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Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
19 – 22 September 2022, Beijing, China
Copyright © 2022 by <Anahita Khodadadi>
Published by the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) and Asian-Pacific Conference
on Shell and Spatial Structures (APCS) with permission.
Open Educational Resources in Structural Engineering Education
Anahita KHODADADI*a
*State University of New York at Buffalo
Buffalo, New York, USA
Akhodada@buffalo.edu
a Portland State University
Abstract
Twenty years have passed since UNESCO launched a forum on Open Education Resources (OER) for
Higher Education in Developing Countries to reduce educational barriers by providing students and
informal learners with free information resources [1]. Despite the support of many institutes and
governmental agencies, awareness of OER is still low across different disciplines [2]. Particularly,
established open-access educational resources on architectural technology and structural engineering
seem scattered and sometimes underrepresented.
This study has two parts. The first part analyzes the existing OERs developed for architecture and
structural engineering students to identify the OER gaps within the discipline. The second part of the
paper presents the features of an open-educational multi-modal textbook on “Basic Concepts of
Structural Design for Architecture Students,” [3]. This study examines the success of designing this
textbook in improving community access to technical information. Accordingly, students’ experiences
and learning outcomes, captured through a survey, can inform the designers of the textbook and other
institutions seeking equitable access, affordability, and student success through open education and open
textbooks.
Keywords: Open Educational Resources (OER), Open textbooks, Introductory level structure courses
1. Introduction
1.1. Terminology
Open Educational Resources (OERs) are defined as accumulated teaching and learning materials in any
medium, such as a manuscript, an entire course, a video collection, a game, or a simulation tool,
accessible to students, self-learners, and educators in a non-discriminatory way at no cost [2, 4].
Copyright and intellectual property policies allow OERs to be retained, reused, repurposed, remixed,
and revised by other educators and OER contributors [5]. This definition excludes materials that are
accessible to a specific group of students such as students at a specified institute or students in a certain
country. Moreover, the OER definition excludes open-access tools, videos, or games that cannot walk
students through an integrative and goal-oriented learning pathway and do not provide comprehensive
education content for teaching a certain topic. For example, several software systems offer a free license
for students. But they do not directly teach the knowledge or the analytical skills to students without an
additional supplemental OER. Such software systems are not considered OER by themselves. Another
instance of exclusion is open-access paper repositories. Directory of Open Access Journals [6] or
Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR) [7] and many other instances allow students and scholars
free access to scholarly publications. However, they do not provide an organized educational framework
for students who seek to learn a new fundamental topic.
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
1.2. Research questions
This study, first, investigates the OERs that contribute to the design of building structures to identify the
OER gaps within the associated disciplines. Second, the study examines the effectiveness of an open-
educational multi-modal textbook produced to fill one of the identified OER gaps in the discipline. This
textbook on “Basic Concepts of Structural Design for Architecture Students,” is specifically designed
for architecture students to learn an introductory level structural engineering course. The effectiveness
of this open textbook is assessed via a survey and considering the Open Textbooks Review Criteria [8]
including, comprehensiveness, inclusiveness, accuracy, relevance, clarity, consistency, modularity,
organization, and interface.
1.3. Research goals
This research seeks two main goals. The first goal is the identification of OER gaps within the disciplines
of architecture and structural engineering as related to the teaching and learning of building structures.
Such awareness can guide contributors to develop and produce the lacking OERs. The second goal is to
introduce emerging forms of open textbooks and share the experience of designing a multi-modal
textbook and students’ perception of its effectiveness in learning basic concepts of structural design.
2. Reviewing the OERs on structural design
2.1. Establishing the inventory of the relevant OERs
In this research, reviewing the existing OERs that contribute to teaching and learning about structural
design began by referring to prominent higher-ed OER libraries, including Lumen Learning [9],
MERLOT [10], OpenStax [11], Open Textbook Library [12], OASIS [13]. The searched keywords
include general titles such as statics, solid mechanics, and structural design, as well as relevant structural
materials and systems such as concrete, beams, trusses, shells, and membranes. The initial inventory of
the search outputs contains, open courses, educational video collections, online educational simulation
tools, presentation notes, and open textbooks. Then, the content of each OER in the initial inventory is
reviewed regarding comprehensiveness, relevance to the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction
(AEC) industry, and absolute openness, and the list of OERs is refined and arranged in Table 1.
2.2. OER Gaps
Among the 36 identified OERs, a handful of instances have been developed specifically for structural
engineering students. However, there are only a couple of OERs developed specifically for architecture
students. This gap is more significant in the list of open textbooks. Except for item number 27, which
has been authored recently as a result of this study, all other textbooks are produced to be used by both
architecture and structural engineering students. Although this approach sounds reasonable for
broadening the audience of a reference, it doesn’t address the different learning styles and needs of the
two groups. On one hand, architecture students are usually used to observation, experiments, hands-on
activities, and problem-based learning styles, similar to how they learn in design studios. They also
expect to be less involved with mathematical analysis of the structures. On the other hand, structural
engineering students expect more intense engagement with numeric calculations and computational
analysis. Thus, an appropriate OER for architecture students should include more demonstrations,
hands-on activities, and problem-based learning content.
What’s more, there are only a couple of educational video collections that allow a multi-modal learning
experience. Most of the open courses and all the textbooks, except item 27, include merely notes and
images but not videos of demonstrations or engagement with interactive learning activities. Hence,
future development of open textbooks can move toward the inclusion of multi-media content by
establishing the OER on a suitable publication platform.
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
The OER gap is not only related to the lack of suitable materials for architecture students or a few multi-
modal and interactive instances. But an overview of the learning contents, listed in Table 1, demonstrates
that there are still many topics that are not introduced in the current OERs. Wood structures, cable-
stayed structures, trusses, shells and domes, and methods of configuration processing are a few examples
of underrepresented topics in open textbooks.
Table 1: Open Educational Resources in the field of structural design. Material types are listed as online courses,
presentation notes, simulation tools, video collections, or textbooks. The content of the OER materials may be at
an introductory, intermediate, or advanced level. The audience of the OER may be Architecture students (A),
Structural Engineering students (SE), or both.
OER
Material
Type
Level
Audience
Notes
1
Basic Structural Design [14]
Online course
Introductory
A
Readings are not accessible
2
Building Technology I: Materials
and Construction [15]
Lecture notes, assignments, and
exams are available.
Material systems and construction
techniques
3
Building Technologies III:
Building Structural Systems II
[16]
4
Building Technology III: Building
Structural Systems [17]
Not all the lecture notes and
assignments are available.
Material and envelop systems
5
Analysis of Historic
Structures[18]
Lecture notes and assignments are
available
6
Statics [19]
SE
A
The textbook is not open-access.
But videos of lectures and exams
are available
7
Structural Engineering Design
[20]
SE
Readings and notes are not
accessible. Assignments, exams,
and recitation notes are available
8
Buckling of Structures [21]
The textbook is not open-access.
But videos of lectures and exams
are available
9
Introduction to Civil and
Environmental Engineering
Design I [22]
Readings and notes are not
accessible. Assignments, exams,
and recitation notes are available
10
Mechanics and design of concrete
structures [23]
Intermediate
Lecture notes, assignments, and
exams are available
11
Solid Mechanics [24]
Readings, lecture notes, and
assignments are available.
12
Solid Mechanics Laboratory [25]
Lecture notes and assignments are
available
13
Form-Finding and Structural
Optimization: Gaudi Workshop
[26]
Advanced
SE
A
Not all the lecture notes and
assignments are available.
An interdisciplinary course for
architecture and computer science
students.
14
Structural Analysis and
Control[27]
SE
Readings, lecture notes, and
assignments are available.
15
Non-Linear Structural Modeling
[28]
The textbook is not open-access.
But videos of lectures and exams
are available
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
16
Engineering Statics [29]
Presentation
notes
Introductory
A
SE
17
PhET - Physics Interactive
Simulations [30]
Simulation tool
Introductory
A
SE
18
Civil Engineering and
Engineering Mechanics Software
[31]
19
Vector Guessing Game Interactive
[32]
20
Beam calculator[33]
21
Beam Analysis Calculator [34]
22
Structural Analysis and Design
Software [35]
23
Engineering Models [36]
Video
collection
24
DartmouthX - The Engineering of
Structures Around Us [37]
25
Example of Building Types [38]
26
Dr. Structure [39]
27
Basic Concepts of Structural
Design for Architecture
Students[3]
Textbook
Introductory
A
28
Engineering Statics: Open and
Interactive [40]
SE
A
Comprehensive, consistent, and
clear
29
Structural Analysis[41]
Introductory
Intermediate
The content is more suitable for SE
students
30
Essential Mechanics - Statics and
Strength of Materials with
MATLAB and Octave [42]
MATLAB is used to solve some of
the problems. But the software itself
is closed source.
An 867-page textbook that covers
introductory and intermediate
contents
31
Damage to Concrete Structures
[43]
Intermediate
Minimal inclusion of mathematical
calculations
32
Architecture Structures [44]
SE
The book includes a series of open-
access papers
33
Analysis of Structural Member
Systems [45]
34
Buildings and Structures under
Extreme Loads [46]
Advanced
The book includes a series of open-
access papers
35
Earthquake-Resistant Structures
[47]
36
Advanced Methods for Seismic
Performance Evaluation of
Building Structures [48]
3. Methodology
In summer 2021, after reviewing the existing OERs for introductory level structural engineering courses,
an open-educational multi-modal textbook on “Basic Concepts of Structural Design for Architecture
Students,” [3] was authored and published using Pressbooks platform and tools. This e-book aims to
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
introduce principle concepts in structural design with minimum involvement with mathematical
calculation using visual demonstrations, videos, graphics, and jargon-free descriptions. Wherever a
minimum knowledge of trigonometry and math is required, additional materials are introduced for
review. The textbook contains chapters on introducing different types of loads, forces and vector
addition, the concept of equilibrium, internal forces, geometrical and material properties of structural
elements. Moreover, rules of thumb for estimating the proportion of some structural systems such as
catenary cables and arches, trusses, and frame structures are introduced in the textbook to help
architecture students in conceptual design. Unlike a standard textbook, this e-book aims to support
students’ self-exploration of foundational topics on structural design rather than providing them with a
script to assimilate and repeat. It also contains readily available online collections of visual materials
and interactive resources, developed by research groups and public agencies.
Figure 1: The web interface of the developed open textbook
The web version of this resource has been designed to meet Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0,
level AA [49], and aims to be accessible for impaired readers. Hence, the textbook is available in both
PDF and EPUB versions and optimized for people who use screen-reader technology (Figure 1).
Accordingly, all content can be navigated using a keyboard, images have alt tags, information is not
conveyed by color alone, and links, headings, and tables are formatted to work with screen readers.
In fall 2021, the authored textbook was assigned as the primary reference for two introductory structure
classes offered to both undergraduate and three-year graduate students. A total of 63 students at Portland
State University used this textbook as the primary source and shared their feedback through a survey.
The survey was to evaluate the students’ experience regarding Open Textbooks Review Criteria [8]
listed in Table 2. The criteria and associated survey questions are to address the textbook’s
comprehensiveness, inclusiveness, accuracy, relevance, clarity, consistency, modularity, organization,
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
interface, cultural relevance, and affordability. In addition to the survey, the Pressbook online platform
that holds the online version of the textbook provides a statistical assessment of the number of visits to
different chapters of the book. The statistics may represent students’ learning needs or interests in those
chapters.
Table 2: The questionnaire organization for evaluating the students’ experience in using the developed textbook
Criteria
Likert questions
1
Comprehensiveness
The textbook covers all the basic concepts and key terms that you need to
understand the buildings’ structural behavior.
2
Organization
The textbook includes an appropriate mixture of text, visuals, videos, etc.
3
Relevance/longevity
Content seems up-to-date.
4
Clarity
The text is written clearly and provides adequate context for any
jargon/technical terminology within the text or via external URL links.
Considering the digital access to the textbook, inclusion of short videos, and
links to relevant web content, the textbook seemed to help me more than
conventional physically published books.
5
Consistency
The text looks internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.
6
Modularity
It was helpful that the sequencing of content follows the same order of course
topics being taught in the class.
7
Inclusiveness
The multimedia content of the textbook (images+videos+links to external
resources, etc) was effective in learning the course topics.
8
Interface
The text is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems,
distortion of images/charts, and other display features that may distract or
confuse the reader.
9
Cultural relevance
The text is NOT culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.
10
Affordability
The open-ed textbook helped to offset the cost of learning resources in this
course.
Open-end questions
11
Comprehensiveness
What chapter/section do you suggest be added to the textbook?
12
Clarity
Which chapter(s) seemed the most helpful to learn about the course topics?
13
Interface
I mostly use ---------- to read the textbook.
14
All
What is/are the best feature(s) of the textbook?
4. Findings and discussion
Survey results show that majority of students found the overall sequence of topics in the textbook
comprehensive, up-to-date, and well organized. The electronic format of the textbook allows convenient
and instant updates, corrections, and the inclusion of additional content. Moreover, survey respondents
indicated that the textbook framework is consistent and learning materials are explained clearly by
relevant embedded visuals, videos, and external links to further information. Several students indicated
that the best feature of the textbook is its interactive and mixed-media nature. Most of the students read
the book on their laptops and did not find any significant interface issues, including navigation
problems, distortion of images/charts, and other display glitches that may distract or confuse them.
Although several students found this textbook strictly about physics and mechanics, some of the students
mentioned that the textbook is culturally inclusive because different structural design examples across
the world are included and embedded demonstrations and talks are presented by diverse speakers. The
majority of students admitted that this OER helped them to offset their learning cost (Figure 2).
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
Comprehensiveness
Organization
Relevance/longevity
Consistency
Clarity
Modularity
Inclusiveness
Interface
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
Cultural relevance
Affordability
Figure 2: Survey results. Each chart presents the respondents’ feedback on questions listed in Table 2
The statistical data published by Pressbooks (see Figure 3) shows that the most viewed chapters have
been “Shear and Bending Stress in Simple Beams”, “Catenary Cables and Arches”, and “Deflection in
Simple Beams”. The survey outputs indicate that students found the chapters on statics and trusses have
been the most helpful parts of the textbook to learn the introduced concepts. However, students
suggested including interactive quizzes, more sample problems, an appendix on the basics of
trigonometry, and a glossary of technical terms and mathematical equations. It was also suggested to
elaborate on truss analysis and add a chapter on the design of thin shells.
Figure 3: Publisher statistical data on the number of visits to the textbook and reads of chapters from October 2021
to June 2020.
5. Conclusion
This study shows that there is a significant lack of OERs on structural design for architecture students.
Moreover, the subjects introduced by current OERs are scattered, and several subjects should be covered
for both architecture and structural engineering students. Furthermore, the majority of the existing OERs
offer notes, manuscripts, examples of mathematical problems, and some sketches. High-quality visuals
and videos that are accessible through Creative Common License are remarkably limited in current
OERs.
According to the survey results, developing an open textbook and assigning it as the primary reference
of an introductory structural design course supported an inclusive learning environment. All audio,
visual, and kinesthetic learners could find suitable mediums such as images, videos, texts, problems,
demonstrations, and talks to understand the taught concepts. These mediums also improved the clarity
of the topics explained in the textbook. The electronic format of the textbook reflects editions and
additions instantly and conveniently. Last but not least, the survey result confirms that open textbooks
can support affordable education for students, teachers, and self-learners.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge Portland State University’s Library support by funding the development
of the open textbook on “Basic Concepts of Structural Design for Architecture Students”. I also want
to thank Nichole Wetle for producing the graphics for this textbook.
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Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
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Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
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