64 years of age) who express wanting to be more connected to others experience loneliness and react to a digital mental health intervention targeting loneliness. Methods: 11 participants were recruited from a pilot randomized controlled trial (RCT) exploring the impact of a digital mental health intervention, Happify Health, on loneliness among adults aged 18 to 64 who indicated wanting to feel more connected to others when signing up for the platform. Participants were invited to participate in a 3-day asynchronous focus group about their experiences with loneliness, with Happify Health, and with social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic; 11 participants completed the focus group in May 2020. Results: Participants' responses were coded using thematic analysis, which led to identifying 5 themes, each with separate subthemes, that could be applied across the 3-day focus group: loneliness, relationships, social distancing, skill acquisition, and coping. Overall, we observed variability across participants in terms of the source of their loneliness, their perceptions of their social connections, and their motivation to reduce feelings of loneliness; however, participants commonly referred to negative self-perceptions as a cause or consequence of loneliness. Participants also varied in the extent to which they felt social distancing increased or decreased feelings of loneliness. In regards to the intervention, participants showed evidence of adopting skills they used to address their loneliness, particularly mindfulness and gratitude, and then using these skills to shift towards more active coping strategies following the intervention, including during the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusions: The heterogeneity in participants' experiences with loneliness described during this focus group emphasizes the subjective and complex nature of loneliness. This highlights the importance of developing loneliness interventions that employ a variety of strategies, including both direct and indirect strategies for reducing loneliness. However, based on our data, a key component to loneliness interventions is incorporating strategies for addressing underlying negative self-perceptions that stem from, but also contribute to, loneliness. The current data also provide preliminary evidence that digital platforms may be an effective tool for disseminating loneliness interventions while providing the added benefit of offering a productive distraction when feeling lonely. Clinicaltrial:
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Lockdown policies brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic pose a threat to well-being. This study examined the effectiveness of three positive psychology interventions, with different time-orientations, on well-being as well as predictors of well-being during lockdown. Participants (n= 216) completed measures of lockdown characteristics, attachment orientation, and emotion regulation, were then randomly allocated to one of four interventions; nostalgia (past), gratitude (present), best possible self (BPS; future) or control (recalling a TV show), and completed outcome measures of well-being and affect. Results showed that BPS resulted in higher positive affect and that both BPS and gratitude resulted in higher social connectedness than the nostalgia intervention. Further, greater well-being during lockdown was predicted by greater attachment security, greater emotion regulation, and more social interactions. In sum, focusing on the present or future during lockdown is more effective for well-being than focusing on the past, which alongside trait characteristics predict well-being under lockdown.
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Ipsatization, or a correction of variables by their common component, is routinely applied to measures of basic values. Although ipsatization has been criticized, the consequences of non-ipsatization are rarely discussed. We show that the ipsatization of values is intertwined with their definition. A common factor involved in ipsatization was suggested to represent a nuisance variable, a response style, social desirability, or other constructs. A simulation study illustrated that within-individual centering revealed more accurate value scores when the common factor was in the data, with exception of the situation when values were positively intercorrelated. We conclude that in different conditions both applying and failing to apply ipsatization can cause bias. Therefore, no general advice in regard to ipsatization can be provided.
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A meta-analysis of positive psychology intervention (PPIs) studies was conducted. PPIs were defined as interventions in which the goal of wellbeing enhancement was achieved through pathways consistent with positive psychology theory. Data were extracted from 347 studies involving over 72,000 participants from clinical and non-clinical child and adult populations in 41 countries. The effect of PPIs with an average of ten sessions over six weeks offered in multiple formats and contexts was evaluated. At post-test, PPIs had a significant small to medium effect on wellbeing (g = 0.39), strengths (g = 0.46), QoL (g = 0.48), depression (g = −0.39), anxiety (g = −0.62), and stress (g = −0.58). Gains were maintained at three months follow-up. Individuals in non-western countries with clinical problems, who engaged in longer individual or group therapy programs containing multiple PPIs benefited most. This meta-analysis shows that PPIs have an extensive evidence base supporting their effectiveness.