ArticlePublisher preview available

Daily Work Role Stressors and Dark Triad States

Hogrefe Publishing
Zeitschrift für Psychologie
Authors:
Annika Nübold at Maastricht University
Annika Nübold
Suzanne van Gils at BI Norwegian Business School
Suzanne van Gils
Hannes Zacher at Leipzig University
Hannes Zacher
Read publisher preview
Download citation
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Organizational research on the dark triad has, so far, focused on individual differences in employees’ stable tendencies to act in manipulative, grandiose, or callous ways (i.e., dark triad traits). Research on momentary expressions of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy (i.e., dark triad states) and the work situations that may trigger them is still in its infancy. Based on the conservation of resources theory, we hypothesized that daily role ambiguity and role conflict deplete employees’ daily self-control resources which, in turn, is related to the daily expression of dark triad states. To test our hypotheses, we conducted two daily diary studies across 5 and 10 workdays. Consistent with expectations, on days when employees experienced more role conflict than usual, they were more likely to express their darker side of personality. In contrast, hypotheses about the detrimental effects of daily role ambiguity and the mediating role of daily self-control depletion were not supported.
A preview of this full-text is provided by Hogrefe Publishing.
Learn more
Content available from Zeitschrift für Psychologie 
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Original Article
Daily Work Role Stressors and
Dark Triad States
Results of Two Diary Studies
Annika Nübold
1
, Suzanne van Gils
2
, and Hannes Zacher
3
1
Department of Work and Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
2
Department of Communication and Culture, BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway
3
Wilhelm Wundt Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Germany
Abstract: Organizational research on the dark triad has, so far, focused on individual differences in employees’stable tendencies to act in
manipulative, grandiose, or callous ways (i.e., dark triad traits). Research on momentary expressions of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and
psychopathy (i.e., dark triad states) and the work situations that may trigger them is still in its infancy. Based on the conservation of resources
theory, we hypothesized that daily role ambiguity and role conflict deplete employees’daily self-control resources which, in turn, is related to
the daily expression of dark triad states. To test our hypotheses, we conducted two daily diary studies across 5 and 10 workdays. Consistent
with expectations, on days when employees experienced more role conflict than usual, they were more likely to express their darker side of
personality. In contrast, hypotheses about the detrimental effects of daily role ambiguity and the mediating role of daily self-control depletion
were not supported.
Keywords: dark triad, personality states, role stressors, self-control depletion, COR theory
The dark triad, consisting of narcissism, psychopathy,
and Machiavellianism (Paulhus & Williams, 2002), has
received increased attention over the past decade, both in
research and practice. Given the detrimental effects of the
dark triad on individuals and organizations (e.g., LeBreton
et al., 2018;Murisetal.,2017;O’Boyle et al., 2012), focusing
on the darker side of personality at work is highly important.
So far, organizational research on the dark triad has typically
emphasized the notion of “bad apples,”that is, individuals
with elevated levels of dark triad traits, ignoring its potential
malleability and the likely existence of dark triad states
(Nübold et al., 2017).Personality traits and states repre-
sent “two sides of the same coin.”Whereas personality traits
(i.e., between-person perspective) refer to stable or typical
patterns of individuals’thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
(Allport, 1955), personality states (i.e., within-person per-
spective) refer to the momentary experience or enactment
of these features with the same content as the correspond-
ing trait (Fleeson, 2001).
As pointed out by Judge and colleagues (2014), personal-
ity states are not any less reflective of personality than a
personality trait, and the exploration of relationships
between personality states and contexts is equally valid
for very brief periods as it is for longer ones. Despite
the substantial relationship between personality states
and their respective trait equivalents (Fleeson, 2001),
within-person relationships involving personality are not
necessarily identical to those at the between-person level
(see, e.g., Edershile & Wright, 2019;Minbashianetal.,
2010). Thus, although dark triad trait research has identi-
fied a number of (stable) antecedents (e.g., values or socioe-
conomic conditions; Jonason et al., 2016;Kajoniusetal.,
2015) and organizational boundary conditions (e.g., abusive
supervision; Greenbaum et al., 2017), a state approach to
the dark triad opens up the opportunity to reveal more
short-term dynamics between proximal predictors like daily
job experiences and dark triad expressions.
In the present study, we draw from the conservation of
resources theory (COR theory; Hobfoll, 1989), as well as
theorizing on links between a lack of resources and the dark
triad(Hogan&Hogan,2001), to better understand which
situations lead people to express their darker side of person-
ality at work. In two diary studies (Study 1and Study 2),
spanning 5and 10 workdays, respectively, we investigate
whether daily work role stressors (i.e., role conflict and role
ambiguity; Rizzo et al., 1970) are related to daily dark triad
Ó2022 Hogrefe Publishing Zeitschrift für Psychologie (2022), 230(4), 311–320
https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000505
... Yet, while strides are being made in understanding the dynamics of bright side traits, the investigation of dark side dynamics, or momentary expressions of dark traits (i.e., states) is lagging. So far, fluctuating situational cues that elicit dark triad states have barely been investigated (for exceptions, see Heyde et al., 2023;Nübold et al., 2017Nübold et al., , 2022, while fluctuating internal processes, such as sleep perceptions, have yet to make it onto the research agenda. Moreover, the very few attempts that have been made to identify the roots of the dark triad have focused on very broad, generic explanations (e.g., Jonason et al., 2015;Vernon et al., 2008), while, to understand when people turn to their dark side, we need to know which specific factors trigger dark triad states. ...
... Yet, thus far, the limited studies that investigated the link between the dark triad and sleep have all focused on between-person relationships (e.g., Akram et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2019), neglecting that there is important within-person variability in those constructs as well. Even though the concept of fatigue ("tiredness") is almost literally included in conceptualizations of the dark side of personality (Kaiser et al., 2015), and even though self-regulatory processes are considered to be crucial for managing dark side expressions (Hogan et al., 2011;Hogan & Hogan, 2001;Kaiser et al., 2015;Nübold et al., 2022), the role of sleep and distress tolerance in momentary expressions of dark triad traits has not yet been studied. ...
... Therefore, a more comprehensive assessment of both trait-related responses across situations and state-related responses to different situations are of central importance (Dalal et al., 2015;Li et al., 2021;Lievens et al., 2018;Tett et al., 2021;Woods et al., 2019). Gaining insights into dark triad dynamics therefore has the potential to extend existing 'dynamic' conceptual frameworks like the TESSERA model to dark traits, while a more comprehensive understanding of their triggers could help with acquiring knowledge on their nomological network (see also Nübold et al., 2022), which may lead to more nuanced, contextually relevant theories that can better predict dark behavior. ...
Rise of the Dark Side: How Sleep Perception Triggers Dark Triad States at Work Running title: Rise of the Dark Side
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
  • J ORGAN BEHAV
Although there has been a growing interest in studying the dark side of personality among working individuals, studies have predominantly focused on dark triad traits. However, to understand when employees turn to their dark side, it is crucial to gain insights into the specific factors that trigger dark triad states. Because the ability to regulate one’s behavior in part relies upon periods of rest and recovery, impaired sleep might play a crucial role in understanding why and when dark triad expressions occur at work. Using a 10-day experience sampling method (ESM) design among 103 employees (Nrepeated observations = 786), the current study tested (i) the within-person relationship between sleep perception (sleep quality and quantity) and dark triad states, and (ii) whether distress tolerance mediates this relationship. The results indicate negative associations between sleep quality/quantity and each of the dark triad states. Moreover, distress tolerance partly mediates the relationship between sleep perception and overall dark triad states. These findings suggest that sleep-deficient employees are more prone to exhibit dark traits, contributing to insights on mitigating such expressions in the workplace.
View
... One study has shown that psychopathy is positively related to feelings of burnout but that this relationship is lower among individuals who also have higher levels of emotional intelligence, which may allow them to better cope with stressful events [56]. More recently, a daily diary study demonstrated that employees were more likely to display dark side personality traits when they experienced role conflict at work [57]. ...
... Future research could employ this approach to investigate whether retrospective, overall self-assessments are effective summaries of day-to-day experiences and attitudes, whether trait variability can add incremental validity beyond overall estimates, or to help illuminate when and how dark traits are triggered (see [195]). Likewise, such analyses could help reveal interpersonal and situational triggers that increase the likelihood of various insider threat behaviors irrespective of which personality factors are involved (see [57], for an example). ...
Exposing the darkness within: A review of dark personality traits, models, and measures and their relationship to insider threats
Article
  • Dec 2022
Insider threats are a pernicious threat to modern organizations that involve individuals intentionally or unintentionally engaging in behaviors that undermine or abuse information security. Previous research has established that personality factors are an important determinant of the likelihood that an individual will engage in insider threat behaviors. The present article asserts that dark personality traits, non-clinical personality characteristics that are typically associated with patterns of anti-social and otherwise noxious interpersonal behaviors, may be particularly useful for understanding and predicting insider threat behaviors. Although some relationships between insider threats and dark traits have been documented, most attention has been devoted to a limited subset of dark traits. To address this issue, we critically review contemporary models of dark traits and their potential value for understanding both malicious and non-malicious insider threats, supplemented by discussions of subject matter expert ratings concerning the relevance of dark traits for both insider threat behaviors and cybersecurity personnel job performance. We then review potential assessment issues and provide evidence of possible moderators for the relationships under investigation. Finally, we develop avenues for future research, an agenda for improving the measurement of dark traits, and guidance for how organizations may implement the assessment of dark traits in their organizational processes.
View
... Finally, more specified models will need to determine how organizational factors such as organizational safety nets (Kaptein, 2002) function to moderate both the manifestation and well-being outcomes of a propensity to moral outrage. Given research showing that ethical work context and characteristics can serve to mitigate trait-related outcomes (e.g., Nübold et al., 2022), this may provide an avenue to help us better understand whether the propensity to moral outrage can be mitigated as well. ...
Rage Against the Dying of the Light: Employees’ Moral Outrage, Anger Expression, and Generalized Well-Being
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2025
  • J BUS ETHICS
Past work demonstrates that ethical ideologies and behaviors are associated with the physical and psychological well-being of employees. Drawing from ethical impact theory and related research, this investigation utilizes two studies of working adults to examine the relationships among employees’ moral outrage, anger expression, and generalized well-being, with the latter construct being operationalized with multi-variable measures of ill-being, positive life outlook, and health consciousness. In the first study, two dimensions of moral outrage were identified, with results indicating that these components variably related to the ill-being/well-being measures and similar health behaviors. In the second study, anger expression was accounted for, thus disentangling it from the moral outrage dimensions, with results demonstrating that such anger changed the nature of some relationships between the moral outrage dimensions and the well-being outcomes. Overall, anger expression was associated more closely with negative outcomes, while the moral outrage dimensions were more closely associated with positive outcomes. These findings suggest that moral outrage may be cathartic, which contributes to further theory development and enhances understanding of the complex relationships among individual moral outrage, anger expression, and well-being. The practical considerations of the results are discussed, and the study’s limitations and suggestions for future research directions are highlighted.
View
... Counterproductive work behavior and DT are still highly debated among mental health professionals and have been the subject of many studies in the literature (Azam et al., 2022;Lyons et al., 2022;Nübold et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2022). However, these two constructs were mostly studied on their own in relation to other variables in many systematic reviews (Moor & Anderson, 2019;Whelpley & McDaniel, 2016) and the number of studies assessing them together is scarce. ...
Dark Personality Traits and Counterproductive Work Behavior: A PRISMA Systematic Review
Article
  • Dec 2023
  • PSYCHOL REP
Nowadays it is important for companies to keep their profits and productivity high. This can be achieved by creating a good environment in which employees can perform at their best. Unfortunately, counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is widespread in the workplace and poses a serious threat to both organizational performance and employee well-being. Among the many potential risk factors for CWB, the Dark Triad (DT) personality traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) have received increasing attention in recent years. To assess the robustness and magnitude of the association between DT and CWB, we conducted a systematic review of the available literature on DT and CWB using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines after a thorough search of several databases, 21 papers were included. The results showed that DT and CWB are positively associated. Psychopathy exhibited the strongest positive association with CWB, followed immediately by Machiavellianism and narcissism. Moreover, Machiavellianism and psychopathy showed positive correlations with both forms of CWB (organisational and interpersonal), whereas narcissism was positively correlated only with interpersonal CWB. Our findings highlight that even though organisations could benefit from people with DT at the performance level, there could be serious implications for well-being and an appropriate work environment due to CWB.
View
View
View
Explorations of the Shadow Realm: Examining the Role of Dark Personality in the Workplace
Chapter
  • Feb 2024
The literature on individual differences constitutes a key area of research in organizational sciences, such as organizational psychology, organizational behavior, and behavioral strategy. In line with this, there is a vast and further growing body of knowledge within this literature. This volume aims to provide an accessible overview of the academic research that characterizes this area. Specifically, through 26 chapters written by 57 established academics, this volume explores key research streams, ranging from psychological to biological/physiological characteristics, and assesses the impact of individual differences in an era of technological and social disruption. In doing so, it assists academics and practitioners in understanding and utilizing individual differences to enhance organizational outcomes.
View
Uncovering Hidden Framings in Dark Triad Self-Ratings: What Frames-of-Reference Do People Use When Responding to Generic Dark Triad Items?
Article
Full-text available
In typical Dark Triad (DT) questionnaires, generic items oftentimes refer to “others” or “people” in general. Hence, respondents have to mentally aggregate their behavior across several kinds of “others” (e.g., work colleagues, family members, and friends). It remains unknown if individuals consider different kinds of interaction partners equally or if their self-reports contain “hidden” interaction partner-specific tendencies. To shed light on this issue, we assessed generic and contextualized DT items (referring to family, friends, work, and strangers; N = 814 from the general population). The correlated trait-correlated (method − 1) model was used to investigate preregistered research questions. On average, generic DT items showed the strongest association with work-contextualized DT items and the weakest association with family-contextualized DT items. However, the associations varied considerably across DT items and traits. In sum, our results suggest that hidden framings exist in some DT items, which may impact their ability to predict relevant criteria due to contextual (a)symmetries. The generalizability of the findings to other DT instruments, items, and participant groups should be examined in future research.
View
View
An Empirical Examination of Self-Reported Work Stress Among U.S. Managers
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2000
This study proposes that self-reported work stress among U.S. managers is differentially related (positively and negatively) to work outcomes depending on the stressors that are being evaluated. Specific hypotheses were derived from this general proposition and tested using a sample of 1,886 U.S. managers and longitudinal data. Regression results indicate that challenge-related self-reported stress is positively related to job satisfaction and negatively related to job search. In contrast, hindrance-related self-reported stress is negatively related to job satisfaction and positively related to job search and turnover. Future research directions are discussed.
View
Fit Indices in Covariance Structure Modeling: Sensitivity to Underparameterized Model Misspecification
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 1998
This study evaluated the sensitivity of maximum likelihood (ML)- generalized least squares (GLS) - and asymptotic distribution-free (ADF)-based fit indices to model misspecification under conditions that varied sample size and distribution. The effect of violating assumptions of asymptotic robustness theory also was examined. Standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR) was the most sensitive index to models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and Tucker–Lewis Index (1973; TLI)Bollen's fit index (1989; BL89) relative noncentrality index (RNI) comparative fit index (CFI) and the ML- and GLS-based gamma hat McDonald's centrality index (1989; Mc) and root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) were the most sensitive indices to models with misspecified factor loadings. With ML and GLS methods we recommend the use of SRMR supplemented by TLI BL89 RNI CFI gamma hat Mc or RMSEA (TLI Mc and RMSEA are less preferable at small sample sizes). With the ADF method we recommend the use of SRMR supplemented by TLI BL89 RNI or CFI. Finally most of the ML-based fit indices outperformed those obtained from GLS and ADF and are preferable for evaluating model fit.
View
Be smart, play dumb? A transactional perspective on day-specific knowledge hiding, interpersonal conflict, and psychological strain
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
Research on knowledge hiding, the intentional attempt to withhold knowledge that others have requested, strikingly shows its detrimental consequences. But, if it has only negative effects, why do employees hide knowledge in their everyday work at all? With this diary study, we address this question, shedding light on the instrumentality of knowledge hiding. Specifically, placing it within the transactional stress model, we argue that deceptive knowledge hiding (playing dumb and evasive hiding) may function as coping, relating negatively to psychological strain responses to experienced interpersonal conflict. Accordingly, we tested evasive hiding and playing dumb as mediators of the day-specific relationship between conflict and end-of-work exhaustion and negative affect. Based on data of 101 employees who reported on 615 workdays, results of multilevel path analyses showed relationship conflict positively related to evasive hiding and playing dumb. Playing dumb was negatively related to end-of-work psychological strain responses, resulting in inconsistent mediation. Evasive hiding was unrelated to psychological strain. Showing the potential intrapersonal benefits of playing dumb, this paper helps to better understand the occurrence of enacted ‘negative’ interpersonal work behaviors, yielding important implications for research and practice.
View
Does CWB Repair Negative Affective States, or Generate Them? Examining the Moderating Role of Trait Empathy
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2020
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is a topic of considerable importance for organizational scholars and practitioners. Yet, despite a wide-ranging consensus that negative affect (NA) is a precursor to CWB, there is surprisingly little consensus as to whether CWB enactment will subsequently lead to lower or higher levels of NA. That is, scholars disagree as to whether CWB has a reparative (negative) or generative (positive) effect on subsequent NA. We submit that both perspectives have validity, and thus the question should not be whether CWB is associated with lower or higher subsequent levels of NA, but rather for whom. This article is dedicated to answering this question. Drawing from the behavioral concordance model, we position empathy as a moderator of this relationship, such that CWB will be reparative for those with lower levels of empathy and generative for those with higher levels of empathy. Findings across 3 experience-sampling studies support our hypotheses and highlight a number of interesting directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
View
Beyond depletion: Daily self‐control motivation as an explanation of self‐control failure at work
Article
Full-text available
The organizational self‐control literature usually applies resource perspectives that explain self‐control failure at work by depletion of self‐control resources. However, these perspectives neglect the role of self‐control motivation. On a daily level, we examine several self‐control aspects (resources, motivation, demands, and effort) as predictors of a manifestation of self‐control failure at work, namely, daily counterproductive work behavior toward the organization (CWB‐O). Additionally, we investigate self‐control effort as a mechanism predicting the depletion of self‐control resources throughout the day. We analyzed data from 155 employees in a 2‐week diary study with 2 daily measurement points. Multilevel path modeling showed that self‐control motivation and self‐control demands, but not self‐control resource depletion, predicted self‐control effort. There was an indirect effect from self‐control motivation on CWB‐O via self‐control effort but no indirect effect from self‐control demands on self‐control resource depletion throughout the day via self‐control effort. Findings suggest that self‐control motivation is a crucial factor explaining self‐control failure at work and cast further doubt on the idea that exerted self‐control effort is the only mechanism leading to self‐control resource depletion.
View
When lending an ear turns into mistreatment: An episodic examination of leader mistreatment in response to venting at work
Article
Full-text available
Venting—an emotion‐focused form of coping involving the discharge of negative feelings to others—is common in organizational settings. Venting may benefit the self via the release of negative emotion, or by acting as a catalyst for changes to problematic work situations. Nonetheless, venting might have unintended consequences via its influence on those who are the recipients of venting from others. In light of this idea, we provide a theoretical explanation for how leaders in particular are affected by venting receipt at work. Drawing from the transactional model of stress, we theorize that venting tends to be appraised as a threat, which triggers negative emotion that, in turn, potentiates deviant action tendencies (i.e., interpersonal mistreatment). Yet, our theory suggests that not all leaders necessarily experience venting in the same way. Specifically, leaders with higher need for cognition are less influenced by surface‐level cues associated with others’ emotional expressions and find challenging interpersonal situations to be less aversive, thereby attenuating the deleterious effects of receipt of venting. In an experience sampling study of 112 managers across 10 consecutive workdays, we find support for our theoretical model. Altogether, our findings provide insight into the costs incurred when leaders lend an ear to those who vent, which can result in negative downstream consequences.
View
Good Actors but Bad Apples: Deviant Consequences of Daily Impression Management at Work
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2018
Impression management (IM) refers to behaviors employees use to create and maintain desired images in the workplace. Prior studies have shown that the successful use of IM relates to a number of important outcomes for employees (e.g., higher performance evaluations), but this work has tended to compare IM usage between individuals, ignoring the fact that employees likely adjust their use of IM depending on the situations they face at work on a given day. In this paper, we argue that managing impressions on a daily basis can be draining, thereby leaving employees susceptible to the temptation to engage in subsequent harmful behaviors at work. To better understand the nature and within-person consequences of IM, we examine the daily use of two supervisor-focused IM tactics—ingratiation and self-promotion—among 75 professionals in China over the course of two work weeks. Our results indicate that there is significant within-person variance in employees’ use of ingratiation and self-promotion aimed at supervisors. Moreover, our findings suggest that the use of ingratiation, but not self-promotion, depletes employees’ self-control resources. In the case of ingratiation, this depletion is positively associated with employee deviance, and the indirect effect is stronger among employees with low political skill. Overall, this research contributes to our understanding of the dynamic, within-person nature of IM, the consequences of IM for employees, and the dark side of IM for organizations.
View
Work Experiences and Personality Development in Young Adulthood
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2003
This longitudinal study provides an analysis of the relationship between personality traits and work experiences with a special focus on the relationship between changes in personality and work experiences in young adulthood. Longitudinal analyses uncovered 3 findings. First, measures of personality taken at age 18 predicted both objective and subjective work experiences at age 26. Second, work experiences were related to changes in personality traits from age 18 to 26. Third, the predictive and change relations between personality traits and work experiences were corresponsive: Traits that "selected" people into specific work experiences were the same traits that changed in response to those same work experiences. The relevance of the findings to theories of personality development is discussed.
View
Darker by the day: Daily variability in dark personality traits
Article
  • Feb 2022
  • PERS INDIV DIFFER
Grounded in Whole Trait Theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015), the present study examined the extent to which people report daily variability in dark personality (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy). Undergraduate participants (N = 297) completed trait measures as well as 21 daily reports of dark personality. Participants reported substantial within-person variability in narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Trait measures of dark personality were found to predict daily measures of dark personality aggregated across a number of days. Additionally, daily reports of dark personality were found to covary with one another, such that higher daily levels of one dark personality facet were associated with higher levels of the other two on the same day. We discuss implications for future research on daily dark personality.
View
Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissistic States in Interpersonal Situations
Article
  • Jun 2019
Clinicians have noted that narcissistic individuals fluctuate in levels of grandiosity and vulnerability. The present study is the first to examine narcissistic states assessed during interpersonal situations. Perceptions of others’ warmth and dominance, momentary grandiosity and vulnerability, and one’s own warm and dominant behavior were assessed across situations in daily life (person N = 286; occasion N = 6,837). Results revealed that more grandiose individuals perceived others as colder and behaved more dominant and colder, on average. But in the moment, higher grandiosity was associated with perceiving others as warmer and more submissive, resulting in more dominant and warm behavior. Trait vulnerability was associated with perceptions of coldness and cold behavior, and this was amplified in the moment.
View