Agriculture in the Karakum: An archaeobotanical analysis from Togolok 1, southern Turkmenistan (ca. 2300–1700 B.C.)

Abstract

Southern Central Asia witnessed widespread expansion in urbanism and exchange, between roughly 2200 and 1500 B.C., fostering a new cultural florescence, sometimes referred to as the Greater Khorasan Civilization. Decades of detailed archeological investigation have focused on the development of urban settlements, political systems, and inter-regional exchange within and across the broader region, but little is known about the agricultural systems that supported these cultural changes. In this paper, we present the archaeobotanical results of material recovered from Togolok 1, a proto-urban settlement along the Murghab River alluvial fan located in southeastern Turkmenistan. This macrobotanical assemblage dates to the late 3rd - early 2nd millennia B.C., a time associated with important cultural transformations in southern Central Asia. We demonstrate that people at the site were cultivating and consuming a diverse range of crops including, barley, wheat, legumes, grapes, and possibly plums and apples or pears. This, together with the associated material culture and zooarchaeological evidence, suggest a regionally adapted mixed agropastoral economy. The findings at Togolok 1 contribute to the ongoing discussion of dietary choices, human/landscape interactions, and the adaptation of crops to diverse ecosystems in prehistoric Central Asia.

Full text

fevo-10-995490 September 23, 2022 Time: 15:27 # 1
TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 28 September 2022
DOI 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Shinya Shoda,
University of York, United Kingdom
REVIEWED BY
Michael Spate,
The University of Sydney, Australia
Pavel Tarasov,
Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
*CORRESPONDENCE
Traci N. Billings
billings@shh.mpg.de
SPECIALTY SECTION
This article was submitted to
Paleoecology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
RECEIVED 15 July 2022
ACCEPTED 26 August 2022
PUBLISHED 28 September 2022
CITATION
Billings TN, Cerasetti B, Forni L,
Arciero R, Dal Martello R, Carra M,
Rouse LM, Boivin N and Spengler RN III
(2022) Agriculture in the Karakum: An
archaeobotanical analysis from
Togolok 1, southern Turkmenistan (ca.
2300–1700 B.C.).
Front. Ecol. Evol. 10:995490.
doi: 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
COPYRIGHT
© 2022 Billings, Cerasetti, Forni,
Arciero, Dal Martello, Carra, Rouse,
Boivin and Spengler. This is an
open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons
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or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
Agriculture in the Karakum: An
archaeobotanical analysis from
Togolok 1, southern
Turkmenistan (ca. 2300–1700
B.C.)
Traci N. Billings1,2*, Barbara Cerasetti3,4, Luca Forni3,4,
Roberto Arciero3,5, Rita Dal Martello1, Marialetizia Carra6,
Lynne M. Rouse7,8, Nicole Boivin1,9,10,11 and
Robert N. Spengler III1
1Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany, 2Institute
for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany,
3ISMEO – The International Association for Mediterranean and Oriental Studies, Rome, Italy,
4Department of History and Cultures, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, 5Department of World
Archaeology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands, 6ArcheoLaBio, Research Center
for Bioarchaeology, Department of History and Cultures, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy,
7Eurasia Department, German Archaeological Institute (DAI), Berlin, Germany, 8Department
of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States, 9School of Social
Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia, 10Department of Anthropology
and Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, 11Department of Anthropology,
National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, United States
Southern Central Asia witnessed widespread expansion in urbanism and
exchange, between roughly 2200 and 1500 B.C., fostering a new cultural
florescence, sometimes referred to as the Greater Khorasan Civilization.
Decades of detailed archeological investigation have focused on the
development of urban settlements, political systems, and inter-regional
exchange within and across the broader region, but little is known about
the agricultural systems that supported these cultural changes. In this paper,
we present the archaeobotanical results of material recovered from Togolok
1, a proto-urban settlement along the Murghab River alluvial fan located
in southeastern Turkmenistan. This macrobotanical assemblage dates to the
late 3rd - early 2nd millennia B.C., a time associated with important cultural
transformations in southern Central Asia. We demonstrate that people at
the site were cultivating and consuming a diverse range of crops including,
barley, wheat, legumes, grapes, and possibly plums and apples or pears.
This, together with the associated material culture and zooarchaeological
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Billings et al. 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
evidence, suggest a regionally adapted mixed agropastoral economy. The
findings at Togolok 1 contribute to the ongoing discussion of dietary
choices, human/landscape interactions, and the adaptation of crops to diverse
ecosystems in prehistoric Central Asia.
KEYWORDS
palaeoeconomy, archaeobotany (palaeoethnobotany), Murghab, Central Asia, Bronze
Age
Introduction
The oldest evidence for agriculture in the piedmont of the
Kopet Dag foothills in Turkmenistan comes from the Neolithic
settlement of Djeitun, dated to approximately 6000 B.C. (Harris,
1997,2010). Recovered remains of sheep (Ovis sp.) and goat
(Capra sp.), as well as charred chaff and/or grains from six-
row barley (Hordeum vulgare), einkorn (Triticum monococcum),
and possibly emmer (Triticum dicoccum) and free-threshing
wheat (Triticum aestivum/durum) suggest Djeitun’s inhabitants
practiced a mixed subsistence economy (Masson,1961;
Kasparov,1992;Legge,1992;Harris et al.,1993;Harris,2010).
Further evidence of cereal processing at the site included, sickle
blades, stone mortars, pestles, and grindstones (Korobkova,
1981;Harris et al.,1993). The early presence of einkorn and
six-row barley at Djeitun provides support for the eastward
movement of these crops from Southwest Asia (Jones et al.,
2011;Stevens et al.,2016). Between the mid-fourth and third
millennia B.C., the piedmont plain north of the Kopet Dag
experienced settlement expansion. The period was also marked
by greater interactions between the populations of the piedmont
and areas such as Shahr-i Sokhta in Iran, Mundigak in
Afghanistan, and the Zeravshan River in Uzbekistan, which
has been demonstrated by material finds (Salvatori,2008a).
During the fourth through third millennium B.C., proto-
urban settlements were first constructed along the inner river
delta of the Tedjen (the Geoksyur Oasis sites), and by the
mid-third millennium B.C. in the previously under-exploited
Murghab River alluvial fan (Masimov,1981;Kohl,1984;
Gubaev et al.,1998;Salvatori et al.,2008;Bonora and Vidale,
2013;Lyonnet and Dubova,2021; cf., Salvatori,2007,2008b
regarding archaeology visibility). In addition to the increase
in urbanism, there is evidence for significant inter-regional
trade and wider connectivity between regions, including the
Indus Valley, Iranian Plateau, Persian Gulf, and Mesopotamia
(Sarianidi,1986,1998,2005;Hiebert and Lamberg-Karlovsky,
1992;Salvatori,2000;Winckelmann,2000;Possehl,2002;Tosi
and Lamberg-Karlovsky,2003;Kohl,2007;Salvatori et al.,2008;
Frachetti,2012;Lombard,2021;Lyonnet and Dubova,2021).
Possehl (2002,2007) calls this connectivity the Middle Asian
Interaction Sphere (MAIS). The movement of goods during this
period is supported by a broad geographic range of ‘exotic items’
such as, ivory objects, etched carnelian beads, faience, chlorite
products, figurines, pottery, seals from the Indus Valley and
Iranian Plateau, and possibly metal ore (Sarianidi,2001,2007;
Salvatori et al.,2008;Kaniuth,2010;Frenez,2018;Garner,2021;
Lyonnet and Dubova,2021). These ancient exchange networks
undoubtably contributed to what would become the Silk Road
three millennia later.
Building from this widespread expansion of urbanism
and trade was the development of a cultural phenomenon
(with distinct architecture and material culture) broadly
centered in the region between northern Afghanistan, southern
Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, and the Murghab River alluvial
fan of southeastern Turkmenistan; although, its geographical
boundaries are not sharply defined (ca. 2250–1700 B.C.; Lyonnet
and Dubova,2021). This cultural phenomenon has sometimes
been referred to as the Bactria-Margiana Archeological
Complex (BMAC; Sarianidi,1974), or, alternatively, the Oxus
Civilization (Francfort,1984), and more recently, the Greater
Khorasan Civilization (GKC; Biscione and Vahdati,2021). Most
archeologists agree that the GKC began to “decline”1between
1700-1500 B.C.; although, this shift may have begun earlier in
the Murghab. Starting in the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1900 B.C.),
the north-eastern part of the Murghab alluvial fan experienced
a decentralization of its settlements (Salvatori,2008b;Salvatori
et al.,2008), likely due to the gradual aridification of the
surrounding environment (i.e., the limited availability of water
and encroaching aeolian sands; Cremaschi,1998;Cattani et al.,
2008;Cerasetti,2008,2012;Markofsky,2014,Markofsky et al.,
2017;Rouse and Cerasetti,2017). Populations continued to shift
southward upriver through time (Salvatori,2008b;Salvatori
et al.,2008;Cerasetti and Tosi,2010).
Significant research concerning the architecture, climate,
settlement patterns, hydrological systems, material culture, and
population dynamics in the Murghab River region have been
conducted (e.g., Masson and Sarianidi,1972;Masimov,1981;
Sarianidi,1986,1990a,b,1993;Lyapin,1991;Hiebert,1994,
1 For a more detailed discussion of these transitions among different
regions within the proposed GKC geographic range, see Luneau (2018,
2021).
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1998;Cremaschi,1998;Gubaev et al.,1998;Rossi Osmida,2002;
2005,2007;Cattani and Salvatori,2008;Salvatori et al.,2008;
Rossi Osmida,2011;Cerasetti et al.,2014;Lyapin,2014;Rouse
and Cerasetti,2014,2017;Forni,2017). Yet, there have been
relatively few studies focused on what the economy looked like
in these proto-urban settlements (c.f., Miller,1993,1999;Moore
et al.,1994;Sataev,2021). Recent archaeobotanical studies from
settlement sites, such as Adji Kui 1 (Spengler et al.,2018) and
Gonur depe (Sataev and Sataeva,2014), and mobile-pastoral
sites, such as Ojakly and Chopantam (Spengler et al.,2014),
are adding to what we know about past economic systems,
foodways, and land use in the Murghab. Here, we present the
archaeobotanical results from the 2014 field season at the Bronze
Age site of Togolok 1 to explore subsistence practices during the
transition between the third and second millennia B.C.
Environmental setting
Togolok 1 (38◦06054.800 N, 61◦59050.80 0 E) is a proto-urban
settlement, located along one of the main channels of the
Murghab River in southeastern Turkmenistan (Figure 1), dated
to the Middle to Late Bronze Age (3rd - 2nd millennia B.C.).
The Murghab River flows from the Paropamisus Mountains
north into the depression of the Turan Plain, where it spreads
out into several channels creating an endorheic delta (or
alluvial fan), which ultimately dissipates in the sands of the
Karakum Desert (Babaev,1994;Cremaschi,1998;Marcolongo
and Mozzi,1998). The alluvial fan, while largely stable, has
undergone a few changes over the millennia, including, a general
westward shift because of underlying geomorphology and a
retraction of its northern reaches possibly due to changes in
water availability since the end of the third millennium B.C.
(Cremaschi,1998;Marcolongo and Mozzi,1998;Markofsky
et al.,2017). Shifts in water availability have stemmed from
climatic and hydrological conditions, as well as anthropogenic
pressures in more recent times (Cremaschi,1998;Marcolongo
and Mozzi,1998;Markofsky et al.,2017).
Although some aspects of Holocene climate change in
Central Asia remain unclear, general aridification and its
variation through time has been considerably researched
(Staubwasser et al.,2003;Staubwasser and Weiss,2006;Chen
et al.,2008;Luneau,2018;Fouache et al.,2021). Pollen
data recovered from lake cores in the eastern Pamirs [e.g.,
Lake Karakul, Tajikistan (Heinecke et al.,2017) and Lake
Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan (Ricketts et al.,2001)], as well as the
northwestern Himalayas (e.g., lake Tso Moriri; Leipe et al.,
2014) mark an environmental shift beginning after 5000 B.C.
to more arid conditions across the broad region. This perceived
shift may have been connected to changes in the influence
of the monsoonal front (Leipe et al.,2014). Whereas Chen
et al. (2008)’s compilation of available records from Central
Asia suggests that a period of increasing aridity began after
2000 B.C. In the Murghab, this aridification may be partially
responsible for the retraction of the terminal reaches of its
alluvial fan, evident by the late Middle to Late Bronze Age
(i.e., approximately 1900 B.C.; Cremaschi,1998;Markofsky
et al.,2017), which corresponded with a transformation of
the settlement system in this area (Salvatori,2008b). Similar
population displacements or reorganizations, also attributed
to hydro-environmental changes, are attested in other Central
Asian alluvial fan regions, including on the Balkh and Zeravshan
rivers (Fouache et al.,2012,2021). Fouache et al. (2021,
p. 82) suggest two major factors impacted settlement patterns
in southern Central Asia, both of which are related to the
availability of water, and include: a change to a river’s course
or a decline in its flow. Evidence for this in the Murghab is
demonstrated by spatial distribution of settlement sites near
paleochannels through time (Salvatori et al.,2008;Cerasetti and
Tosi,2010;Rouse and Cerasetti,2017); although, it should be
noted that Salvatori (2008b) has also emphasized the importance
of considering the influence of socio-political factors when it
comes to the settlement system(s) in the region.
Markofsky et al. (2017) highlight the dynamic nature of
the liminal spaces found where floodplain transitions to desert
in Central Asian inland deltaic environments and how this
interplay shapes the way people use and interact with them (e.g.,
irrigation, crop production, and other resource use). Human
(e.g., land use) and environmental (e.g., geology, hydrology,
and vegetation) factors at the local level can influence broader
ecological conditions, and vice versa (e.g., a change in spring
rains in the mountains can greatly affect the availability of water)
(Markofsky et al.,2017). They posit that understanding this
“socio-ecological balance” allows for a clearer understanding of
changes in human-environment relationships through time in
the region (Markofsky et al.,2017, p. 2). Previous interpretations
of prehistoric human occupation in the Murghab have often
focused on the alluvial fan as an enclosed space. The “oasis”
model suggests that settlements, like Togolok 1, were located
in micro-oases along water channels within a largely desert
landscape (e.g., Kohl,1984;Sarianidi,1990c;Hiebert,1994).
While an alternative model proposes that there was widespread
occupation and possibly also cultivation of the Murghab
floodplain (Cattani et al.,2008;Cattani and Salvatori,2008;
Cerasetti et al.,2014). Evidence underpinning the latter, includes
the broad distribution of pottery found during surface surveys in
the areas between the so-called “oases” (Cattani and Salvatori,
2008;Markofsky et al.,2017). Further evidence for this model
is offered in Cremaschi (1998), where he describes looted
burials (dating to mid-3rd to early 2nd millennia B.C.) from
the cemetery near Gonur South. Specifically, he mentions
burial 116, because a firepit with Late Bronze Age material
was found on top of its looter shaft. This was important
because the burials had been dug into alluvial soil and the
only aeolian sand present in them was within the intrusions
caused by the looters. This allowed Cremaschi (1998) to posit
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FIGURE 1
(A) Map of southern Central Asia and surrounding areas with key ancient cities/areas: 1-Hissar, 2-Djeitun, 3-Anau, 4-Namagza-depe,
5-Ulug-depe, 6-Altyn-depe, 7-Tedjen Alluvial Fan, 8-Geoksyur Oasis, 9–18-Murghab Alluvial Fan, 19-Bukhara, 20-Samarkand, 21-Sarazm,
22-Dashly, 23-Balkh, 24-Sapalli-tepe, 25-Djarkutan, 26-Shortugai, 27-Shahr-i Sokhta, 28-Mundigak, 29–30-Mehrgarh and Nausharo; (B) Close
up of Murghab Alluvial Fan highlighting important sites: 9-Kelleli sites, 10-Taip sites, 11-Egri Bogaz sites, 12-Adji Kui sites, 13-Ojakly, 14-Auchin
sites, 15-Gonur depe, 16-Togolok 1, 17-Chopantam, and 18-Merv. Map created with QGIS using Esri World Imagery Basemap, Sources: Esri,
DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA FSA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community; and river
dataset source: 2005@Savitsky Ivan (taken from https://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/mckinney/Central_Asia_Data/index.htm) (07.03.2022).
that the encroachment by aeolian sands must have occurred
after the initial Mid-Bronze Age burial and before the fire
associated with the Late Bronze Age (i.e., suggesting later aeolian
sand encroachment). Support for more nuanced interpretations
situated within local contexts has characterized recent research
(e.g., Cleuziou et al.,1998;Markofsky and Bevan,2012;
Cerasetti et al.,2014;Wilkinson,2014;Markofsky et al.,2017;
Rouse and Cerasetti,2017). Markofsky et al. (2017) advocate
for more critical interpretations concerning environmental and
human relationships and suggest that there is great variation not
only within the interaction between encroaching aeolian sands,
alluvial depositional processes, and other ecological factors,
but also in human response or adaptations to environmental
conditions at the local level of these inland deltas.
There is a general precipitation gradient in broader
Turkmenistan, which suggests that precipitation declines with
distance from the mountains in the southwest. Didovets et al.
(2021) reported a mean average annual precipitation of 308 mm
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Billings et al. 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
between 2000 and 2013 for the Murghab alluvial fan. Their
measuring station in Taghtabazar, however, is located further
south, a distance of more than 200 km from the Togolok
area. Given Togolok’s location, a more reasonable estimation
of modern mean average annual precipitation may be less
than 100-130 mm (Babaev,1994;Harris,2010). This estimate
is further supported by Orlovsky’s (1994) assignment of a
mean average annual precipitation of 110–150 mm to the
lowland Karakum region, which encompasses the Murghab.
Furthermore, the mean average annual precipitation for all
of Turkmenistan is usually below 150 mm (Chemonics
International Inc.,2001). Most of this precipitation falls between
January and April, and it is typically drier and hotter from
June through September. Mean average annual temperatures
are usually around 16.5◦C but can reach up to 48◦C (Babaev,
1994). This modern climate data has been used in the region as a
loose estimate of what happened in the past (e.g., Cerasetti et al.,
in press a).
While the Murghab River alluvial fan is located
within a xerophytic shrubland (Dinerstein et al.,2017),
microenvironments consisting of reedy marshes and tugai
forest persist along the edges of the natural river channels
and other modern waterways (Suslov,1961;Hiebert,1994).
Tugai forest vegetation includes genre such as Euphrates poplar
(Populus pruinose), Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), and
Salix and Tamarix (Walter and Box,1983, 95–97; Hiebert,1994;
Ministry of Nature Protection,2002). The desert vegetation is
often dominated by Artemisia and halophytic species (Salsola
and Anabasis). Other common genre found in the region
include Allium,Alhagi,Astragalus,Carex,Ephedra,Ferula,
Halothamus,Haloxylon,Stipagrostis, and Tulipa (Hiebert,1994;
Harris,2010;Spengler et al.,2014). Desert soil in the region
consists of two types: clay/loam and loess/gravel (Babaev,1994).
The clay and loam desert soil includes ‘takyrs,’ which are clay
surfaces, often found in interdune regions or depressions, that
have a hard, cracked crust appearance (Babaev,1994;Maman
et al.,2011;Markofsky et al.,2017). Their high clay content
contributes to poor drainage and makes takyrs natural water
traps (Maman et al.,2011;Markofsky et al.,2017). Sierozems,
highly fertile soils, often form on loess desert soils. Both
sierozems and loess soils are high in carbonates (which can
help regulate the pH and promotes soil fertility) and have low
rates of salination (Babaev,1994). Salination is a major cause of
desertification in modern Central Asia (Severskiy,2004).
Archeological context
Togolok 1 is part of the broader archeological landscape
of the Murghab Alluvial Fan, where about 2,000 archeological
sites have been identified (Figure 1B;Masimov,1981;Gubaev
et al.,1998;Cerasetti,2004,2008;Salvatori et al.,2008;Cerasetti
et al.,2014). The name ‘Togolok,’ Turkmen for ‘mound’, is
used as a general designation for a cluster of archeological sites
(>30) in the region (Cerasetti et al.,in press a,b;Sarianidi,
1990c). Togolok 1 consists of two mounds (Sarianidi,1986,
1990a;Hiebert,1994): Tepe 1 (9 ha, 4 m high) and Tepe 2 (2.30
ha, 2 m high) (Figure 2), making it larger than other sites in
the local vicinity. Tepe 2, a fortified structure comparable to
but smaller than Togolok 21, was fully excavated in the late
1980’s by Sarianidi (1986,1990a,b). Tepe 2 and Togolok 21
were interpreted as monumental temple complexes (Sarianidi,
1986,1990a,b). Material finds like those found at Dashly, Sapalli-
tepe, and Djarkutan were uncovered at both sites (P’yankova,
1989;Hiebert,1994). A deep test pit (∼3.5 m) was also dug
into the southeastern portion of Tepe 1 to investigate its
stratigraphy (Sarianidi,1986). Additionally, Togolok 1 was part
of the broader program of surface surveys conducted by The
Archaeological Map of the Murghab Delta (AMMD) project
(Gubaev et al.,1998;Salvatori et al.,2008). During these
investigations, fortifications, including walls, round towers,
gates, and a walled citadel, as well as ceramic production
quarters were uncovered (Gubaev et al.,1998;Salvatori and
Gundogdiyev,2005;Salvatori et al.,2008). The site location,
the division/organization of space within and outside the
tepe, and analysis of pottery were used to suggest a possible
administrative role for Togolok 1 (Salvatori and Gundogdiyev,
2005). This evidence allowed archaeologists to identify Togolok’s
archeological complex as one of the largest BMAC (i.e., GKC)
proto-urban sites in the entire region [with respect to Smith’s
(2017) archeological urban attributes list; Salvatori,2004,
2008a,b]. In 2005, one small-scale test trench (10 ×10 m) was
excavated in Tepe 1, in an effort, to identify a site that was long
lived (i.e., ideally incorporating the entire Bronze Age sequence)
to allow archeologists to better understand the chronology in the
Murghab (Salvatori and Gundogdiyev,2005). This sub-surface
test was positioned west of Sarianidi’s pit in the southeast area of
the tepe. Beyond these initial test trenches, Tepe 1 has not been
extensively excavated.
More recently, the TAP – Togolok Archeological Project,
directed by B. Cerasetti, has completed a series of small-scale test
excavations on Tepe 1 during the field seasons of 2014, 2015,
and 2018 (Cerasetti et al. in press a,2019,in press b). These
investigations were composed of a series of trenches (Trench 1A:
5×5 m; Trench 1B: 5 ×5 m; Trench 1C: 2 ×6 m) dug near
the center of the mound. In Trench 1A, the excavators found
dark deposits that contained carbonized seeds, dung, wood
charcoal, faunal skeletal material, remnants of wattle and daub,
and several postholes together with artificial platforms (which
may suggest the presence of a temporary structure). Based on
these findings, the context was interpreted as a possible animal
enclosure (Cerasetti et al.,in press b). Fireplaces, storage pits,
artificial platforms, and a few artifacts (e.g., a terracotta figurine,
spindle whorls, stone instruments, etc.) were mainly unearthed
from the adjacent Trench 1B, that has been interpreted as
a domestic context (Cerasetti et al.,in press b). Trench 1C,
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FIGURE 2
(A) Map of Togolok 1 showing: (1) Tepe 1, (2) Tepe 2, and the location of TAP’s excavation units. Map created with QGIS using World Imagery
Basemap, Sources: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA FSA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User
Community. (B) Overview of Trenches 1A and 1B, photo courtesy of TAP. (C) Grid overlay of Trenches 1A and 1B showing the squares where
archaeobotanical samples were collected.
dug into the western area of the initial excavation (Trench
1A), has been interpreted as a refuse deposit. Composed of
alternating sediment layers and widespread charcoal, this trench
contained several artifacts (e.g., a flint arrow point, pottery disks,
spindle whorls, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines,
etc.), carbonized seeds, faunal skeletal material, and evidence for
artificial platforms and a fireplace (Cerasetti et al.,in press a).
Materials and methods
Sampling and flotation
The archaeobotanical assemblage from the 2014 field season
was collected from Trenches 1A and 1B (Figure 2). Soil
samples were selected from stratigraphic units with the greatest
likelihood of recovery of botanical remains (e.g., dark organic
layers) and processed using the bucket flotation technique
(Watson,1976;Fritz,2005;Pearsall,2015) on site by the TAP
team. To separate archaeobotanical material for analysis, each
sediment sample was weighed in grams and then poured into a
bucket with clean water. This mixture was then stirred, which
resulted in lighter organic material floating to the top and
heavier material remaining on the bottom. After the mixture
was sufficiently agitated, the organic material that floated to
the surface was poured through 1.00 and 0.355 mm geological
sieves consecutively. This process was repeated several times,
adding more water as needed, until no more organic material
floated. The material that had been collected in the sieves was
then allowed to dry in the shade and packaged for analysis as
light fraction. The material that remained on the bottom of the
bucket was discarded (i.e., no heavy fraction was collected). In
addition to the flotation samples, handpicked samples were also
taken by excavators when they found particularly rich deposits
of carbonized seeds during excavation. These samples were sent
to the lab in labeled film cannisters.
Archaeobotanical analysis
Initial analysis of the archaeobotanical assemblage was
conducted by M. Carra at Bologna University (Cerasetti et al.,
in press b). M. Carra completed the analysis of 15 samples
in this preliminary study. In 2019, these and the remaining
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unprocessed samples were sent to T. Billings to be analyzed
under the supervision of R. Spengler at the Max Planck Institute
for Geoanthropology (formally Max Planck Institute for the
Science of Human History) Paleoethnobotany Laboratory.
To sort the light fraction, the samples were systematically
separated using a series of sieves (2.0, 1.4, 1.0, and 0.5 mm).
Hand-picked samples were also separated using 2.0 mm and
0.50 mm sieves. The assemblage also contained samples of
posthole fill that had not been floated. To allow for the broadest
survey of the material, these were included in the analysis and
were separated following the same method as light fraction.
All identifiable plant remains were then carefully divided
into categories (e.g., seeds, other plant parts, wood, dung,
uncarbonized material, ceramic, and bones) and identified using
a Leica Light Microscope. Identifications were made using
comparative material and flora guides for the region [e.g.,
Flora of Turkmenia (Fedtschenko et al.,1932), Digital Atlas
of Economic Plants in Archeology (Neef et al.,2012), Manual
of Vascular Plants of Turkmenistan (Nikitin and Geldykhanov,
1988)]. For sieve sizes over 2.0 mm all carbonized seeds and
other plant material, including rachises, culm nodes, and Alhagi
sp. leaves, were separated and counted. For sieve sizes under
2.0 mm, all carbonized seeds were collected. Alhagi sp. leaves
were collected from material above 1.4 mm, while rachis and
Cerealia were collected from material above 1.0 mm. Material
from the 0.5 mm sieve was scanned for botanical remains but
in general, broken unidentifiable material was not collected. The
length, width, and thickness of intact barley, wheat, and lentils
were measured using a Keyence digital microscope and recorded
for morphometric comparison. Samples from the initial analysis
by M. Carra were re-analyzed to uniform nomenclature and
included in this study. The archaeobotanical assemblage was
cataloged and repackaged for long term storage. A digital archive
containing at least one representative photo of each species from
this assemblage will be made available as part of the Fruits of
Eurasia: Dispersal and Domestication (FEDD) project2.
Counts were performed using the following system: one
whole specimen equals one individual count, two half specimens
of the same species equal one individual count, four fragments
of the same species equal one individual count. These numbers
were rounded up to nearest whole number for minimum
number of individual (MNI) counts. The assemblage was
examined to assess if this method of counting would be
appropriate for each category. All domesticated grains and
pulses, as well as wild seeds were counted in this way. Each
rachis internode was counted as an individual. The cerealia
were highly fragmented and was instead counted as individual
fragments and not included in total counts. Unidentifiable
fragments were also treated in this manner. The final table
of absolute species counts was separated into three sub-tables
2https://robertnspengler.com/fruits-of-eurasia- domestication-and-
dispersal-fedd/
based on sample recovery type (LF- light fraction, NP- posthole
fill, HP- handpicked). Ubiquity and abundance measurements
were not calculated for the assemblage because of complications
with cross comparison and subsequent small sample sizes. Given
the exploratory nature of this initial archaeobotanical study,
however, the presence/absence of plant species offers a wealth
of information concerning plant use and environment.
Radiocarbon dating
To temporally place the excavation at Togolok 1, charred
grains of barley, wheat, and peas, corresponding to targeted
stratigraphic layers in Trenches 1A and 1B, were sent for
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating (Figure 3). The
seeds chosen were domesticated crops and thus provide direct
evidence for the timing of their use. Together these 12 AMS
dates (Figure 3) situate the broader archeological context of
the excavation within the transition from the 3rd to the 2nd
millennium B.C. More specifically, two barley grains taken from
Trench 1A, SU# 127, SQ G2 and SU#127, SQ F4 provided dates
for the 2014 field season botanical assemblage analyzed here
(Figure 3). In addition to these two samples, one broomcorn
millet (Panicum miliaceum) grain also recovered from Trench
1A, SU# 127, SQ G2 was sent for AMS dating (Figure 3).
Results
A total of 24,333 carbonized botanical remains (including
seeds, floral and vegetative remains, nutshell, grain parts, and
unidentifiable fragments) were recovered from 52 samples. The
absolute counts of the major food crops and other species of
interest are presented in Table 1. A complete table of absolute
counts for all species can be found in Supplementary Table 1.
Major food crops found in this assemblage include
domesticated grains (e.g., Hordeum vulgare, free-threshing
wheat, most likely Triticum aestivum, and Panicum miliaceum)
and legumes (e.g., Pisum sativum,Lens culinaris,Vicia faba,
V. sativa,V. ervilia, and Lathyrus sativus). Evidence for
fruits and nuts were also uncovered, including Vitis vinifera,
Crataegus sp., Prunus sp., Pyrus/Malus, and nutshell. Several
wild seeds were identified in the assemblage, such as wild
grasses, pulses, sedges, knotweed, etc. (Supplementary Table 1).
Additionally, unidentified charred remains, such as floral buds
and a tuber were recovered.
Dung was well represented in 28 of the samples. Wood
(fragments >2.00 mm) was slightly less frequent, occurring in
19 samples. In general, where dung was more abundant, there
was less wood recovered and vice versa; although, there were
exceptions (see SU123, FS#47). In addition to botanical remains
and dung pellets, metal slag, terrestrial gastropod shells, fecal
material (likely from a rodent), small fragments of ceramics, and
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FIGURE 3
Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates from Togolok 1 (Cerasetti et al.,in press a,in press b). Specific context from given as
(trench, stratigraphic unit [SU], square). Graph adapted from OxCal v4.4.4 (Bronk Ramsey,2009) with corresponding dates in last column of
table. All dates were calibrated with 95.4% probability unless otherwise noted using IntCal20 (Reimer et al.,2020). Symbol key: 0Dates calibrated
with OxCal 3.10 (Bronk Ramsey,1995,2001), IntCal13 (Reimer et al.,2013). ◦Dates calibrated with OxCal 4.3.2, Bronk Ramsey (2009), IntCal13
(Reimer et al.,2020). ..Dates calibrated with OxCal 4.4.2 (Bronk Ramsey,2009), IntCal20 (Reimer et al.,2013). *Newly reported date from this
publication. Codes for labs: CEDAD- CEntro di Fisica applicata, DAtazione e Diagnostica, University of Salento, Italy; SUERC- Scottish
Universities Environmental Research Centre Radiocarbon Lab, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom; OS, National Ocean Science AMS Lab,
Woods Hole, United States; OxA, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
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TABLE 1 Summary of total counts for the assemblage separated by
sample collection type (LF, light fraction; NF, not floated, fill from
postholes; HP, not floated, handpicked).
LF NF- Fill of
Postholes
HP- Not
floated
Total No. of Samples: 20 7 25
Domesticated grains
Hordeum vulgare 688 1 1468
Hordeum vulgare var. vulgare 98 – 239
Hordeum vulgare var. nudum 53 – 197
Triticum aestivum (Free-threshing) 96 – 485
Panicum miliaceum 12 – 3
Grain parts
Wheat Rachis (hexaploid) 393 – 13
Barley Rachis 3722 6 23
Cerealia 2351 117 220
Culm Node 42 – 55
Legumes
Pisum sativum 78 – 615
Vicia cf. sativa 50 – 81
Pisum sativum/Vicia sativa 14 – 1015
cf. Vicia ervilia – – 6
Vicia faba – – 36
Lens culinaris 227 1 1439
Lathyrus sativus 29 – 325
cf. Cicer arietinum – – 5
Other legumes 101 3 233
Fruits and nuts
cf. Crataegus sp. 1 – –
Malus/Pyrus 4 – 5
Prunus cf. insititia 3 – 20
Vitis vinifera 1 – 7
Nutshell fragments 16 1 3
Nut meat 3 – 10
Other
Allium sp. – – 1
Wild grasses
cf. Avena – – 3
Lolium sp. – – 1
Panicoid 4 – –
Poaceae 78 – –
Poaceae Small Type 139 – 2
Pooid 85 – 5
Aegilops sp. 25 – 4
Aegilops sp. spikelet base 146 – 16
Stipa Type 21 – –
Weedy Taxa
Chenopodium spp. 99 – 1
Sasola Kali 34 1 1
Other Amaranthaceae 231 4 1
Asteraceae Floral Bud 111 – 87
Asteraceae (from Floral Bud) 336 – 39
(Continued)
TABLE 1 (Continued)
LF NF- Fill of
Postholes
HP- Not
floated
Total No. of Samples: 20 7 25
Asteraceae Type B 403 – 20
Xanthium sp. 1 – 8
Euclidium syriacum capsule 126 1 15
Convolvulus sp. 156 – 159
Carex sp. 127 – –
Cyperus sp. 5 – –
Other Cyperaceae 404 3 24
Alhagi sp. 333 2 231
Alhagi sp. small + large pods 91 1 255
Medicago/Melilotus sp. 113 – 10
Trigonella sp. 234 1 14
Polygonaceae 306 1 –
Rumex sp. 27 – –
Polygonum spp. 120 – –
Potentilla/Fragaria 22 – 15
Galium sp. 670 2 1332
Veronica sp. 1 – –
Hyoscyamus cf. niger 12 – –
Solanaceae 42 – 6
Thymelaea sp. 17 – –
Other Herbaceous plants 166 1 56
Unidentified Seeds 548 4 112
Unidentifiable Seed Fragments 1682 80 281
Total macro-remains* 6707 27 8610
*Excluding grain parts and unidentifiable seed fragments.
fauna skeletal material have been found. Most of the skeletal
material is burnt, small, and highly fragmented; however, there
were a few exceptions (e.g., intact small bone from SU119,
FS#91, and three fish vertebrae from (SU109, FS#92). Only small
and light-weight skeletal material was recovered, as larger and
heavier bones were removed with the heavy fraction.
Discussion
Domesticated grains
Hordeum vulgare (barley) is the most common domesticated
crop present in the assemblage. Both naked and hulled varieties
of barley were recovered (hulled, indeterminate, and naked
barley n= 2,744; Table 1), as well as barley rachises (n= 3,751;
Figure 4). There was considerable variation in shape and size
of the grains, some grains were very plump and spherical (e.g.,
see Supplementary Table 2 and Supplementary Figure 1).
In addition, several grains appeared puffed or distorted. For
these reasons, only clear examples of hulled or naked barley
were placed in these categories. The morphology of the
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FIGURE 4
Domesticated grains present in the assemblage: (A) Hordeum vulgare var. vulgare,(B) H. vulgare var. vulgare with glume attached, (C) H. vulgare
var. nudum,(D) Triticum aestivum,(E,F) T. aestivum (highly compact variety), (G) Panicum miliaceum,(H) six-row barley rachis, (I) free-threshing
wheat rachis, (J) barley rachis internodes, and (K) free-threshing wheat rachis internodes.
recovered rachises allowed for the identification of six-row
barley. Interestingly, three Hordeum vulgare rachises show
evidence of fungus growth or barley smut as reported earlier
on specimens from Ojakly by Spengler et al. (2014). Barley is
relatively more drought and saline/alkaline tolerant than other
cereals (Zohary et al.,2012;Riehl,2019), which may account for
its prevalence in the assemblage.
Triticum aestivum (free-threshing wheat; n= 581) and
several well-preserved hexaploid wheat rachises (n= 406)
represent the second most common cereal crop recovered
(Figure 4). These wheat grains also express considerable
morphological variation (Supplementary Table 2 and
Supplementary Figure 1). No attempt was made to
systematically categorize specific varieties; however, a few
examples of highly compact wheat have also been found
(Figure 4). This wheat is plump and spherical in form. In
publications with similar specimens, this wheat has been
referred to as T. aestivum spp. sphaerococcum,T. compactum, or
compact/highly compact wheat and has been found throughout
Central Asia [e.g., Kazakhstan- Begash (Frachetti et al.,2010;
Spengler,2013), Tabas (Spengler,2013); Kyrgyzstan- Aigyrzhal-
2 (Matuzeviciute et al.,2017); Turkmenistan- Anau South
(Miller,1999,2003), Chopantam (Spengler et al.,2014), Gonur
North (Moore et al.,1994;Miller,1999), Ojakly (Spengler
et al.,2014)] and at Indus/Harappan-type sites in Pakistan
[e.g., Mehrgarh (Costantini,1984;Tengberg,1999)] and
Afghanistan, [e.g., Shortugai (Willcox,1991;Spengler and
Willcox,2013)]. It has been suggested that T. aestivum spp.
sphaerococcum is relatively drought tolerant (e.g., Percival,
1921;Ellerton,1939;Singh,1946). If the compact wheat variety
at Togolok 1 represents the same variety then it may have
shared similar characteristics. Interestingly, this wheat variety
was not identified at Adji Kui 1 (Spengler et al.,2018). The
plump and spherical nature of both barley and wheat grains in
the assemblage, however, raises questions about the effect of
local growing conditions (e.g., aridity, access to water) on the
morphology of grain seeds. A consideration already highlighted
by Miller (1999) and further built upon by others (e.g., Spengler,
2015;Matuzeviciute et al.,2021).
High-yielding free-threshing bread wheats are in general
easier to process than glume wheats. Wheat typically needs more
water than other cereals, however, the relative amount depends
heavily on the variety. Considering the crop requirements of
wheat and barley and the seasonal climate in the Murghab, they
may have been planted together in early Fall and harvested in
late Spring. Examples of Aegilops sp. spikelet bases (n= 162)
and seeds (n= 29; Figure 4) were identified. Aegilops is a wild
ancestor of hexaploid bread wheat (Zohary et al.,2012, p. 24).
Togolok 1 is located within the natural distribution of Aegilops
tauschii (Zohary et al.,2012, see map page 46). This plant likely
grew as a weed around the site in the wheat and barley fields, and
subsequently was collected during cereal harvests. A possibility
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FIGURE 5
Selection of pulses/legumes present in the assemblage: (A) Pisum sativum,(B) Vicia cf. sativa,(C) Lens culinaris,(D) cf. V. ervilia,(E) Lathyrus
sativus,(F) cf. Cicer arietinum, and (G) V. faba.
FIGURE 6
Examples of fruit seed remains found in the assemblage: (A) Malus/Pyrus sp., (B,C) Vitis vinifera, and (D,E) Prunus sp.
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FIGURE 7
Specimen identified as cf. Allium sp.
which is supported by the intermediate flowering times reported
for its species across its range (Kihara et al.,1965;Matsuoka
et al.,2008).
Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet; n= 15; Figure 4),
while present, was not abundant in the assemblage. When
millet was identified in a sample, only one or two grains
were recovered, apart from SU#108, SQ H3, which had four
millet grains. Support for our identification of these specimens
as millet comes from the δ13C isotope value of –10.69 per
mil, reported in Figure 3, which falls within the C4plant
range. The millet grains from this assemblage are quite large
(e.g., 1.54 ×1.61 ×1.08 mm, height ×width ×thickness),
comparable to known modern cultivated varieties, suggesting
they are not a wild relative. Miller et al. (2016) identified millet
as a fast-growing, low-investment crop, with minimal water
requirements used to mitigate risk. These qualities may have
made it an attractive low-risk option for Togolok 1’s population,
given the ecological conditions in the Murghab. The small
amount of recovered millet, however, makes it difficult to clarify
its role in the economy.
Legumes
Large numbers of Pisum sativum (common peas;
n= 693), Lens culinaris (lentils; n= 1,667), and Lathyrus
sativus (grass peas; n= 354) were recovered from the samples
(Figure 5 and Table 1). In much smaller numbers, Vicia
cf. sativa (common vetch; n= 131), V. faba (fava beans;
n= 36), cf. V. ervilia (bitter vetch; n= 6), and cf. Cicer
arietinum (chickpeas; n= 5) have also been identified (Figure 5
and Table 1). It was often difficult to differentiate between
common peas and vetch because many of their seed coats
have not survived and/or their shape was distorted lending
to them appearing morphologically similar. Common peas
and vetch were positively identified only if they had general
morphological integrity and their hilum was intact. If both
criteria were not met, specimens matching general morphology
of the two were placed in a Pisum sativum/Vicia cf. sativa
category (n= 1,029).
The Turkmen piedmont is within the natural distribution
of the wild progenitor of lentils, Lens culinaris ssp. orientalis
(Zohary et al.,2012, pp. 78–79), the average size of the
lentils in our assemblage (3.60 ×3.62 ×2.09 mm, diameter
1×diameter 2 ×thickness; Supplementary Table 2 and
Supplementary Figure 1) suggest domesticated forms. Lentils
are more drought tolerant than other legumes and are often
grown in semi-arid environments. They generally require a
minimum of 250 mm of annual precipitation (Cash et al.,2001;
Pavek and McGee,2016), and are also relatively tolerant of saline
and alkaline soils (Muehlbauer et al.,2002;Pavek and McGee,
2016). Common vetch has also been shown to be relatively
drought tolerant (see study by Tenopala et al.,2012). Grass
peas, likewise, are able to grow in arid conditions with poor soil
(Zohary et al.,2012) and are sometimes considered a survival
food. Although, grass peas contain toxins, and require further
processing (i.e., boiling) before consumption. These arid-land-
adapted characteristics may account for the abundance of these
species in the assemblage.
Whereas water requirements of over 355 mm of annual
precipitation (Tulbek et al.,2017) suggest some form of
irrigation was probably necessary for the cultivation of common
peas at Togolok 1. Although, it should be noted that no
definitively identified irrigation systems have been uncovered at
Togolok 1 to date (Cerasetti et al.,in press a). This, however,
does not mean that the natural water courses were not managed.
A few terracotta pipes have been identified at Gonur North
(Sarianidi and Dubova,2012), Togolok 1, and Togolok 21
(Hiebert,1994). It has been suggested that these pipes (created
by a series of interconnected terracotta conical tubes) were used
to fill the pools found at the palace-temple complex and also
as part of the drainage system of the palace at Gonur North
(Sarianidi and Puschnigg,2002;Sarianidi and Dubova,2012).
No water basins or artificial canal like those found at Gonur
(Sataev,2008;Sarianidi and Dubova,2012), however, have been
uncovered at Togolok 1 (Cerasetti et al.,in press a).
Legumes are rich in protein and soluble fiber (Edde,2022).
Their ability to fix nitrogen and solubilize phosphates allows for
an increase in overall soil nutrient levels and thus are valuable
parts of multi-cropping systems (Singh et al.,1997;Edde,2022).
Spengler et al. (2014) has suggested that legumes need not have
been grown in large, irrigated fields but instead could have been
grown in small, hand watered, non-irrigated garden plots. The
tentative nature and low numbers of fava beans, bitter vetch,
and chickpeas complicate interpretations of their use. Ongoing
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FIGURE 8
Selection of wild seeds present in the assemblage: (A) Alhagi sp. seed and pod, (B) Aegilops sp. spikelet, (C) Xanthium fruit, (D) Galium,
(E) Medicago/Melilotus,(F) Trigonella,(G) Potentilla/Fragaria,(H) Chenopodium,(I) Cyperaceae, (J) Rumex,(K) Thymelaea,(L) Veronica,(M)
unknown fruit with close up of seeds, and (N) Asteraceae floral buds with involucral bracts.
archaeobotanical studies at the site will hopefully clarify their
role in the future.
Fruits and nuts
The several large Prunus pits (i.e., whole, half, or large
fragments; n= 23; Figure 6), from Togolok 1, appear to be
from a wild relative of the plum, as their morphology suggests
that they are too small and round to be apricots. Similar pits
have been found at Adji Kui 1 (Spengler et al.,2018). Wild
plum relatives are native to the region (e.g., greengages in Iran).
The shape of the pits suggests these specimens may be related
to Prunus insititia. The nutshell fragments (n= 20) found in
the assemblage can be divided into two categories: those that
likely represent fragments of the Prunus pits and those that
are unidentified, and relatively thinner than the other category.
A small number of Vitis vinifera (grape; n= 8) pips have
been identified in the assemblage (Figure 6). Interestingly, we
also found one example of a raisin. The considerable variation
in grape pips among cultivars and distortion often caused
by charring complicates criteria for identifying domestication
(Miller,2008;Ucchesu et al.,2016). While wild grapes grow
along rivers in the western piedmont of Turkmenistan, as well
as in the valleys of the Kopet Dag (Harris et al.,1993;Zohary
et al.,2012), the Murghab lies outside of their proposed natural
range. Nine cf. Malus/Pyrus (apple or pear; Figure 6) seeds were
also recovered. It is not possible to definitively identify them
to species based on charred archaeobotanical material alone.
Sataev and Sataeva (2014) have reported apple remains from the
nearby contemporaneous site of Gonur depe. Wild apples, pears,
plums, hackberries, and nut trees grow in the woodlands of the
Kopet Dag valleys (Harris et al.,1993). Thus, the specimens
from Togolok 1, could have been cultivated, foraged, or acquired
through trade.
One segmented bulb from cf. Allium (garlic) was tentatively
identified (Figure 7). The recovery of Allium species in the
archaeobotanical record is rare, especially in charred form,
likely due to the ways the bulbs could become incorporated
into the archeological record, ultimately, leading to biases
in preservation. Allium bulbs are high in moisture, which
contributes to rapid degradation after they have been discarded
(Kubiak-Martens,2002). In addition, charring usually destroys
the fragile plant tissue or only leaves amorphous residue behind
complicating morphological identification (Sarpaki,2021), as a
result, Allium species are usually found only in desiccated form
(e.g., the onion and garlic bulbs presented in van der Veen,
2007).
Leeks and onions are either grown from seeds or bulbs,
and most garlic varieties are grown through vegetative
propagation which has led to several sterile cultivars,
making the identification of its wild progenitor difficult
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FIGURE 9
Three examples of sheep/goat dung with an embedded seed: (A–C) present two views of each specimen.
(Zohary et al.,2012). A. longicuspis has been posited as a
potential ancestor of many of the current cultivars given
its morphological and molecular similarity (Stearn,1978),
although the matter remains unresolved. Sarpaki (2021, p. 432)
suggests that Central Asia, eastern Turkey, and Iran represent
“the main center of garlic diversity” because geographically they
encompass the natural range of A. longicuspis, as well as several
other species including A. tuncelianum,A. macrochaetum, and
A. truncatum (Ipek et al.,2008;Zohary et al.,2012).
Seeds of wild herbaceous plants, wood
charcoal, and dung
Seeds from several wild plant species have been recovered
from the samples (Figure 8 and Supplementary Table 1).
The most abundant species include two different varieties
of Alhagi sp. (camel thorn), Galium, Convolvulaceae, and small
wild Fabaceae (including Trigonella). A floral bud, from the
Asteraceae family was also prevalent in the assemblage. Some
scholars have suggested that large amounts of wild seeds may
correspond to dung being burned as fuel (Miller and Smart,
1984;Miller,1996,2013;Spengler,2018). Dung is a major source
of fuel in Central Asia and other arid environments where
wood is scarce. However, large amounts of seeds could end up
in the fire for a variety of reasons (e.g., cereal processing or
burning brush; Miller and Smart,1984;Miller,1996;van der
Veen,2007). Dung is prevalent in the assemblage from Togolok
1, although wood charcoal is also present. The morphology
of most of the dung pellets suggest they belong to either
sheep or goat. Twenty-nine examples of seeds, including both
domesticated and wild seeds, were found embedded inside dung
pieces (e.g., Figure 9). Miller (1993) also reported seeds from
wild (i.e., Rumex and cf. Alhagi) and possible domesticated (i.e.,
Triticum sp.) plants embedded in dung recovered at Gonur
North. The wild seeds embedded in the dung may suggest that
animals were pastured in non-agricultural fields for at least
some of the time. The domesticated grains found in the dung
may also suggest that the animals were being foddered with
straw or crop chaff or allowed to pasture in fallow agricultural
fields. Modern experimental studies focused on the survival
of seeds after undergoing digestion have demonstrated that
certain plant species do remain intact. They found, however,
that this varies by animal species and individual (Atkeson et al.,
1934;Harmon and Keim,1934;Burton and Andrews,1948;
Takabayashi et al.,1979;Miller and Smart,1984;Gardener et al.,
1993;Anderson and Ertug-Yaras,1996;Valamoti and Charles,
2005;Valamoti,2013). Wild seeds tend to survive more because
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FIGURE 10
Three fish vertebrae recovered from SU109: (A–C) present a top and side view of each specimen.
they often have a harder seed coat (e.g., Convolvulus arvensis and
Amaranthus lividus), but these studies have also found intact
wheat and barley.
Wild seeds can also offer clues to the paleoenvironment or
past land use. Camel thorn is an arid-adapted plant that grows in
saline soil and disturbed areas, such as channel margins, making
it a good indication of desert edges or semi-arid regions (Harris
et al.,1993). Other species in the assemblage are common in
arid grasslands or semi-dry (but not desert) areas. In addition
to botanical remains, subsistence information may be gleaned
from the faunal material uncovered in the samples. Three fish
vertebrae were uncovered in the assemblage (Figure 10). Fish
vertebrae, identified as Nemacheilidae Paracobitis sp., were also
found at Adji Kui 1 (Spengler et al.,2018). Understanding
how fish from small streams may have played a role in
subsistence of the local community holds potential for future
study.
Integrating archaeobotanical and
zooarchaeological evidence
Fish vertebrae found in the assemblage point to other
potential food sources. Previously reported zooarchaeological
evidence from Togolok 1 suggests that domesticated animals
included sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, and a dog (Cerasetti et al.,
in press a,b). Cattle and pig are suggestive of a sedentary
context. This preliminary analysis also suggests that people,
to a lesser extent, made use of wild resources (e.g., gazelles,
foxes, and leprids; Cerasetti et al.,in press a). Together, the
archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological evidence provide a
more holistic understanding of the food economy of the local
population at Tologok 1 and suggest a mixed agropastoral
system. Similar floral and faunal remains have been found at
Gonur North and Adji Kui 1, which may suggest that people
practiced similar economic strategies at these three proto-
urbansites. Togolok’s mixed agropastoral system also offers
an association between the vast GKC sites and the pastoral
settlements in the broader region (Luneau,2017;Rouse,2020;
Cerasetti,2021;Cerasetti et al.,in press a).
Wider regional context
The assemblage from Togolok 1 is comparable to other
contemporaneous sites in the Murghab River alluvial fan
and southern Central Asia more broadly. Both naked and
hulled barley (especially the six-row variety), as well as, free-
threshing wheat, and broomcorn millet have been uncovered
from previously reported 2nd millennium B.C. contexts in the
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Billings et al. 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
Murghab (Table 2). Six-row barley has been described from
2nd millennium B.C. contexts at Anau South, Djarkutan, and
Shortugai. This variety of barley appears to have a long history in
Turkmenistan given its presence at Djeitun (Harris et al.,1993;
Harris,2010). Free-threshing wheat has also been recovered
from Anau South, Djarkutan, and Shortugai. Conversely, free-
threshing wheat has not been found at the later 2nd -1st
millennia B.C. site of Takhirbai-depe (Nesbitt,1994) which may
be suggestive of deteriorating environmental conditions in the
Murghab region at that time although socio-cultural influence
should not be discounted. The absence of bread wheat, however,
could also be a product of the small sampling size.
The direct AMS date on millet from Togolok 1 (2197–
1983 cal B.C.; calibrated to 95.4% probability using OxCal
4.4 IntCal 20; Figure 3) is comparable to the oldest date for
millet in the region, from Adji Kui 1, 3708 ±45 uncal yr
BP [2276–1956 cal B.C. calibrated to 95.4% probability using
OxCal 4.4 IntCal 20 (Bronk Ramsey,2009;Cerasetti et al.,2018;
Spengler et al.,2018;Reimer et al.,2020)]. Broomcorn millet
was also recovered from Gonur North, Shortughai, Ojakly,
and the Chopantam sites. A few grains of either Panicum or
Setaria sp. were identified at Djarkutan, but cultivation could
not be confirmed (Miller,1999). The limited samples taken
from Takhibai-depe (Nesbitt,1994) produced one millet grain.
In addition to macroremains, impressions found inside vessels
at Gonur South and Togolok 21 were tentatively identified
as broomcorn millet by Bakels (2003; cf. Meyer-Melikyan,
1998;Meyer-Melikyan and Avetov,1998). Nesbitt and Summers
(1988) have demonstrated the widespread presence of millet
in the surrounding regions during the Iron Age, yet we know
relatively little about millet consumption in the Murghab
between its initial appearance and later periods. Legumes
are well represented among the sites in the Murghab, with
settlement sites showing the greatest diversity in legume taxa.
Grapes were found at both Togolok 1 and Gonur North in
the Murghab, as well as from 2nd millennium B.C. contexts
at Anau South, Djarkutan, and Shortughai. Grape pips have
also been recovered from earlier Iranian sites, [e.g., Hissar
(4th millennium B.C. levels; Miller,1991) and Shahr-i Sokhta
(3rd millennium B.C.; Costantini,1977;Miller,1991)], as
well as Indus sites [e.g., Mehrgarh and Nausharo (3200–1500
B.C.; Costantini,1984,1990;Bates,2019; cf. discussion in
TABLE 2 Presence/absence of key economic species from second millennium B.C. contexts at archaeological sites in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
and northern Afghanistan.
Plant identification Murghab Region, Turkmenistan Turkmenistan Afghanistan Uzbekistan
Togolok 1 Gonur Adji Kui 1 Ojakly Chopantam Anau South Shortughai Djarkutan
Hordeum vulgare var. vulgare
(hulled barley)
x x x x x x x
Hordeum vulgare var. nudum
(naked barley)
x x x x x x x
Triticum aestivum/turigidum x x x x x x x x
Triticum aestivum cf.
sphaerococcum (highly compact
wheat)
x x x x x
Triticum cf. dicoccum x
Triticum monococcum x
Panicum x x x x x x ?
Cicer arietinum x x x
Lens x x x x x
Pisum x x x x x x
Lathyrus sativus x x x x
Vicia faba x x
Vicia ervilia x x
Vitis x x x x x
cf. Malus x x
cf. Prunus x x x
Crataegus x x
Pistacia vera x x
Lallemantia (oil crop) x
Linum (cf. flax seed) x x
References reporting macrobotanical remains: Gonur North (Miller,1993,1999;Moore et al.,1994;Sataev and Sataeva,2014), Adji Kui 1 (Spengler et al.,2018), Ojakly and Chopantam
(Spengler et al.,2014), Anau South and Djarkutan (Miller,1999), Shortughai (Willcox,1991).
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Billings et al. 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
Bates,2022)]. Less common species for 2nd millennium B.C.
contexts, include chickpea, fava bean, bitter vetch, apple or pear,
hawthorn, pistachio, and flax seed. Whereas emmer and einkorn
and the oil seed crop Lallemantia, have only been found at
Gonur North and Adji Kui 1, respectively.
The Togolok 1 assemblage most closely aligns with Gonur
North and Adji Kui 1. This is expected as all three sites are
settlements situated within the Murghab River alluvial fan.
Interestingly, Togolok 1 also shares several key economic species
with the mobile-pastoral site of Chopantam (Cattani,2008a;
Rouse and Cerasetti,2018). Conversely, the mobile-pastoral site
of Ojakly (Rouse and Cerasetti,2014,2018), located to the
north-east of Gonur North in open pasturelands, is the most
unlike the Togolok 1 assemblage. This difference may be related
to biases in preservation caused by wind ablation at the Ojakly
site. Building on previous research concerning the interaction
between settled and mobile populations in the area (Hiebert
and Moore,2004;Cattani,2008a,b;Cerasetti et al.,2018,2019,
in press a,b), we hope that ongoing research will provide a
clearer picture of these economic relationships in the future.
Conclusion
Domesticated grains (i.e., hulled/naked barley, free-
threshing wheat, and millet), various legumes, and fruits, as well
as several wild species of herbaceous plants have been identified
in the 2014 archaeobotanical assemblage from Togolok 1. Crop
processing on site is evidenced by the numerous remains of
barley and wheat rachises, and culm nodes (i.e., straw). Millet,
a low-investment, fast growing, drought-resistant crop, may
have been adopted to mitigate risks associated with the shifting
aridity at the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C. Millet may
also have been used for smaller scale production by pastoralists
(Spengler et al.,2018). Given the small numbers of millet
grains recovered, its precise role in the economy remains to be
clarified. While most of the legumes present in the assemblage
can grow in arid environments, these crops, along with peas
and free-threshing wheat generally require more water than
the Murghab’s modern estimated annual precipitation of
100–130 mm. There may have been more available water in the
past in the Murghab (Cremaschi,1998); however, the region
would have still been relatively semi-arid/arid (Cerasetti et al.,
in press a). As discussed in the environmental section above,
crop production depended heavily on local contexts. The
different growth seasons and water/nutrient requirements of
these plants would have required careful planning concerning
the timing and location of crop planting, as well as some form
of management of local water resources. Whether this took
the form of irrigation networks, remains to be determined,
but is likely. It is possible that the inhabitants of Togolok 1
took advantage of secondary river channels to cultivate fields,
similar to those found at the latter site of Takhirbai-depe, as
suggested by Cerasetti et al. (in press a;Cattani and Salvatori,
2008). If legumes were irrigated in large fields, they may have
been part of a crop-rotation system, which allowed farmers
to promote soil health. Alternatively, if legumes were grown
in garden plots, they could have been watered by hand. A
combination of both strategies, of course, would also have been
possible. More work at the site is necessary to elucidate the
answers to these questions. While we focused on agriculture
at Togolok 1, increasing evidence suggests that the inhabitants
made use of sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, and to a lesser extent wild
animals. A mixed agropastoral economy and the diversification
of plant use may have been in response to changing ecological
conditions during the late 3rd-early 2nd millennia B.C. on an
already dynamic landscape. This system would allow Togolok
1’s inhabitants to engage with available ecotones between the
desert and the alluvial fan. They may also have made use of the
mountain foothills through trade.
This initial study, while limited in overall context, allows
us to delve deeper into understanding the economies of these
proto-urban settlements during a time of important cultural
transformation (2200–1500 B.C.). Ongoing investigations at
Togolok 1 by the TAP team will clarify more about the dietary
choices, the unique human/landscape interactions, and the
potential adoption of crop species in local contexts.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in this study are
included in the article/Supplementary material, further
inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.
Author contributions
TB, RS, and BC conceived and designed the study. BC, LF,
RA, and LR contributed to initial investigation and collected
and processed the samples. TB, RDM, and MC sorted and
identified the botanical remains. RS supervised the sorting and
identification of botanical remains. TB analyzed the material,
created the tables and figures, and wrote initial draft. RS, BC,
NB, and RDM offered guidance in overall process. All authors
contributed to the revisions process and approved the submitted
version of the manuscript.
Funding
The excavation at Togolok 1 was funded by the Italian
Ministry for Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation,
ISMEO – The International Association for Mediterranean and
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Billings et al. 10.3389/fevo.2022.995490
Oriental Studies, Rome, and the University of Naples
“L’Orientale.” Funding for the archaeobotanical analyses was
provided by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human
History (MPI-SHH). Eleven AMS dates were funded through
the Fruits of Eurasia: Domestication and Dispersal (FEDD)
project (European Research Council Starting Grant [851102]).
Funding for one AMS date was provided by the Volkswagen and
Mellon Foundations, Fellowship for Research in the Humanities
for research in Germany, Grant 2015–2016 (PI RS).
Acknowledgments
This work was made possible by the support of our
colleagues at the National Department for the Protection,
Research and Restoration of Monuments of Ashgabat, the
Ancient Merv National Historical Park of Bayram-ali, and
the Museum of History and Cultures of Mary of the
Ministry of Culture of Turkmenistan. We would also like to
extend a special thank to the MPI-SHH Paleoethnobotanical
Laboratory Technicians and FEDD team for their support
through this process.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be
found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/
fevo.2022.995490/full#supplementary-material
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