Content uploaded by Jorge Jódar
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Jorge Jódar on Oct 10, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
Content uploaded by Javier Cabello
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Javier Cabello on Oct 05, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
Citation: Jódar, J.; Martos-Rosillo, S.;
Custodio, E.; Mateos, L.; Cabello, J.;
Casas, J.; Salinas-Bonillo, M.J.;
Martín-Civantos, J.M.; González-
Ramón, A.; Zakaluk, T.; et al. The
Recharge Channels of the Sierra
Nevada Range (Spain) and the
Peruvian Andes as Ancient Nature-
Based Solutions for the Ecological
Transition. Water 2022,14, 3130.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w14193130
Academic Editors: Fernando António
Leal Pacheco, Songhao Shang,
Qianqian Zhang, Dongqin Yin, Hamza
Gabriel and Magdy Mohssen
Received: 31 August 2022
Accepted: 30 September 2022
Published: 4 October 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
water
Opinion
The Recharge Channels of the Sierra Nevada Range (Spain) and
the Peruvian Andes as Ancient Nature-Based Solutions for the
Ecological Transition
Jorge Jódar 1, * , Sergio Martos-Rosillo 2, Emilio Custodio 3, Luciano Mateos 4, Javier Cabello 5, Jesús Casas 5,
María Jacoba Salinas-Bonillo 5, JoséMaría Martín-Civantos 6, Antonio González-Ramón2, Thomas Zakaluk 2,
Christian Herrera-Lameli 7, Javier Urrutia 7and Luis Javier Lambán1
1Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME), CSIC, 50006 Zaragoza, Spain
2Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME), CSIC, 18006 Granada, Spain
3
Departamento de Ingeniería Civil y Ambiental, Universitat Politècnica de Calalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
4Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible (IAS), CSIC, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
5Centro Andaluz Para la Evaluación y Seguimiento del Cambio Global (CAESCG), Universidad de Almería,
04120 Almería, Spain
6MEMOLab, Laboratorio de Arqueología Biocultural, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
7Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de Ecosistemas Hídricos, Universidad Bernardo O’Higgins,
Santiago de Chile 8370993, Chile
*Correspondence: j.jodar@igme.es; Tel.: +34-976-65-0416
Abstract:
Nature-Based Solutions for Integrated Water Resources Management (NbS-IWRM) involve
natural, or nature-mimicking, processes used to improve water availability in quantity and quality
sustainably, reduce the risks of water-related disasters, enhance adaptation to climate change and
increase both biodiversity and the social-ecological system’s resilience. United Nations and the
European Commission promote their research as a cornerstone in the changeover to the Ecological
Transition. In the Sierra Nevada range (Spain) and the Andean Cordillera, there is a paradigmatic
and ancestral example of NbS-IWRM known as “careo channels” and “amunas”, respectively. They
recharge slope aquifers in mountain areas and consist of an extensive network of channels that
infiltrate the runoff water generated during the snow-thawing and rainy season into the upper parts
of the slopes. The passage of water through the aquifers in the slope is used to regulate the water
resources of the mountain areas and thus ensure the duration of water availability for the downstream
local population and generate multiple ecosystem services. This form of water management is known
as Water Sowing and Harvesting (WS&H). As shown in this work, it is a living example of a resilience
and climate change adaptation tool that can be qualified as a nature-based solution.
Keywords:
careo; amuna; aquifer recharge; nature based solution; water resources management;
ecological transition
1. Introduction
Water is an irreplaceable resource for life and human development on the planet.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly, underlines the obligation to ensure the availability and sustainable management
of water for all [
1
]. Furthermore, sustainable water resource management is a guiding
principle within the European Union’s efforts to achieve an ecological transition towards a
circular economy. Sustainable water management depends on water availability and thus
on the rate of water renewal, which is marked by exogenous factors (e.g., the hydrological
cycle) and to whose changes it is necessary to adapt [2]. Otherwise, the unsustainable use
of water resources in economic activities may jeopardize our security and, paradoxically,
the economic development it is intended to achieve. Therefore, it is necessary to manage
water resources sustainably with solutions that involve their protection while safeguarding
Water 2022,14, 3130. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14193130 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Water 2022,14, 3130 2 of 11
the biodiversity of dependent ecosystems and making them more resilient, thus improving
human well-being.
Nature-based solutions are “solutions to challenges facing society that are inspired
and supported by nature, are cost-effective, provide environmental, social and economic
benefits, and help build resilience” [
3
]. Some solutions can be found among traditional
water management practices developed by local communities in drylands (e.g., the inhab-
itants of the Alpujarras region on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada at the end of the Early
Medieval Period [
4
–
6
], or the Chavín and Wari pre-Inca cultures in Peru [
7
]). Such practices
aim to ensure sustainable access to water resources in times of low availability and high
demand caused by climate and social changes [
8
,
9
]. Besides, these practices boost biodi-
versity conservation [
10
–
14
] and the recognition of rural communities’ cultural identity
and role as custodians of the land [
11
,
15
,
16
]. However, the functioning of many of these
water management systems is threatened by globalization and or concentration in urban
areas into which people are forced to migrate from rural communities. The reallocation
of such people in urban areas may generate a significant impact on both the quantity and
quality of water resources in such zones, which are typically reflected in (1) water shortages
and (2) water quality issues because of pollution, thus aggravating both intensity and
frequency of such water shortages. Nevertheless, the impact of people’s migration on water
resources is not limited to the urban zones. In rural areas, the abandonment of practices
may result in the loss of traditional knowledge systems transmitted from generation to gen-
eration. To limit such impact at least in origin, it is essential to protect this knowledge from
oblivion, as it provides age-old solutions for sustainable management of water resources
to the recurrent problem of water scarcity, even in the most adverse social and climatic
circumstances [4,5,17,18].
We present a traditional water management system that uses recharge channels for
sowing water in mountain aquifers to be harvested later on downstream, for domestic
supply and irrigation. The maintenance of such a system whose maintenance may help in
the ecological transition. This highly efficient system [
19
,
20
] was developed independently
by local communities south of the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula and in the Andes [
8
,
21
]
to solve problems regarding scarcity. This paper describes the system functioning as a
Nature-based Solution for Integrated Water Resources Management (NbS-IWRM) and
postulates it as an adaptation measure to climate change.
2. Recharge Channels in Mountain Zones as NbS-IWRM for the Ecological Transition
The ecological transition refers to the process by which humans incorporate nature into
society [
22
]. More recently, in the light of global change, it has developed into a broad set of
objectives that seek the transformation of the energy, industrial, and agri-food sector [
23
,
24
]
to adjust the demand of natural resources derived from human activity to the availability
and production capacity of such natural resources. Its implementation seeks to curb the
environmental crises threatening humanity’s journey on Planet Earth.
Moreover, the European Green Deal, which is assumed as the “new growth strategy”
for the European Union (EU), is developed using the ecological transition as one of the
main drivers [
25
,
26
]. Water resource management is one of the cornerstones, both for
the conservation of the environment and as a driver of the circular economy [
2
]. The
sustainable management of water resources plays a crucial role in this ecological transition
towards a “green” economy within the EU, and elsewhere. The quest for a society that
is coexisting with nature without compromising our future abilities, while balancing the
needs of a steadily increasing world economy, strongly depends on whether we will be able
to adapt to the changes in the water cycle following climate change [
27
]. The ecological
transition in the EU has obliged to strengthen coordination across the board and integrate
all social sectors. All this is to change the management and sustainable use of land and
water resources and fight desertification, drought, and non-recoverable resource depletion.
This action is critical in the pan-Mediterranean area, where water resource availability is
decreasing alarmingly [28].
Water 2022,14, 3130 3 of 11
Integrated water resource management (IWRM) is a concept that emerged in the UN’s
Mar del Plata conference of 1977 and was defined as a method to provide potable water
and sanitation facilities to all and to accelerate political will and investment in the water
sector. The transformations needed to implement such a concept were broadly envisaged
in Mar del Plata and further elaborated, along with the IWRM concept itself, in Dublin, Rio,
The Hague, Bonn Johannesburg, and Kyoto [
29
]. Currently, IWRM is defined as the method
to promote the coordinated development and management of water, land, and related
resources to maximize the resulting economic and social welfare equitably without compro-
mising the sustainability of vital ecosystems [
30
]. This concept has become a paradigm for
the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, as Target 6.5 of the Sustainable Devel-
opment Goals calls for the implementation of IWRM at all levels by 2030. IMRW is being
embraced by many developed developing and transitional countries [
31
,
32
] This paradigm
and the climate change context have raised interest among water managers, planners,
and stakeholders in the so-called Nature-based Solutions for Water Integrated Resources
Management (NbS-IWRM) [
33
]. This concept consists of the application of actions that
mimic natural processes to improve water availability in quantity and quality, reduce water-
related disaster risks, enhance adaptation to climate change, and increase socio-ecosystem
resilience [34]. Contrary to this, the modern irrigation development where rainfall cannot
cover crop growth needs has evolved from the introduction of new physical structures and
equipment to a new scheme that looks for a transformation of the management of irrigation
water resources, to improve the efficiency and productivity of the resources and services
provided to the farmers [
35
]. This includes the Mediterranean region and other arid and
semiarid zones. Unfortunately, this concept of modernization does not respond to the
latest challenges of society, which include the depletion of resources, deterioration of the
environment, population growth, and climate change [
14
]. Being aware of this problem, the
United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, the European Commission, and the
Spanish Ministry for Ecological Transition and Demographic Challenge, among others, are
promoting research on NbS-IWRM [
3
,
36
–
38
]. The Spanish Ministry for Ecological Transi-
tion joined World Water Day 2021 with an event entitled “Nature-based solutions for water
management in Spain: challenges and opportunities”. At this event, the Secretary of State
for the Environment underlined the need to look for nature-based solutions to improve the
use of water resources by conserving and protecting the headwaters of river basins, and/or
by regulating natural flows [
39
]. Such nature-based solutions can complement conventional
infrastructures and reduce the overall costs of water quantity and quality services.
Reported examples of NbS-IWRM applications around the world are scarce and
relatively recent. However, in some mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada (Spain)
and the Andes (South America), there are good examples of conceivable NbS-IWRM based
on the traditional knowledge of local populations [
8
,
40
]. The concept of Water Sowing
and Harvesting (WS&H) was coined in these areas. WS&H describes the process by
which surface runoff water from both snowmelt and rainfall is collected and infiltrated
(sown) through a system of channels dug in the upper parts of the mountain basins
(Figures 1and 2) [
19
,
41
,
42
], to be recovered (harvested) elsewhere, sometime later, as a
groundwater discharge, for irrigation or domestic use. The delay is due to the slow velocity
of groundwater through permeable materials. Such aquifer recharge channels are locally
known as “careo channels” in the Sierra Nevada range (Spain) and “amunas” in the Andean
Cordillera (South America). The amunas are almost identical to the careo recharge channels
in Spain, although developed independently by the pre-Inca cultures in Peru, Chavín
initially, and Wari later [
7
]. The water that is not sown in the area leaves it and goes to the
sea or evaporates in flat land downstream where the water cannot be recovered.
Water 2022,14, 3130 4 of 11
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
Spain, although developed independently by the pre-Inca cultures in Peru, Chavín ini-
tially, and Wari later [7]. The water that is not sown in the area leaves it and goes to the
sea or evaporates in flat land downstream where the water cannot be recovered.
Figure 1. Careo recharge channel in the Bérchules watershed, located at Spain’s southern slopes of
the Sierra Nevada range (Photo: Sergio Martos-Rosillo).
Figure 2. Example of an area where water flowing through a careo channel is released for infiltra-
tion. The infiltration zone is 6 km from the beginning of the channel. When the photograph was
taken (April 2021), a flow rate of 250 L/s infiltrated. The seepage water generates pastures in the
neighboring infiltration zones. (Photo: Blas Ramos).
The careo recharge system has at least three functions:
i) delaying the transit time of water through the ground to maintain the flow of rivers
and springs at lower altitudes during the summers, when radiation and temperature
favor crop growth, but rainfall is scarce, and the demand for drinking water in-
creases,
Figure 1.
Careo recharge channel in the Bérchules watershed, located at Spain’s southern slopes of
the Sierra Nevada range (Photo: Sergio Martos-Rosillo).
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
Spain, although developed independently by the pre-Inca cultures in Peru, Chavín ini-
tially, and Wari later [7]. The water that is not sown in the area leaves it and goes to the
sea or evaporates in flat land downstream where the water cannot be recovered.
Figure 1. Careo recharge channel in the Bérchules watershed, located at Spain’s southern slopes of
the Sierra Nevada range (Photo: Sergio Martos-Rosillo).
Figure 2. Example of an area where water flowing through a careo channel is released for infiltra-
tion. The infiltration zone is 6 km from the beginning of the channel. When the photograph was
taken (April 2021), a flow rate of 250 L/s infiltrated. The seepage water generates pastures in the
neighboring infiltration zones. (Photo: Blas Ramos).
The careo recharge system has at least three functions:
i) delaying the transit time of water through the ground to maintain the flow of rivers
and springs at lower altitudes during the summers, when radiation and temperature
favor crop growth, but rainfall is scarce, and the demand for drinking water in-
creases,
Figure 2.
Example of an area where water flowing through a careo channel is released for infiltration.
The infiltration zone is 6 km from the beginning of the channel. When the photograph was taken (April
2021), a flow rate of 250 L/s infiltrated. The seepage water generates pastures in the neighboring
infiltration zones. (Photo: Blas Ramos).
The careo recharge system has at least three functions:
(i)
delaying the transit time of water through the ground to maintain the flow of rivers
and springs at lower altitudes during the summers, when radiation and temperature
favor crop growth, but rainfall is scarce, and the demand for drinking water increases,
(ii)
watering the vegetation on the mountain slopes (Figure 2), favoring the growth of
pastures, and enhancing biodiversity, and
(iii)
improving water quality by diluting the salinity of evapo-concentrated groundwater
and filtering runoff water. Therefore, the spatio-temporal regulation of water resources
Water 2022,14, 3130 5 of 11
for different uses and the associated ecosystem services qualifies this WS&H “green
infrastructure” as an NbS-IWRM [43].
The importance of the careo recharge channels and their hydrological, environmental,
and socio-economic services, belong to the ancestral knowledge and cultural heritage of the
local population, which has kept them operational in the Southwestern Iberian Peninsula
since at least the 11th century [
4
,
5
]. However, it is only very recently that water and
environmental authorities have recognized their importance. The water authorities of the
Guadalquivir River basin and of the southern basin of Andalucia (the two basins where
recharge channels play an important regulating role), the provincial administration of
Granada, the Sierra Nevada National and Natural Parks, and the Association of Historical
and Traditional Irrigation Communities of Andalusia have just started to address the careo
system by incorporating it into their planning, maintenance, and surveillance activities.
Between 2008 and 2011, the Sierra Nevada National Park and the Department of the
Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia invested 5.3 million euros through
the project “Conservation of the traditional careo recharge channels of Sierra Nevada”.
References to the economic interest of the careo channels are also found in the 2nd Plan
for the Sustainable Development of the Natural Area for the Sierra Nevada, approved
in 2018 by the regional government as a part of the Natural Resources Management
Plan. Furthermore, at a national level, the collaboration between water management
agencies and researchers has been sought to investigate similar NbS-IWRM in Guadarrama,
Gredos and Sierra Morena ranges, and the Canary Islands. Interest in the careo recharge
channels has also increased internationally. Examples are (1) the Research Network “Water
Sowing and Harvesting in Protected Natural Areas” (https://www.cyted.org/es/syca
(accessed on 30 August 2022)), funded by the Ibero-American Programme of Science
and Technologies for Development, with additional support for training activities from
the INTERCOONENTA program of the Spanish Agency for International Development
Cooperation, which unites 76 researchers, water, and environmental planners from eight
Ibero-American countries, (2) their relevance to the Focus Group “Nature-Based Solutions
for water management under climate change” of the European Innovation Partnership for
Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability [
44
], and (3) by UNESCO’s Intergovernmental
Hydrological Programme as Demonstration Site in its Global Network of Ecohydrology
(http://ecohydrology-ihp.org/demosites (accessed on 31 August 2022)). This action reflects
the applicability of such an NbS-IWRM system in many mountain areas with similar climate
conditions to those prevailing in the Sierra Nevada range [
45
]. Such are as the southern
slopes of the Alps in France and Italy, the Dinaric Alps in Croatia, Mount Etna in Italy, the
Atlas Mountains in Morocco, the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, the Lebanese Cordillera, the
Sierra Nevada range in the United States, or the Andes Cordillera in South America.
3. Science to Understand Better Recharge Channels
The first scientific publications on the hydrology and hydrogeology of these ancestral
water recharge systems are recent. The earliest paper by Pulido-Bosch and Sbih (1995) [
41
]
described careo recharge channels in the southern slopes of Sierra Nevada (SE-Spain) and
measured groundwater residence times from 5 to 10 days by applying dissolved lithium
chloride (LiCl) to the water flowing in the Cástaras careo channel, which is located in
the Trevélez River basin. In the same basin, Oyonarte et al. (2022) [
14
] measured for the
Busquístar channel a mean infiltration rate per unit length of channel (
ˆ
q
) of 9.32 L/s/km.
In the neighboring Bérchules Basin, Martos Rosillo et al. (2019) [
19
] obtained a
ˆ
q
value of
20.2 L/s/km in the Espino channel. Here, they measured infiltration rates up to 400 L/s
in some channel zones. In the Peruvian Andes, Cárdenas-Panduro (2020) [
46
] obtained
a
ˆ
q
value of 88.7 L/s/km for the Saywapata channel. Such high
ˆ
q
values evidence the
high infiltration capacity of the recharge channel system. Analyzing the importance of the
channel recharge with respect to that of the natural water cycle, Jódar et al. (2022) [
20
]
showed that the total channel recharge in the Bérchules watershed during the hydrological
year 2014–2015 was 3.66 hm
3
, which is equivalent to 70% of the river water flow at the
Water 2022,14, 3130 6 of 11
outlet of the basin (5.3 hm3) and amounts 48% of the total aquifer recharge for this period
(7.62 hm
3
). They have demonstrated that this ancestral aquifer recharge system can double
natural recharge rates as it increases the average and base groundwater discharge of
downstream springs and the mainstream during the summer [
6
,
20
,
47
,
48
]. Yapa (2016) [
21
]
and Martos-Rosillo et al. (2020a) [
8
] described similar ancestral methods of water recharge
in the Americas since pre-Columbian times. In addition, Ochoa-Tocachi et al. (2019) [
7
]
studied a 1400-year-old rainfall-runoff infiltration enhancement system in the Andes, which
is based on amunas. These authors used eosine to trace the recharged water, obtaining
that groundwater is held for an average of 45 days before resurfacing, and assessed the
effects of this water management technique on the water supply of Lima using a rainfall-
runoff model. As research results are very promising, Peruvian local water planners are
encouraging the use of this green infrastructure through Mechanisms of Rewards for
Ecosystem Services, which allows financing such NbS-IWRM practiced by local peasants
but benefiting other downstream water users. However, the greater or lesser impact of these
solutions is location-specific and therefore requires deep scientific or traditional knowledge.
For instance, Somers et al. (2018) [
49
] measured scant recharge from recharge channels
also in the Peruvian Andes, likely because the water available for recharge in their case
study was only from rainfall runoff, which is available only a few days per year compared
with snowmelt runoff, that may last months. Nevertheless, the hydrological parameters
that control the hydrodynamic, hydrogeochemical, and isotopic responses of the slope
aquifers in the Sierra Nevada and the Andes, where traditional recharge channels remain
operational, are rather unknown.
The effects of these ancient groundwater recharge systems on terrestrial ecosystems
are various and not fully understood. Remote sensing observations show an extension of
the growing season and an increase in chlorophyll activity of vegetation in areas where
the careo recharge is conducted [
50
–
53
]. However, there are no data regarding how the
system contributes to increase vegetation productivity and carbon sequestration, nor to
characterize its role to sustain threatened drought-intolerant species associated with the
channels. Moreover, the positive or negative effects on fluvial and riparian ecosystems
appear to vary, depending on the altitude of the river reach considered. Water withdrawal
in the upper zone of the basin from the river to feed the recharge channels likely impacts
the functioning and biodiversity in the reaches immediately downstream of the diversion
site. The regulation of river flow has strong effects on the functional diversity of riparian
vegetation [
54
,
55
] and aquatic communities such as amphibians and fish [
56
]. Ecosystem
functioning (i.e., primary production, organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling) can
also be impacted by the river flow regulation, particularly in streams from semiarid regions,
which are characterized by a high rainfall seasonality [
57
]. These alterations will worsen
in Mediterranean streams as climate change proceeds as suspected (e.g., Salinas et al.,
2018 [
58
]). In either case, there is a need to investigate the magnitude and positive or
negative direction of such impacts, in terms of flow regulation as a function of the relative
volume and seasonality of water withdrawal.
On the other hand, downstream reaches receiving groundwater from slope aquifers
recharged by channel recharge systems could likely provide better conditions for biodiver-
sity and ecosystem functioning and services. In these lower river reaches, groundwater
inputs produce higher discharge and relatively low water temperature, improving habitat
quality, particularly during summer, for many cold-stenothermal species typical of these
rivers (e.g., brown trout). Nevertheless, as this groundwater has passed through slopes
with agricultural use (Figure 3), it could transport nutrients (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorous)
to the river, favoring eventually eutrophication. Such effects, which may have a positive
and/or negative environmental impact, remain unknown. More research is needed to fully
understand the behavior of recharge channel systems and their impacts on the associated
downstream ecosystems.
Water 2022,14, 3130 7 of 11
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12
with agricultural use (Figure 3), it could transport nutrients (i.e., nitrogen and phospho-
rous) to the river, favoring eventually eutrophication. Such effects, which may have a pos-
itive and/or negative environmental impact, remain unknown. More research is needed
to fully understand the behavior of recharge channel systems and their impacts on the
associated downstream ecosystems.
Figure 3. Conceptual scheme of hydrogeological behavior of the recharge with careo channels dur-
ing the snow-melting period in an idealized watershed of Sierra Nevada (Spain). The geological
substratum is made up entirely of schists, with a surface alteration zone (Author: Rocío Espín and
Sergio Martos-Rosillo).
4. Current Challenges
Demographic and climate changes are threatening the provision of ecosystem ser-
vices with foreseeable trade-offs that must be considered in the management of the terri-
tory’s resources. One of the challenges is the exodus of the rural population and the incor-
poration of new stakeholders. While farmers and shepherds were the lands, water, and
careo channel managers for centuries, current actors also seek conservation objectives,
such as biodiversity protection, ecotourism, or freshwater provision for growing popula-
tions in the lower parts of catchments. In addition, agriculture is intensifying in some ar-
eas of the southern slopes of Sierra Nevada (i.e., the Bérchules and Mecina watersheds) in
response to favorable market conditions. This may lead to increased demand for irrigation
water and the claim for customary water rights, with effects on the availability of water
resources similar to those reported in other regions [59,60].
Recharge channels in mountain regions have successfully overcome drastic social
[4,5] and climatic changes that have occurred in the Sierra Nevada range since the Middle
Ages [17,18]. Further back from as early as the 5th century in the Peruvian Andes [7],
recharge channels have played an important role. According to palaeoclimatic reconstruc-
tions of the last two millennia, the period from 700 to 1200 was dry and prone to severe
drought. After that, the climate became somewhat wetter (Åkesson et al., 2020 [61], and
references therein), but not very different from the current climate conditions in the An-
dean Cordillera at the same latitude, where arid to hyperarid conditions still prevail [62].
The question is how, by delving into the hydrology and hydrogeology of these systems,
valuing their ecosystem services, and understanding the effects that socio-economic
changes have on traditional organizational structures, we can adapt these WS&H systems
to the current context, harnessing their climate change adaptation values and ensuring the
resilience that they have shown historically.
Figure 3.
Conceptual scheme of hydrogeological behavior of the recharge with careo channels
during the snow-melting period in an idealized watershed of Sierra Nevada (Spain). The geological
substratum is made up entirely of schists, with a surface alteration zone (Author: Rocío Espín and
Sergio Martos-Rosillo).
4. Current Challenges
Demographic and climate changes are threatening the provision of ecosystem services
with foreseeable trade-offs that must be considered in the management of the territory’s
resources. One of the challenges is the exodus of the rural population and the incorporation
of new stakeholders. While farmers and shepherds were the lands, water, and careo
channel managers for centuries, current actors also seek conservation objectives, such as
biodiversity protection, ecotourism, or freshwater provision for growing populations in
the lower parts of catchments. In addition, agriculture is intensifying in some areas of the
southern slopes of Sierra Nevada (i.e., the Bérchules and Mecina watersheds) in response
to favorable market conditions. This may lead to increased demand for irrigation water
and the claim for customary water rights, with effects on the availability of water resources
similar to those reported in other regions [59,60].
Recharge channels in mountain regions have successfully overcome drastic social [
4
,
5
]
and climatic changes that have occurred in the Sierra Nevada range since the Middle
Ages [
17
,
18
]. Further back from as early as the 5th century in the Peruvian Andes [
7
],
recharge channels have played an important role. According to palaeoclimatic reconstruc-
tions of the last two millennia, the period from 700 to 1200 was dry and prone to severe
drought. After that, the climate became somewhat wetter (Åkesson et al., 2020 [
61
], and
references therein), but not very different from the current climate conditions in the Andean
Cordillera at the same latitude, where arid to hyperarid conditions still prevail [
62
]. The
question is how, by delving into the hydrology and hydrogeology of these systems, valuing
their ecosystem services, and understanding the effects that socio-economic changes have
on traditional organizational structures, we can adapt these WS&H systems to the current
context, harnessing their climate change adaptation values and ensuring the resilience that
they have shown historically.
The careo channels may become an adaptation measure to climate change. Delineating
their role in this regard, when implementing them in dissimilar conditions, including differ-
ent (1) climate change projections, (2) forcing levels (greenhouse gas emission pathways),
(3) socio-economic scenarios, and (4) management alternatives, vulnerability models may
be helpful (Joyce y Janowiak, 2011 [
63
]). They make it possible to analyze the degree to
which an ecosystem is affected by climate change and to evaluate the consequences of
different adaptation strategies. This information, together with an adequate evaluation
Water 2022,14, 3130 8 of 11
and communication of the uncertainties associated with the different scenarios, is the
cornerstone for an adequate decision-making process and the implementation of the careo
channels as an effective adaptation measure.
5. Conclusions
The careo recharge as NbS-IWRM may enhance biodiversity and ecosystem function-
ing, both terrestrial and aquatic, at the basin scale. Therefore, to understand the inner
workings of the “Recharge channel-Soil-Aquifer-River” system, its social and environmen-
tal repercussions, and to maintain and replicate this NbS-IWRM system in other areas
with similar characteristics, more in-depth and multidisciplinary research is needed. This
research should provide information on (1) how to adapt the careo channels to the new
social and climatic scenarios, (2) the hydraulic and hydrogeological variables to take into
account when designing new recharge systems in other mountain areas with similar char-
acteristics, and (3) how to maximize the ecosystem services provided. This historical water
management system, based on local ecological knowledge and communal practices, in
which a balance between land and water use has been attained, should become an adap-
tation measure to climate change, but also to build a better, more secure, and equitable
future through the ecological transition path towards the objectives of the European Green
Deal. This is especially important to stabilize the rural population and to preserve the
environmental, hydrological, ecological, cultural, and economic conditions in mountainous
areas and make compatible the roles of the local economy and “nature gardeners”.
Author Contributions:
J.J. wrote the paper with further contributions from all authors (i.e., S.M.-R.,
E.C., L.M., J.C. (Javier Cabello), J.C. (Jesús Casas), M.J.S.-B., J.M.M.-C., A.G.-R., T.Z., C.H.-L., J.U.,
L.J.L.). All authors were involved and participated in the discussion of ideas, read, and approved the
final version of the manuscript. L.J.L., J.C. (Javier Cabello), S.M.-R. and J.J. were principal investigators
of research projects that funded this work. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding:
This work was undertaken as part of the projects “Impact, monitoring and assessment of
global and climate change on water resources in high-mountain National Parks (CCPM)” (SPIP2021-
02741) and “Soluciones basadas en la naturaleza para la gestión resiliente del ciclo hidrológico en
zonas de montaña: los sistemas tradicionales de gestión del agua de Sierra Nevada” (NBS4WATER,
Ref 2768/2021) funded by Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales from the Ministerio para la
Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico. The authors thank the Ibero-American Science and
Technology for Development Programme (CYTED) for its financial support to the network “Water
Sowing and Harvesting in Protected Natural Areas” (419RT0577). Besides, this work was supported
by the “Severo Ochoa” extraordinary grants for excellence IGME-CSIC (AECEX2021).
Data Availability Statement:
The data supporting reported results can be found in the cited bibliography.
Acknowledgments:
We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive com-
ments and suggestions which led to a substantial improvement of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1.
United Nations. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development(A/RES/70/1); UN General Assembly: New
York, NY, USA, 2015; Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda (accessed on 30 August 2022).
2.
Belda, E.T. El Agua en el Contexto de la Transición Ecológica. Entrevista a Pedro Arrojo Agudo [Water in the Context of the
Ecological Transition. Interview with Pedro Arrojo Agudo]. Relac. Int.
2020
,45, 377–383. Available online: https://revistas.uam.
es/relacionesinternacionales/article/view/12900 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
3.
United Nations. Nature-Based Solutions for Water 2018: The United Nations World Water Development Report 2018; UN-Water United
Nations World Water Assessment Programme: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018. Available online: https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.1
1822/32857 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
4.
Martín-Civantos, J.M. Poblamiento y Territorio Medieval en el Zenete, Granada [Medieval Settlement and Territory in Zenete, Granada];
Editorial Universidad de Granada: Granada, Spain, 2007; p. 773.
5.
Martín Civantos, J.M. Las Aguas del Río Alhama de Guadix y el Sistema de Careos de Sierra Nevada (Granada) en Época
Medieval [The Waters of the River Alhama de Guadix and the System of Careos de Sierra Nevada (Granada) in medieval times].
Water 2022,14, 3130 9 of 11
In El Paisaje y su Dimensión Arqueológica. Estudios Sobre el Sur de la Península Ibérica en la Edad Media; Alhulia: Granada, Spain, 2010;
pp. 79–111. Available online: http://opac.regesta-imperii.de/id/2433415 (accessed on 31 August 2022).
6.
Martos-Rosillo, S.; González-Ramón, A.; Marín-Lechado, C.; Cabrera, J.A.; Guardiola-Albert, C.; Jodar, J.; Navarrete, E.; Ruiz-
Constán, A.; Moral, F.; Pedrera, A.; et al. Las acequias de careo de Sierra Nevada (Sur de España), un sistema de recarga ancestral
en acuíferos de alta montaña [The irrigation channels of the Sierra Nevada (Southern Spain), an ancestral recharge system in
high mountain aquifers]. In Manejo de la Recarga de Acuíferos; Escolero, O., Gutiérrez, C., Mendoza, E., Eds.; Instituto Mexicano
de Tecnología del Agua (IMTA): Jiutepec, Mexico, 2017; pp. 527–563. Available online: https://www.imta.gob.mx/biblioteca/
libros_html/manejo-recarga-acuiferos-ehl.pdf (accessed on 30 August 2022)Available online: .
7.
Ochoa-Tocachi, B.F.; Bardales, J.D.; Antiporta, J.; Pérez, K.; Acosta, L.; Mao, F.; Zulkafli, Z.; Gil-Ríos, J.; Angulo, O.;
Grainger, S.; et al
. Potential contributions of pre-Inca infiltration infrastructure to Andean water security. Nat. Sustain.
2019
,
2, 584–593. [CrossRef]
8.
Martos-Rosillo, S.; Durán, A.; Castro, M.; Vélez, J.J.; Herrera, G.; Martín-Civantos, J.M.; Mateos, L.; Durán, J.J.;
González-Ramón, A.
;
Ruiz Constán, A.; et al. La Siembra y Cosecha del Agua en Iberoamérica; un sistema ancestral de gestión del agua que utiliza
Soluciones Basadas en la Naturaleza [Water Sowing and Harvesting in Ibero-America; an ancestral system of water management
using Nature-Based Solutions]. In Tierra y Tecnología; Ilustre Colegio Oficial de Geólogos: Madrid, Spain, 2020; Volume 55,
p. 15. Available online: https://www.icog.es/TyT/index.php/2020/02/la-siembra-y-cosecha-del-agua-en-iberoamerica-un-
sistema-ancestral-de-gestion-del-agua-que-utiliza-soluciones-basadas-en-la-naturaleza (accessed on 30 August 2022).
9.
Martos-Rosillo, S.; Durán, A.; Castro, M.; Vélez, J.J.; Herrera, G.; Martín-Civantos, J.M.; Mateos, L.; Durán, J.J.; Jódar, J.;
Gutiérrez, C.; et al
. Ancestral techniques of Water Sowing and Harvesting in Ibero-America: Examples of hydro-geo-ethical
systems. In Advances in Geoethics and Groundwater Management: Theory and practice for a Sustainable Development; Abrunhosa, M.,
Chambel, A., Peppoloni, S., Chaminé, H.I., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 489–492. [CrossRef]
10.
Albarracín, M.; Gaona, J.; Chicharo, L.; Zalewski, M. Ecohydrology and Its Implementation in Ecuador. Original in Spanish 2018.
2019. Available online: https://www.ingeraleza.com/ecohidrologia (accessed on 30 August 2022).
11.
Albarracín, M.; Ramón, G.; González, J.; Iñiguez-Armijos, C.; Zakaluk, T.; Martos-Rosillo, S. The ecohydrological approach in
water sowing and harvesting systems: The case of the Paltas Catacocha ecohydrology demonstration site, Ecuador. Ecohydrol.
Hydrobiol. 2021,21, 454–466. [CrossRef]
12.
Zalewski, M. Ecohydrology: Process-oriented thinking towards sustainable river basins. Ecohydrol. Hydrobiol.
2013
,13, 97–103.
[CrossRef]
13.
Zalewski, M. Ecohidrología como un marco para la mejora del potencial de sostenibilidad de cuencas hidrográficas. In Ecohidrología
y su Implementación en el Ecuador; Albarracín, E.M., Gaona, J., Chicharo, L., Zalewski, M., Eds.; EDILOJA: Loja, Ecuador, 2018; pp.
51–59. Available online: https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85113306986&origin=inward (accessed on 30
August 2022).
14.
Oyonarte, N.A.; Gómez-Macpherson, H.; Martos-Rosillo, S.; González-Ramón, A.; Mateos, L. Revisiting irrigation efficiency before
restoring ancient irrigation canals in multi-functional, nature-based water systems. Agric. Syst. 2022,203, 103513. [CrossRef]
15.
Ramón, G. Formas Ancestrales de Almacenamiento de Agua en los Andes de Páramo: Una Mirada Histórica. 2008.
Available online: http://suia.ambiente.gob.ec/documents/783967/889145/Formas+Ancestrales+De+Almacenamiento+De+
Agua+En+Los+Andes+De+Paramo+Una+Mirada+Histórica.pdf/aa9aed68-8cf3-416c-ad48-26aefddd5db0;jsessionid=CopLS8
YZbIIAhmqASMJVa7Q+ (accessed on 30 August 2022).
16.
Ramón, G. Recuperación de saberes ancestrales de los Paltas para el manejo del agua en Catacocha. In Ecohidrología y su
Implementación en Ecuador; Albarracín, M., Gaona, J., Chicharo, L., Zalewski, M., Eds.; EDIJOJA: Loja, Ecuador, 2018; pp. 134–135.
17.
Ramos-Román, M.J.; Jiménez-Moreno, G.; Anderson, R.S.; García-Alix, A.; Toney, J.L.; Jiménez-Espejo, F.J.; Carrión, J.S. Centennial-
scale vegetation and North Atlantic Oscillation changes during the Late Holocene in the southern Iberia. Quat. Sci. Rev.
2016
,
143, 84–95. [CrossRef]
18.
García-Alix, A.; Toney, J.L.; Jiménez-Moreno, G.; Pérez-Martínez, C.; Jiménez, L.; Rodrigo-Gámiz, M.; Scott Anderson, R.;
Camuera, J.; Jiménez-Espejo, F.J.; Peña-Angulo, D.; et al. Algal lipids reveal unprecedented warming rates in alpine areas of SW
Europe during the industrial period. Clim. Past 2020,16, 245–263. [CrossRef]
19.
Martos-Rosillo, S.; Ruiz-Constán, A.; González-Ramón, A.; Mediavilla, R.; Martín-Civantos, J.M.; Martínez-Moreno, F.J.;
Jódar, J.
;
Marín-Lechado, C.; Medialdea, A.; Galindo-Zaldívar, J.; et al. The oldest managed aquifer recharge system in Europe: New
insights from the Espino recharge channel (Sierra Nevada, southern Spain). J. Hydrol. 2019,578, 124047. [CrossRef]
20.
Jódar, J.; Zakaluk, T.; González-Ramón, A.; Ruiz-Costán, A.; Marín-Lechado, C.; Martín-Civantos, J.M.; Custodio, E.; Urrutia, J.;
Herrera, C.; Lambán, L.J.; et al. Artificial recharge by means of careo channels versus natural aquifer recharge in a semi-arid,
high-mountain watershed (Sierra Nevada, Spain). Sci. Total Environ. 2022,825, 153937. [CrossRef]
21.
Yapa, K.A. Nurturing water: Ancestral ground water recharging in the Américas. In Proceedings of the 7th Rural Water Supply
Network Forum 2016 Cote d’Ivoire, Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire, 29 November–2 December 2016; “Water for Everyone”. 2016.
Available online: https://rwsnforum7.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/full_paper_0067_submitter_0174_a-s-yapa_kashyapa.pdf
(accessed on 30 August 2022).
22.
Bennet, J.W. The Ecological Transition—Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation. 1976. Available online: https://www.
elsevier.com/books/the-ecological-transition/bennett/978-0-08-017868-4 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
Water 2022,14, 3130 10 of 11
23.
Hopkins, R. The Transition Handbook: From Oil Dependency to Local Resilience. 2008. Available online: https://www.amazon.
de/Transition-Handbook-Dependency-Resilience-Guides/dp/1900322188 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
24.
Transition-Europe. What is Transition? 2022. Available online: https://www.transition-europe.eu/en/page/definitions-2
(accessed on 30 August 2022).
25.
European Commission. The European Green Deal, Communication, COM(2019) 640 final, 11 December 2019. Available online:
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/european-green-dealcommunication_en.pdf (accessed on 30 August 2022).
26.
COR. European Committee of the Regions: Ecological Transition—What Balance between Social Acceptability and Environmental
Imperatives from the Point of View of Cities and Regions with a View to Building Resilient Communities? 150th Plenary Session,
29–30 June 2022. 2022. Available online: https://cor.europa.eu/en/our-work/Pages/OpinionTimeline.aspx?opId=CDR-104-2022
(accessed on 30 August 2022).
27.
Ruti, P.M.; Somot, S.; Dubois, C.; Flaounas, E.; Obermann, A.; Dell’Aquila, A.; Pisacane, G.; Harzallah, A.; Lombardi, E.;
Ahrens, B.; et al
. MED-CORDEX initiative for Mediterranean climate studies. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.
2016
,97, 1187–1208.
[CrossRef]
28.
Masseroni, D.; Camici, S.; Cislaghi, A.; Vacchiano, G.; Massari, C.; Brocca, L. The 63-year changes in annual streamflow volumes
across Europe with a focus on the Mediterranean basin. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2021,25, 5589–5601. [CrossRef]
29.
Rahaman, M.M.; Varis, O. Integrated water resources management: Evolution, prospects and future challenges. Sustain. Sci.
Pract. Policy 2005,1, 15–21. [CrossRef]
30.
Global Water Partnership (GWP). Integrated Water Resources Management; Technical Advisory Committee (TAC): Stockholm,
Sweden, 2000.
31.
Saravanan, V.S.; McDonald, G.T.; Mollinga, P.P. Critical review of integrated water resources management: Moving beyond
polarised discourse. In Natural Resources Forum; Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford, UK, 2009; Volume 33, pp. 76–86.
32.
Butterworth, J.; Warner, J.; Moriarty, P.; Smits, S.; Batchelor, C. Finding practical approaches to Integrated Water Resources
Management. Water Altern. 2010,3, 68–81.
33.
WWAP; (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme)/UN-Water. The United Nations World Water Development Report
2018: Nature-Based Solutions for Water; UNESCO: Paris, France, 2018. Available online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:
/48223/pf0000261424 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
34. Gunderson, L.H. Ecological Resilience–In Theory and Application. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2000,31, 425–439. [CrossRef]
35.
Playán, E.; Mateos, L. Modernization and optimization of irrigation systems to increase water productivity. Agric. Water Manag.
2006,80, 100–105. [CrossRef]
36.
Sonneveld, B.G.; Merbis, M.D.; Alfarra, A.; Ünver, O.; Arnal, M.F. Nature-Based Solutions for Agricultural Water Management
and Food Security. FAO Land and Water Discussion Paper, p. 12. 2018. Available online: https://www.fao.org/documents/
card/es/c/CA2525EN (accessed on 30 August 2022).
37.
Bulkeley, H.; Naumann, S.; Vojinovic, Z.; Calfapietra, C.; Whiteoak, K.; Freitas, T.; Vandewoestijne, S.; Wild, T. European
Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. In Nature-Based Solutions: State of the Art in EU-Funded Projects;
Freitas, T., Vandewoestijne, S., Wild, T., Eds.; Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2020. Available online:
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/236007 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
38.
MITECO-TNC. Soluciones Basadas en la Naturaleza para la Gestión del Agua en España. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica
[Nature-based solutions for Water Management in Spain. The Nature Conservancy]. 2019. Available online: https://www.miteco.
gob.es/es/agua/formacion/soluciones-basadas-en-la-naturaleza_tcm30-496389.pdf (accessed on 30 August 2022).
39.
La Moncloa. El Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica se Suma a la Celebración del Día Mundial del Agua. 2021. Available online:
https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/serviciosdeprensa/notasprensa/ecologica/Paginas/2019/210319-diadelagua.aspx (accessed on
30 August 2022).
40.
Ribeiro, L. Revisiting ancestral groundwater techniques as nature based solutions for managing water. In Advances in Geoethics
and Groundwater Management: Theory and Practice for a Sustainable Development; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 483–487.
41.
Pulido-Bosch, A.; Sbih, Y. Centuries of artificial recharge on the southern edge of the Sierra Nevada (Granada, Spain). Environ.
Geol. 1995,26, 57–63. [CrossRef]
42.
Barberá, J.A.; Jódar, J.; Custodio, E.; González-Ramón, A.; Jiménez-Gavilán, P.; Vadillo, I.; Pedrera, A.; Martos-Rosillo, S.
Groundwater dynamics in a hydrologically-modified alpine watershed from an ancient managed recharge system (Sierra Nevada
National Park, Southern Spain): Insights from hydrogeochemical and isotopic information. Sci. Total Environ.
2018
,640, 874–893.
[CrossRef]
43.
Benedict, M.A.; McMahon, E.T. Green Infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and Communities; Island Press:
Washington, DC, USA, 2012
.
44.
EIP-AGRI. European Innovation Partnership for Agricultural productivity and Sustainability. 2022. Available online: https://ec.
europa.eu/eip/agriculture/en/focus-groups/nature-based-solutions-water-management-under (accessed on
30 August 2022
).
45.
Pérez Palazón, M. Análisis de Tendencias en los Flujos de Agua y Energía de la capa de Nieve a Diversas Escalas en Sierra
Nevada [Trend Analysis of Snowpack Water and Energy Fluxes at Different Scales in Sierra Nevada]. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad
de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain, 2019; p. 202. Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/10396/19159 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
46.
Cárdenas-Panduro, A. Impacto de las Amunas en la Seguridad Hídrica de Lima. 2020. Available online: https://hdl.handle.net/
20.500.12543/4606 (accessed on 30 August 2022).
Water 2022,14, 3130 11 of 11
47.
Jódar, J.; Cabrera, J.A.; Martos-Rosillo, S.; Ruiz-Constan, A.; Gonzalez-Ramón, A.; Lambán, L.J.; Herrera, C.; Custodio, E.
Groundwater discharge in high-mountain watersheds: A valuable resource for downstream semi-arid zones. The case of the
Bérchules River in Sierra Nevada (Southern Spain). Sci. Total Environ. 2017,593, 760–772. [CrossRef]
48.
Jódar, J.; Carpintero, E.; Martos-Rosillo, S.; Ruiz-Constán, A.; Marín-Lechado, C.; Cabrera-Arrabal, J.A.; Navarrete-
Mazariegos, E.
;
González-Ramón, A.; Lambán, L.J.; Herrera, C.; et al. Combination of lumped hydrological and remote-sensing models to
evaluate water resources in a semi-arid high altitude ungauged watershed of Sierra Nevada (Southern Spain). Sci. Total Environ.
2018,625, 285–300. [CrossRef]
49.
Somers, L.D.; McKenzie, J.M.; Zipper, S.C.; Mark, B.G.; Lagos, P.; Baraer, M. Does hillslope trenching enhance groundwater
recharge and baseflow in the Peruvian Andes? Hydrol. Processes 2018,32, 318–331. [CrossRef]
50.
Cazorla, B.P.; Cabello, J.; de Giles, J.P.; Sánchez, E.G.; Harker, A.R.; Alcaraz-Segura, D. Funcionamiento de la vegetación y
diversidad funcional de los ecosistemas de Sierra Nevada [Vegetation functioning and functional diversity of Sierra Nevada
ecosystems]. In Biología de la Conservación de Plantas en Sierra Nevada. Principios y Retos para su Preservación; Peñas, J.G.,
Lorite, J.M., Eds.; Editorial Universidad de Granada: Granada, Spain, 2019; pp. 303–321.
51.
Cazorla, B.P.; Cabello, J.; Peñas, J.; Garcillán, P.P.; Reyes, A.; Alcaraz-Segura, D. Incorporating ecosystem functional diversity into
geographic conservation priorities using remotely-sensed Ecosystem Functional Types. Ecosystems
2020
,24, 548–564. [CrossRef]
52.
Cabello, J.; Alcaraz-Segura, D.; Reyes-Díez, A.; Lourenço, P.; Requena, J.M.; Bonache, J.; Castillo, P.; Valencia, S.; Naya, J.;
Ramírez, L.; et al
. Sistema para el Seguimiento del funcionamiento de ecosistemas en la Red de Parques Nacionales de España
mediante Teledetección. Rev. De Teledetección2016,46, 119–131. [CrossRef]
53.
Cabello, J.; Ruiz, J. Aplicación de la Plataforma REMOTE a la Red de Parques Nacionales de España: Identificación de Procesos y Acciones
de Gestión Susceptibles de ser Monitoreadas [Application of the REMOTE Platform to the Spanish National Parks Network: Identification of
Processes and Management Actions that can be Monitored]; TRAGSATEC, OAPN: Madrid, Spain, 2020.
54.
Bejarano, M.D.; Jansson, N.; Nilsson, C. The effects of hydropeaking on riverine plants: A review. Biol. Rev.
2018
,93, 658–673.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
55.
Bejarano, M.D.; Nilsson, C.; Aguiar, F.C. Riparian plant guilds become simpler and most likely fewer following flow regulation. J.
Appl. Ecol. 2018,55, 365–376. [CrossRef]
56.
Oliveira, A.G.; Baumgartner, M.T.; Gomes, L.C.; Dias, R.M.; Agostinho, A.A. Long-term effects of flow regulation by dams
simplify fish functional diversity. Freshw. Biol. 2018,63, 293–305. [CrossRef]
57.
Gallart, F.; Llorens, P.; Latron, J.; Regüés, D. Hydrological processes and their seasonal controls in a small Mediterranean mountain
catchment in the Pyrenees. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2002,6, 527–537. [CrossRef]
58.
Salinas, M.J.; Casas, J.J.; Rubio-Ríos, J.; López-Carrique, E.; Ramos-Miras, J.J.; Gil, C. Climate-driven changes of riparian plant
functional types in permanent headwater streams. Implications for stream food webs. PLoS ONE
2018
,13, e0199898. [CrossRef]
59.
Stahl, K.; Hisdal, H.; Hannaford, J.; Tallaksen, L.M.; Lanen, H.A.J.; van Sauquet, E.; Demuth, S.; Fendekova, M.; Jódar, J.
Streamflow trends in Europe: Evidence from a dataset of near-natural catchments. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.
2010
,14, 2367–2382.
[CrossRef]
60.
Lorenzo-Lacruz, J.; Vicente-Serrano, S.M.; López-Moreno, J.I.; Morán-Tejeda, E.; Zabalza, J. Recent trends in Iberian streamflows
(1945–2005). J. Hydrol. 2012,414, 463–475. [CrossRef]
61.
Åkesson, C.M.; Matthews-Bird, F.; Bitting, M.; Fennell, C.J.; Church, W.B.; Peterson, L.C.; Valencia, B.G.; Bush, M.B. 2100 years of
human adaptation to climate change in the High Andes. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2020,4, 66–74. [CrossRef]
62.
Betancourt, J.L.; Latorre, C.; Rech, J.A.; Quade, J.; Rylander, K.A. A 22,000-year record of monsoonal precipitation from northern
Chile’s Atacama Desert. Science 2000,289, 1542–1546. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63.
Joyce, L.A.; Janowiak, M.K. Climate Change Assessments. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Climate Change
Resource Center. 2011. Available online: www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/vulnerability-assessments (accessed on 31 August 2022).
