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The American psychological Association's practice guidelines for men and boys: Are they hurting rather than helping male mental wellness?

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Abstract

Introduced in 2018, the American Psychological Association's (APA) Practice Guidelines for Men and Boys was intended to provide helpful direction for practitioners when seeing male patients. This followed in the tradition of other practice and clinical guidelines for clinical work with specific identity populations. However, the practice guidelines for men and boys quickly became controversial given concerns that the guidelines were disparaging of men and boys, particularly those with traditional values and sought to impose progressive or feminist gender norms and ideologies rather than remaining focused on clinical wellness and empathy. This review finds that, though the guidelines were offered in good faith, many of the critiques are likely valid. Specifically, the guidelines failed to acknowledge significant evidence for biological influences on gender (e.g., hormonal, and hypothalamic influences on gender identity and gendered behavior), were unintentionally disparaging of traditional men and families, and were too closely wedded to specific sociocultural narratives and incurious of data not supporting those narratives. It is concluded that there are reasonable concerns that the current guidelines may do more harm than good by dissuading traditional men and families from seeking counseling.

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... Therefore, the aim of the current work was to identify early research papers in exercise science (and historically related fields) that contain photographs of male participants, aggregate them into a bibliometric list, and describe the photographs. Male research participants were the focus of the current work because there is currently a need to give male experiences and contributions their own space for acknowledgement, in part, to counter misguided contemporary academic narratives about men (e.g., "male privilege", "toxic masculinity") [4][5][6][7][8][9]. ...
... [326]), reveals that men were first authors of 95 of the top 100 papers. Such important male contributions to humanity warrant acknowledgement, in part, to combat misguided negative portrayals of men and masculinity made in academia and the media (e.g., "male privilege", "toxic masculinity") [4][5][6][7][8][9]. ...
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The history of exercise science research has undergone relatively little examination, and exercise science students receive little education about the field's history. Photographs are tools that lecturers and writers can use to educate audiences about history. Yet, no resource exists that tells educators where they can find photographs of individuals participating in early studies about exercise or related topics (e.g., physical education, physical medicine). Here, the aim was to identify papers published before 1980 that contain photographs of boys and men participating in studies about exercise or related topics, aggregate the papers into a bibliometric list, and describe the photographs. The current research focused on boys and men to give male experiences and contributions their own space for acknowledgement. The entire digital archives Therapy) were identified via searches of personal digital files from previous historical work. A total of 304 papers were identified. Of these papers, 44.1% were published in Research Quarterly. The earliest paper was published in 1894. The papers included 733 photographs of male participants (46 boys, 475 men), with some males appearing in multiple photographs. Of the 304 papers, 49.0% and 27.3% were classified as research primarily on neuromuscular and cardiorespiratory outcomes, respectively. Educators can use the bibliometric list to identify photographs to include in lectures and writings about the history of exercise science and the contributions made by male research participants.
... "Woke" and closely related ideas have been criticised on various grounds (Barry et al., 2021;Ferguson, 2023;Madison and Soderlund, 2018;Nuzzo, 2018;Redding and Satel 2023;Soderlund and Madison, 2017), including lack of empiricism and scientific rigor and oversimplification of data interpretation of group differences. "Woke" ideas often stem from misinterpretations of selective group differences in outcomes as evidence of discrimination, injustice, or bias (i.e., social, environmental, or structural factors) with little consideration for biological or intrapersonal causes. ...
... Whether this is a net positive or negative for health research is a point of debate, and this debate is not resolved here. Social and environmental factors impact health, but there exist concerns about the validity of "Woke" and related concepts (Barry et al., 2021;Ferguson, 2023;Madison and Soderlund, 2018;Nuzzo, 2018;Redding and Satel 2023;Soderlund and Madison, 2017) and the ethics and effectiveness of "Woke" policies (Nuzzo, 2019). As mentioned in the Introduction, "Woke" ideas may misattribute or overemphasise certain causes of health outcomes and disempower patients from addressing their own health issues. ...
... As proposed by the GRSP, researchers have confirmed that TMI is associated with a variety of negative consequences for men, including interpersonal problems, alcohol or substance use, and alexithymia (i.e., the inability to identify and describe one's emotions; Levant & Wong, 2013;O'Neil, 2015;Pleck et al., 1993). However, some associations have been critiqued for their small effect sizes (Ferguson, 2023). In other words, men might endorse TMI but suffer few or any personal or relational consequences. ...
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Traditional masculinity ideology (TMI; rigid and old-fashioned beliefs about what men are supposed to be and do) and masculine gender role conflict (GRC; personal and relational distress stemming from sexist gender role beliefs) are related but distinct contributors to men’s gender role strain. Researchers traditionally examine these constructs from a variable-centric perspective by studying how TMI and GRC are related to various outcomes of interest. The present study used a person-centric perspective to identify profiles of GRC and TMI among 302 adult men in the United States aged 18–33 and to explore several demographic and identity/attitudinal covariates on profile membership. Employing a latent profile analysis, three profiles emerged, with most men categorized in a profile exhibiting high GRC and high TMI (Conflicted-Adhering). The second profile was evidenced by men with low endorsement of GRC and TMI (Unconflicted-Rejecting), and the final profile consisted of men with higher GRC but average TMI (Conflicted-Ambivalent). Several contextual and demographic predictors were associated with class membership. Conflicted-Adhering men were more likely than men in the other classes to be religious, younger emerging adults, cisgender, heterosexual, racial/ethnic minorities, college students, politically conservative, and sexist (hostile and benevolent). Conflicted-Adhering men also perceived themselves to be more masculine and believed they were more similar to other men. Our findings support that men may exhibit different combinations of TMI and GRC and that contextual, demographic, and identity variables may shape whether men experience the personal and relational problems associated with restrictive gender role beliefs.
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This chapter reviews research from psychological science on the conditions under which groups make optimal judgements, a subject area often called “wisdom of crowds”. It concludes that good judgements are more likely when the members of a group are selected for expertise, there is cognitive diversity among the members, they make independent judgements which are then aggregated and there is opportunity for sharing information and discussion. When the methods that scientists use to establish deliberative consensus are evaluated against these conditions, none meet them all, but some (Delphi studies and nominal group technique) are better than others.
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Introdução Enquanto há uma tendência atual nas ciências sociais de privilegiar similaridades sexuais e de gênero sobre as diferenças (ex.: Hyde, 2005), há também evidências significativas de que diferenças sexuais/de gênero desempenham um papel importante na saúde mental assim como em outras esferas da vida (Tamres et al., 2002). Entretanto, tais diferenças não são enfatizadas no treinamento de psicólogos e terapeutas, o que significa que necessidades de pacientes homens podem não ser atendidas (Morison et al., 2014; Barry et al., 2021). Enquanto respeitamos diferenças sexuais/de gênero, é obviamente importante reconhecer que elas são formadas por médias e que indivíduos dentro de cada categoria variam em um espectro. Nenhum indivíduo é definido apenas por seu sexo ou gênero. Todas as intervenções psicológicas devem, acima de tudo, sintonizar-se com o mundo único do paciente, sem pré-julgar alguém baseado em qualquer categoria identitária. O que se segue é apenas para providenciar mais detalhes e informações para psicólogos sobre aspectos influenciados pelo gênero na vida dos homens para enriquecer e melhorar suas formulações e intervenções. Estas recomendações não são, portanto, prescritivas, instruções de "abordagem única" ou suposições baseadas em generalizações simplistas, nem em estereótipos de homens e meninos. Seu propósito é enriquecer e expandir a prática psicológica com respeito pelo sexo e gênero como uma das muitas variáveis de interação.
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Sexual identity and sexual orientation are independent components of a person's sexual identity. These dimensions are most often in harmony with each other and with an individual's genital sex, but not always. This review discusses the relationship of sexual identity and sexual orientation to prenatal factors that act to shape the development of the brain and the expression of sexual behaviors in animals and humans. One major influence discussed relates to organizational effects that the early hormone environment exerts on both gender identity and sexual orientation. Evidence that gender identity and sexual orientation are masculinized by prenatal exposure to testosterone and feminized in it absence is drawn from basic research in animals, correlations of biometric indices of androgen exposure and studies of clinical conditions associated with disorders in sexual development. There are, however, important exceptions to this theory that have yet to be resolved. Family and twin studies indicate that genes play a role, but no specific candidate genes have been identified. Evidence that relates to the number of older brothers implicates maternal immune responses as a contributing factor for male sexual orientation. It remains speculative how these influences might relate to each other and interact with postnatal socialization. Nonetheless, despite the many challenges to research in this area, existing empirical evidence makes it clear that there is a significant biological contribution to the development of an individual's sexual identity and sexual orientation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Objective: Pharmacotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy are most frequently applied to treat mental disorders. However, whether psychodynamic therapy is as efficacious as other empirically supported treatments is not yet clear. Thus, for the first time the equivalence of psychodynamic therapy to treatments established in efficacy was formally tested. The authors controlled for researcher allegiance effects by including representatives of psychodynamic therapy and CBT, the main rival psychotherapeutic treatments (adversarial collaboration). Method: The authors applied the formal criteria for testing equivalence, implying a particularly strict test: a priori defining a margin compatible with equivalence (g=0.25), using the two one-sided test procedure, and ensuring the efficacy of the comparator. Independent raters assessed effect sizes, study quality, and allegiance. A systematic literature search used the following criteria: randomized controlled trial of manual-guided psychodynamic therapy in adults, testing psychodynamic therapy against a treatment with efficacy established for the disorder under study, and applying reliable and valid outcome measures. The primary outcome was "target symptoms" (e.g., depressive symptoms in depressive disorders). Results: Twenty-three randomized controlled trials with 2,751 patients were included. The mean study quality was good as demonstrated by reliable rating methods. Statistical analyses showed equivalence of psychodynamic therapy to comparison conditions for target symptoms at posttreatment (g=-0.153, 90% equivalence CI=-0.227 to -0.079) and at follow-up (g=-0.049, 90% equivalence CI=-0.137 to -0.038) because both CIs were included in the equivalence interval (-0.25 to 0.25). Conclusions: Results suggest equivalence of psychodynamic therapy to treatments established in efficacy. Further research should examine who benefits most from which treatment.
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Methods: FreeSurfer software was employed to measure cortical thickness and subcortical structural volumes. Axonal connections, indexed by fractional anisotropy, (FA) were measured with diffusion tensor imaging, and functional connectivity with resting state fMRI. Results: Compared to men, CAIS women displayed a "female" pattern by having thicker parietal and occipital cortices, lower FA values in the right corticospinal, superior and inferior longitudinal tracts, and corpus callosum. Their functional connectivity from the amygdala to the medial prefrontal cortex, was stronger and amygdala-connections to the motor cortex weaker than in control men. CAIS and control women also showed stronger posterior cingulate and precuneus connections in the default mode network. Thickness of the motor cortex, the caudate volume, and the FA in the callosal body followed, however, a "male" pattern. Conclusion: Altogether, these data suggest that testosterone modulates the microstructure of somatosensory and visual cortices and their axonal connections to the frontal cortex. Testosterone also influenced functional connections from the amygdala, whereas the motor cortex could, in agreement with our previous reports, be moderated by processes linked to X-chromosome gene dosage. These data raise the question about other genetic factors masculinizing the human brain than the SRY gene and testosterone. Hum Brain Mapp, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Article
Males and females score differently on some personality traits, but the underlying etiology of these differences is not well understood. This study examined genetic, environmental, and prenatal hormonal influences on individual differences in personality masculinity–femininity (M-F). We used Big-Five personality inventory data of 9,520 Swedish twins (aged 27 to 54) to create a bipolar M-F personality scale. Using biometrical twin modeling, we estimated the influence of genetic and environmental factors on individual differences in a M-F personality score. Furthermore, we tested whether prenatal hormone transfer may influence individuals’ M-F scores by comparing the scores of twins with a same-sex versus those with an opposite-sex co-twin. On average, males scored 1.09 standard deviations higher than females on the created M-F scale. Around a third of the variation in M-F personality score was attributable to genetic factors, while family environmental factors had no influence. Males and females from opposite-sex pairs scored significantly more masculine (both approximately 0.1 SD ) than those from same-sex pairs. In conclusion, genetic influences explain part of the individual differences in personality M-F, and hormone transfer from the male to the female twin during pregnancy may increase the level of masculinization in females. Additional well-powered studies are needed to clarify this association and determine the underlying mechanisms in both sexes.
Article
The work of R. W. Connell has been extremely influential within the field of masculinity studies for at least the past decade. In particular, his concept of hegemonic masculinity has been used as a means of interrogating the practices, attitudes and meanings of both masculinities and men. In this article the author problematises Connell's tendency to map out an entire conceptual system for theorising masculinity/ies and power. This is done in two ways. First, he argues that Connell's critical review of the different ways in which masculinity has been theorised tries to lay claim to an objective position from which the patterns of masculinity will become obvious. This reduces the complexity and nuances of what the subjects of masculinity (often, men) actually do. Second, he illustrates how Connell's determination of masculinity as dominating overdetermines what men actually do, say and feel. Drawing on an example from Connell's work on masculinity and education, he argues that men's practices and motivations are often more complex than the concept of hegemonic masculinity allows.
Article
The article presents a meta-analysis of studies—yielding 26 independent samples of subjects—on the relationship between exposure to media violence and violent aggression. Mean effect sizes from aggregate and experimental studies do not suggest that media violence and criminal aggression are positively associated, but findings from prospective longitudinal studies are more ambiguous. Summary statistics based on models strictly conforming to each study's original design were compared to post hoc models (in which measures or model specification were not consistent with the original description). Overall, “original” models, controlling for “trait,” did not suggest that exposure to media violence is associated with criminal aggression. The summary statistic for boys reached statistical significance, but the effect size was small, and conclusions based on this finding are attenuated because of known biases in the coefficients estimated.
Article
The originality of Connell's "social theory of gender" has established him as one of the leading theoreticians in the general area of gender relations and more particularly in the emerging field of the sociology of masculinity. His formulation of the concept of "hegemonic masculinity" represents the most influential and popular part of his work. It has been used in empirical research ranging from the areas of sexuality and gay studies to that of criminology and prison sociology. Yet, although numerous empirical researchers have made use of this concept, there has been almost no attempt to evaluate its theoretical merit) This article offers a detailed theoretical exposition as well as a critique of the concept of hegemonic masculinity. In the first part, I show that the notion of hegemonic masculinity was developed in an attempt to give an account of what the sex role framework left largely untheorized, that is, the questions of patriarchal power and social change. I then suggest an alternative way of conceptualizing hegemonic masculinity that draws on Gramsci's concept of historic bloc and Bhabha's notion of hybridity. I argue that hegemonic masculinity is not a purely white or heterosexual configuration of practice but it is a hybrid bloc that unites practices from diverse masculinities in order to ensure the reproduction of patriarchy. In the third and final part of this article, I undertake a brief case study in order to show the contribution of gay masculinities to the formation of the contemporary hegemonic bloc.
Article
Research on the relationship between sex-role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by one of three models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being will be fostered only when one's sex-role orientation is congruent with one's gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being will be maximized when one's sex-role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of one's gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex-role orientation. The adequacy of these three models was tested by means of a meta-analysis of 32 studies of the relationship between sex-role orientation and depression and general adjustment. The results of the meta-analysis provided the best support for the masculinity model, with masculinity having a moderately strong relationship to both high adjustment and lack of depression and with femininity having only a small relationship to adjustment and no relationship to depression. No support was found for the congruence model.
Article
Seventy-two married couples participated in a study of husband gender role conflict and interpersonal criticism and wife psychological and marital adjustment. Participants were recruited from a community in the Midwestern USA. Husband criticism was measured using self-report, wife-report, and trained coder ratings of an audiotaped task in which husbands described their wives and their relationship with their wives. Hypothesized associations between husband gender role conflict and husband interspousal criticism were supported. In addition, all three measures of husband criticism were found to mediate the relationship between husband gender role conflict and wife marital adjustment. However, only self- and wife-reported criticism by husbands significantly mediated the relationship between husband gender role conflict and wife depressive symptoms.
Article
This study explores the factors that influence adolescents' help-seeking intentions. Specifically, the study investigates the extent to which perceived benefits of help seeking, stoicism, gender and symptoms of psychological distress are associated with intentions to seek professional help for emotional problems. A cross sectional self-report questionnaire was administered to adolescents recruited from seven high schools in rural towns in the Riverina region of New South Wales. A total of 778 adolescents were recruited. The sample included 373 male and 404 female participants between 13 and 18 years of age. Participants completed an anonymous self-report questionnaire designed to measure help-seeking intentions in the advent that they were to experience emotional problems, psychological distress symptoms, perceived benefits of help seeking and stoicism. In all, 17% of male participants and 29% of female participants reported they would be likely to seek help from doctors if they were to experience emotional problems. In total, 15% of male participants and 23% of female participants reported they would be likely to seek help from other health care professionals. Multiple regression analysis suggested that adolescents are more likely to seek help from professionals if they perceive help seeking as beneficial (t=12.91; P<0.001). Female participants reported that they were more likely to seek help than male participants (t=2.69; P=0.01). Findings suggest that adolescents are reluctant to seek professional help if experiencing emotional problems, because they do not believe professional help seeking is beneficial. Improving adolescents' beliefs about the benefits of professional help seeking might be a key strategy for increasing their use of professional health services to address mental health problems.
Article
Political resolutions of the American Psychological Association (APA) are critically examined. A sampling of the political resolutions of the APA is provided. Two major issues are addressed: (1) under what conditions it is proper for the APA to make political resolutions; and (2) whether the process by which these resolutions are made is just and reasonable. Finally, we offer suggestions for a more tempered approach that emphasizes the explicit role of scientific data conditions it is proper for the APA to make political resolutions; and (2) whether the process by which these resolutions are made is just and reasonable. Finally, we offer suggestions for a more tempered approach that emphasizes the explicit role of scientific data.
Article
Two mail-out survey studies were conducted to investigate the stoicism construct, as operationalised in the Liverpool stoicism scale (LSS). In Study 1, N = 467 participants (57.9% female) completed the LSS and measures of wellbeing, psychological distress and attitudes to seeking psychological help. All participants had previously completed a measure of the five factor model of personality (FFM). The aim of Study 2 (N = 567, 57.5% female) was to replicate the psychometric analyses of the LSS, and permit calculation of test–retest reliability amongst a subsample (n = 278) who also participated in Study 1. The LSS was found to have adequate internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .83), and adequate test–retest reliability (r = .82, p < .001). As expected, LSS scores were significantly higher for males (M = 59.5, SD = 7.8) than females (M = 51.1, SD = 9.0, t(411) = 10.20, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 1.00). Structural equation modeling demonstrated the expected association between stoicism and gender (factor loading = −.38), openness to experience (factor loading = −.38), and age (factor loading = .11). Stoicism was found unrelated to measures of distress, and was negatively associated with quality of life (r = −.13, p < .01). Moreover, the relationship between stoicism and lower quality of life was found to be mediated by negative attitudes to seeking psychological help. It is concluded that the LSS is a reliable measure of a unidimensional stoicism construct, which has intelligible relationships with the FFM and potential explanatory power in relation to men’s mental health.
Article
The intermediate nucleus (InM) in the preoptic area of the human brain, also known as the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area (SDN-POA) and the interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus-1 (INAH-1) is explored here. We investigated its population of galanin-immunoreactive (Gal-Ir) neurons in relation to sex, age, and gender identity in the postmortem brain of 77 subjects. First we compared the InM volume and number of Gal-Ir neurons of 22 males and 22 females in the course of aging. In a second experiment, we compared for the first time the InM volume and the total and Gal-Ir neuron number in 43 subjects with different gender identities: 14 control males (M), 11 control females (F), 10 male-to-female (MtF) transsexual people, and 5 men who were castrated because of prostate cancer (CAS). In the first experiment we found a sex difference in the younger age group (<45 years of age), i.e., a larger volume and Gal-Ir neuron number in males and an age difference, with a decrease in volume and Gal-Ir neuron number in males > 45 years. In the second experiment the MtF transsexual group presented an intermediate value for the total InM neuron number and volume that did not seem different in males and females. Because the CAS group did not have total neuron numbers that were different from the intact males, the change in adult circulating testosterone levels does not seem to explain the intermediate values in the MtF group. Organizational and activational hormone effects on the InM are discussed.
Article
Mammals, including humans, show sex differences in juvenile play behavior. In rodents and nonhuman primates, these behavioral sex differences result, in part, from sex differences in androgens during early development. Girls exposed to high levels of androgen prenatally, because of the genetic disorder congenital adrenal hyperplasia, show increased male-typical play, suggesting similar hormonal influences on human development, at least in females. Here, we report that fetal testosterone measured from amniotic fluid relates positively to male-typical scores on a standardized questionnaire measure of sex-typical play in both boys and girls. These results show, for the first time, a link between fetal testosterone and the development of sex-typical play in children from the general population, and are the first data linking high levels of prenatal testosterone to increased male-typical play behavior in boys.
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