ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Most psychological research on social exclusion mainly focused on maximizing internal validity (e.g., controlling for confounding variables). However, maximizing external validity to produce generalizable knowledge about real-world experiences becomes increasingly essential. In the present study (N=89), we adopted an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) design to track exclusionary experiences and their impact on psychological distress over 15 consecutive days. We tested the mediating effects of positive and negative emotions on the link between daily exclusionary experiences and psychological distress, examining the moderating role of experiential avoidance (EA). Results confirmed a large effect of social exclusion on distress mediated by positive and negative emotions. However, EA did not moderate the exclusion-distress link but was, unexpectedly, found to moderate the exclusion-positive emotions relationship. Specifically, this relationship was stronger for low (vs. high) levels of EA, indicating that adopting EA in response to perceived exclusion may provide a protective function from blunted positive emotions. The present study suggests the usefulness of investigating the occurrence and reactions to the daily experiences of social exclusion, going beyond the sole reliance on experimental manipulations, especially to explore the role of individual differences in working towards a more integrated theoretical model of exclusion.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Running head: Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
1
An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study to investigate individuals reactions to
1
perceived social exclusion
2
3
4
Luca Pancani,a Daniel Waldeck,b Ian Tyndall, c & Paolo Rivaa
5
6
a Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, IT
7
b Department of Psychology, Coventry University, UK
8
c Department of Psychology, University of Chichester, UK
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
2
Abstract
1
Most psychological research on social exclusion mainly focused on maximizing internal validity
2
(e.g., controlling for confounding variables). However, maximizing external validity to produce
3
generalizable knowledge about real-world experiences becomes increasingly essential. In the
4
present study (N=89), we adopted an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) design to track
5
exclusionary experiences and their impact on psychological distress over 15 consecutive days. We
6
tested the mediating effects of positive and negative emotions on the link between daily
7
exclusionary experiences and psychological distress, examining the moderating role of experiential
8
avoidance (EA). Results confirmed a large effect of social exclusion on distress mediated by
9
positive and negative emotions. However, EA did not moderate the exclusion-distress link but was,
10
unexpectedly, found to moderate the exclusion-positive emotions relationship. Specifically, this
11
relationship was stronger for low (vs. high) levels of EA, indicating that adopting EA in response to
12
perceived exclusion may provide a protective function from blunted positive emotions. The present
13
study suggests the usefulness of investigating the occurrence and reactions to the daily experiences
14
of social exclusion, going beyond the sole reliance on experimental manipulations, especially to
15
explore the role of individual differences in working towards a more integrated theoretical model of
16
exclusion.
17
18
Keywords: Social Exclusion; Ecological Momentary Assessment; Experiential Avoidance;
19
Personality, Coping.
20
21
22
23
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
3
Introduction
1
2
Social exclusion has been broadly defined as the experience of being kept apart from
3
others physically (e.g., social isolation) or emotionally (e.g., being ignored or told one is not
4
wanted; Riva & Eck, 2016). Exposure to social exclusion experiences can occur multiple times
5
throughout the day in various contexts (e.g., ignored by family members, work colleagues, or
6
social media posts receive no comments or likes; Nezlek et al., 2012; Rudert et al., 2020).
7
According to the Temporal Need Threat Model of Ostracism (Williams, 2009), individuals
8
experience immediate psychological distress with an increase in negative emotions (and
9
decrease in positive ones) and threats of satisfaction of fundamental needs (i.e., belonging,
10
control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence). Since its introduction, hundreds of
11
experimental studies have replicated these findings through the Cyberball paradigm (e.g.,
12
Williams et al., 2000; Hartgerink et al., 2015). Following this short-term reaction, Williams
13
(2009) argues that how a person copes with their ostracism depends on how they appraise the
14
meaning, context, and importance of the experience (i.e., the reflective stage). Moreover, at
15
this stage, individual differences are purported to influence how quickly people cope with their
16
ostracism experience. Indeed, several moderators of the short-term effects of ostracism have
17
been reported, including social anxiety (Zadro et al., 2006), fear of social pain (Riva et al.,
18
2014), attachment style (Yaakobi & Williams, 2016), cultural values (Yaakobi, 2021), and a
19
tendency to ruminate (Wesselmann et al., 2013). Although people might experience prolonged
20
and repeated episodes of exclusion (entering the so-called resignation stage; Williams, 2009;
21
see also Riva et al., 2017), when such experiences remain short-term, their adverse effects do
22
not typically persist for long (Williams, 2009).
23
Over the last 20 years, numerous experimental studies on ostracism and rejection with high
24
internal validity have been conducted. However, research that points to external validity and
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
4
considers the unfolding of exclusion in real life is lacking. Given that much work in the social
1
exclusion literature has examined potential moderating effects of individual differences in the
2
laboratory, methods are needed to allow for tests of such moderation effects that are externally valid
3
and generalizable. The present study aims to address this knowledge gap using the Ecological
4
Momentary Assessment (EMA) paradigm to examine real-world experiences of social exclusion
5
and possible moderators of its consequences rather than artificially induced exclusionary events in
6
the laboratory.
7
Experiential Avoidance
8
One moderator of the shorter-term effects of social exclusion that has received recent
9
empirical attention is experiential avoidance (EA). EA is one of the key processes in the
10
overarching construct of psychological inflexibility within the Acceptance and Commitment
11
Therapy (ACT) model of behavior change (Hayes et al., 2006, 2012). EA is described as
12
efforts to alter the frequency or form of unwanted thoughts, memories, and bodily sensations,
13
even when it leads to a personal detriment. In the short term, avoiding the experience of
14
uncomfortable and distressing private events might be adaptive. This might happen, for
15
instance, when someone attempts to suppress their thoughts and feelings when ghosted, rather
16
than over-reacting to such feelings (e.g., accusing the other person of ostracism, ignoring them
17
in retaliation; see Pancani et al., 2021). However, the chronic use of EA when dealing with
18
daily stressors (e.g., social exclusion) is purported to exacerbate psychological distress (e.g.,
19
Hayes et al., 1996). Indeed, research has shown that attempts to suppress unwanted thoughts
20
(i.e., one type of EA strategy) can lead to paradoxical effects whereby the frequency and
21
intensity of the thought increase (e.g., Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000). It is worth noting here that
22
some ostracism researchers posit that individuals with avoidant attachment styles report less
23
psychological distress following social exclusion because they employ suppression and denial
24
mechanisms to protect themselves (e.g., Shaver & Mikulincer, 2013; Yaakobi, 2022; Yaakobi
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
5
&Wlliams, 2016;). However, importantly, while the mechanism might appear similar on the
1
surface, EA from an ACT perspective is not linked to putative attachment styles but is a
2
contextual emotion regulation behavior shaped via a history of negative reinforcement.
3
Some researchers have explored whether EA is a moderator of the emotional effects of
4
ostracism. For instance, Waldeck et al. (2020) found that participants who were ostracized in
5
Cyberball coped with their ostracism more quickly in the short term when low (vs. high) in EA.
6
Furthermore, Tyndall et al. (2018) found that EA appeared to moderate the relationship between
7
perceived ostracism and psychological distress in the long term. Thus, at high EA levels (i.e., more
8
inflexible), there was a significant positive relationship between ostracism and distress, which was
9
not significant at low levels. As such, people appeared to recover more quickly from their ostracism
10
when lower in EA. Such findings are promising as reducing reliance on EA as a coping strategy is a
11
key target within ACT’s model of behavior change and offers a potential route for effective
12
intervention for those who suffer exclusion daily. Indeed, emerging literature suggests that even
13
brief exposure to acceptance and mindfulness-based interventions can help people cope more
14
readily with their ostracism experience (e.g., Hochard et al., 2021). Although the above results are
15
encouraging, little is known about the role of EA in coping with episodes of exclusion in the short
16
term, and research needs to examine it in a more ecological context when dealing with the
17
psychological distress resulting from daily experiences of social exclusion.
18
The present research
19
The present study focused on the association between perceived social exclusion and
20
psychological distress in everyday life, testing possible mediating effects of positive and negative
21
emotions. Moreover, we explored whether the participants’ tendency to avoid uncomfortable and
22
distressing internal experiences could moderate the relationships among social exclusion, emotions,
23
and psychological distress. As noted above, as an innovative factor, we adopted an Ecological
24
Momentary Assessment design (EMA; for an overview, see: Shiffman et al., 2008) that allows the
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
6
collecting of real-time data repeatedly over time and in natural environments. Thus, compared with
1
cross-sectional designs, these advantages make the EMA methodology more reliable for
2
investigating the relationship between psychological dimensions that can rapidly change over time,
3
such as social exclusion and psychological distress.
4
As reported in several studies (Chung, 2018; Riva et al., 2017), we hypothesized a positive
5
relationship between perceived social exclusion and psychological distress. Following Williams
6
(2009), we also hypothesized that affective reactions mediate this link. Specifically, a higher
7
perception of social exclusion would decrease positive emotions and increase negative ones, which
8
would lead to higher psychological distress. Indeed, the immediate (reflexive) emotional response is
9
posited to precede the subsequent reflective stage (Williams, 2009). Further, as experiential
10
avoidance (EA) strategies include attempts to avoid or reduce the intensity of emotional responses
11
to stress (Hayes et al., 2012), we hypothesized that EA would moderate the exclusion-distress
12
relationship. Specifically, having low levels of EA should act as a buffer against the distress
13
associated with ostracism (e.g., Tyndall et al., 2018). As such, we have positioned EA as a
14
response-focused rather than an antecedent emotion regulation strategy in this study (see Gross,
15
1998), meaning that it can intervene when the individual reflects on the meaning of the perceived
16
exclusionary episode (i.e.,, William’s reflective stage).
17
Method
18
Sample Size
19
We planned to conduct a multilevel moderated mediation with random slopes in which we
20
estimated the relationship between perceived social exclusion and psychological distress being
21
mediated by negative and positive emotions. Moreover, we estimated the moderating effect of
22
experiential avoidance (i.e., a between-subject variable) on all the relationships estimated in the
23
mediation model. Given the complexity of the model, we based our sample size calculation on prior
24
simulation studies conducted on EMA methodology and multilevel modeling. Zirkel et al. (2015)
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
7
suggested collecting at least 35 observations per participant; Kreft and de Leeuw (1998)
1
recommended the 30/30 rule (i.e., 30 participants with 30 observations each), whereas Hox (1998)
2
proposed the 50/20 rule to achieve a good power. Moreover, Maas and Hox (2005) ran a simulation
3
study on moderation in multilevel models showing that substantial biases in the estimates related to
4
the level-two (i.e., between-subject) variables occur only for 30 level-two units or less. Thus, we
5
planned to recruit at least 60 participants asking them to complete up to 45 EMA questionnaires.
6
Participants and Procedure
7
Eighty-nine participants (52 females; Age: M = 26.82, SD = 7.44) were enrolled with a
8
snowball sampling method for the present study. Participants were presented with an initial online
9
questionnaire on Qualtrics (2021). Then, the researcher helped participants install an application to
10
manage EMA studies, Time2Rate (BLIND REFERENCE), on their smartphones. In our design,
11
Time2Rate sent notifications to each participant three times a day for 15 consecutive days. We
12
adopted a time-based sampling method in which assessment time systematically varied from day to
13
day to cover most waking hours. When tapping on the notification, TimeToRate presented the
14
participants with the brief EMA questionnaire. If participants missed the notification, they received
15
three reminders (one every 30 minutes). If the last reminder was missed, no other opportunities to
16
complete that specific EMA questionnaire were given.
17
Measures
18
Initial Questionnaire. The questionnaire measured age, gender, and experiential avoidance,
19
which was assessed using the Brief Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire (BEAQ; Gámez et al.,
20
2014). Participants responded using a 6-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly
21
agree), α = .76. Sample items include, “The key to a good life is never feeling any pain” and “I
22
would give up a lot not to feel bad.” Higher scores indicate greater levels of experiential avoidance.
23
EMA Questionnaire. Each EMA questionnaire included a single question asking participants
24
how they felt at that moment. Following the question, six ad hoc items (three for each construct)
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
8
were developed to measure perceived social exclusion and psychological distress on a 5-point
1
Likert scale, from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). Specifically, “I feel ignored,” “I feel rejected,” and
2
“I feel socially excluded” (α = .88) were used to assess the main components of social exclusion
3
(Riva & Eck, 2016). “I feel depressed,” “I feel anxious,” and “I feel stressed out” (α = .73) were
4
used to assess the main components of psychological distress (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress;
5
Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Emotions were measured on the same Likert scale, using two items
6
for positive (“happy” and “calm;” r = .58) and negative (“angry” and “sad;” r = .51) valence.
7
Results
8
The 89 participants completed a total of 3,283 EMA questionnaires, ranging from 5 to 45 (M
9
= 36.89, SD = 11.04). Twelve participants had less than 20 repeated measures, 17 participants less
10
than 30, and 20 participants less than 35, violating the recommendations of Hox (1998), Kreft and
11
de Leeuw (1998), and Zirkel et al. (2015), respectively. However, given that these
12
recommendations represent rules of thumb to follow in planning the data collection (not exclusion
13
criteria) and a major focus of our study was the effect of a between-subject variable, we prioritized
14
level-two units, keeping the number of participants as large as possible to achieve good power.
15
Mplus, version 7 (Muthén & Muthén, 2012), was used to run a multilevel moderated
16
mediation analysis with random slopes. Specifically, at level 1 (i.e., within-subject), we regressed
17
psychological distress on perceived social exclusion, positive emotions, and negative emotions,
18
estimating random slopes. Moreover, we estimated the random slope of the effect of perceived
19
social exclusion on positive and negative emotions and the correlation between the latter two
20
variables. At level 2 (i.e., between-subject), we estimated (a) the fixed effects of all the regression
21
coefficients estimated at level 1, (b) the fixed intercept of the three dependent variables, (c) all the
22
possible covariances between the coefficients mentioned in the previous two points, (d) the cross-
23
level interactions between experiential avoidance and the random intercepts and slopes, and (e) the
24
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
9
effect of gender (0 = female, 1 = male) and age on each random intercept and slope to control for
1
their possible influence. All the predictors were mean-centered.
2
The fixed slopes of the model (AIC = 17750.5, sample-size adjusted BIC = 17963.6) are
3
displayed in Figure 1, and the effects of the between-subject predictors are reported in Table 1. The
4
direct effect of social exclusion on psychological distress was not significant (p = .517). However,
5
this effect was significantly mediated by both positive, b = .152, 95% C.I. [.093, .211], p < .001,
6
and negative emotions, b = .050, 95% C.I. [.004, .097], p = .035. In other words, higher perceived
7
social exclusion led to higher psychological distress through both a decrease in positive emotions
8
and an increase in negative ones. Moreover, the mediation effect passing through positive emotions
9
was stronger than the negative one, Δb = .102, 95% C.I. [.034, .169], p = .003.
10
To explore whether the two mediation paths were responsible for the non-significant direct
11
effect of social exclusion on psychological distress, we ran a multilevel model estimating only the
12
latter effect, controlling for the influence of age and gender. The results showed that social
13
exclusion had a significant and positive effect on psychological distress, b = .269, 95% C.I. [.141,
14
.396], p < .001, confirming the full mediation of emotions.
15
In the main model, experiential avoidance showed only one significant effect: the cross-level
16
interaction with the random slope estimated between perceived social exclusion and positive
17
emotions. Higher perception of social exclusion predicted a significant decrease in positive
18
emotions for each level of experiential avoidance tested. However, for individuals low in
19
experiential avoidance (-1 SD), the effect of perceived social exclusion on positive emotions was
20
stronger, b = -.493, 95% C.I. [-.635, .351], p < .001, than what was observed in individuals high in
21
experiential avoidance (+1 SD), b = -.355, 95% C.I. [-.521, -.188], p < .001.
22
Due to the above cross-level interaction, experiential avoidance significantly moderated the
23
indirect effect passing through positive emotions. The mediation was significant and positive for
24
each level of experiential avoidance, but the indirect effect weakened as experiential avoidance
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
10
increased. Indeed, for individuals low in experiential avoidance (-1 SD), the indirect effect of
1
perceived social exclusion on psychological distress was stronger, b = .179, 95% C.I. [.114, .244], p
2
< .001, than what was observed in individuals high in experiential avoidance (+1 SD), b = .126,
3
95% C.I. [.061, .190], p < .001.
4
Concerning the sociodemographic characteristics, age did not show any significant effect.
5
Conversely, gender predicted the random intercepts of psychological distress and positive emotions,
6
as well as the random slopes linking perceived social exclusion to psychological distress and
7
negative emotions. Specifically, the average level of psychological distress was higher for females,
8
M = 2.249, 95% C.I. [2.118, 2.379], p < .001, than males, M = 1.999, 95% C.I. [1.880, 2.118], p <
9
.001, whereas positive emotions were significantly lower than the sample mean for females, M = -
10
0.201, 95% C.I. [-0.380, -0.022], p = .028, and not significantly different from it for males, M =
11
0.176, 95% C.I. [-0.002, 0.354], p = .053. The relationship between perceived social exclusion and
12
psychological distress was not significant for females, b = .037, 95% C.I. [-.076, .150], p = .517,
13
and positive and significant for males, b = .231, 95% C.I. [.145, .316], p < .001. Conversely, the
14
relationship between perceived social exclusion and negative emotions was significant and positive
15
irrespectively from gender, but weaker for females, b = .459, 95% C.I. [.328, .589], p < .001, than
16
males, b = .678, 95% C.I. [.513, .843], p < .001. Finally, positive and negative emotions correlated
17
negatively at both level 1, r = -.213, 95% C.I. [-.249, -.178], p < .001, and level 2, r = -.089, 95%
18
C.I. [-.152, -.026], p = .006.
19
20
Discussion
21
The literature on social exclusion has typically investigated the consequences of this
22
phenomenon from an experimental standpoint, manipulating individuals’ perceived ostracism and
23
rejection, or using retrospective surveys. Although these methods have significantly increased the
24
knowledge of the phenomenon, less is known about real-life, daily experiences of exclusion.
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
11
Recently, Bernstein et al. (2021) made an effort in this direction, adopting an EMA methodology
1
and finding that daily life exclusion worsened mood and threatened basic needs. However, the
2
present study is the first to investigate whether individual differences moderated the immediate
3
processes following daily exclusion using an EMA design, a methodology characterized by high
4
ecological validity. Consistent with previous research (e.g., Riva et al., 2017; Waldeck et al., 2017),
5
perceived exclusion was positively associated with psychological distress. However, we detected
6
that positive and negative emotions fully mediated the exclusion-distress relationship. This finding
7
supports literature reporting links between ostracism and affect (e.g., Howard et al., 2020; Spoelma
8
et al., 2021; Williams, 2009). Indeed, according to Williams (2009), there is an immediate
9
emotional impact following the detection of exclusion. Our data shows that such an immediate
10
reaction accounts for the psychological distress resulting from the perception of exclusion.
11
However, in contrast to our predictions, EA was not found to be a moderator of the
12
exclusion-distress relationship. This was surprising given that EA has been shown to moderate the
13
distress associated with ostracism (Tyndall et al., 2018), at least in the long-term. As such, the
14
benefits of psychological flexibility (i.e., low levels of EA) may not be as evident following daily
15
exclusion.
16
We also unexpectedly noticed that EA was a moderator of the link between perceived
17
exclusion and positive emotions. Therefore, people appeared to be somewhat partially protected
18
from the distress associated with exclusion due to less of a negative impact on their positive
19
emotions (e.g., maintaining one’s enjoyment in activities) if higher in EA (vs. low). As such,
20
attempts to avoid the initial pain of ostracism (e.g., thought suppression, distraction) seem to benefit
21
how people maintain their positive mood in coping with their exclusion. Indeed, there is evidence to
22
suggest that short-term avoidance strategies (e.g., distraction) can help people endure painful events
23
(e.g., Brown et al., 2022). Moreover, as people are hard-wired to detect ostracism quickly
24
(Williams, 2009), an adaptive response arguably would be to attempt to down-regulate the negative
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
12
impact (i.e., adopt EA strategies). This unexpected result might derive from the robust ecological
1
validity of the EMA methodology, that could have uncovered new real-life effects that experimental
2
approaches might conceal. However, further research is needed to explore the mechanism in which
3
high levels of EA provide some protective function in the short-term. Still, in the long-term, the
4
reverse effect might occur (i.e., psychological inflexibility maintains distress from exclusion). Such
5
a mechanism would appear to fits with some perspectives from the psychological inflexibility
6
model, which discusses whether and when EA is harmful in the moment (Levin et al., 2018).
7
It was also found that men (vs. women) appeared to be more distressed due to their
8
perceived exclusion. Although such findings are partially consistent with some studies (e.g., Hitlan
9
et al., 2006), the literature is still mixed regarding potential sex differences in responses to social
10
exclusion (e.g., Benenson et al., 2003; Waldeck et al., 2017).
11
Limitations and Future Directions
12
Some limitations reduce our ability to make firm conclusions. First, as noted above, 12
13
participants had less than 20 repeated measures. A low number of measurements might negatively
14
impact data reliability, affecting the estimation of random slopes and reducing power (e.g., Zirkel et
15
al., 2015); thus, caution is warranted in interpreting our data as some assumptions were violated.
16
Although post-hoc power analysis might seem an easy solution, such technique is strongly
17
discouraged by statisticians (e.g., Gelman, 2019; Levine & Ensom, 2001). Indeed, post-hoc power
18
is unrelated to a priori power and it only represents an alternative way to express p-values (Hoenig
19
& Heisey, 2001; Lakens, 2022). Second, our sample consisted of young individuals, and females
20
were overrepresented. Future studies might consider a more heterogeneous sample, especially in
21
terms of age, to investigate the replicability of our findings. For instance, extant studies have shown
22
that older adults are particularly vulnerable to rejection and ostracism (Hawkley et al., 2011). Our
23
EMA design might provide crucial information about how to help them cope with exclusion. Third,
24
as the moderation effect was small in magnitude and resulted from an exploratory analysis, the
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
13
results may be subject to Type 1 errors. Moreover, considering possible power issues deriving from
1
not excluding participants with too few measurements, the results might be subject to Type 2 errors.
2
We recommend that future researchers examine the replicability of these findings using EMA and
3
various methodologies (e.g., longitudinal, experimental) and use qualitative approaches to explore
4
how people with different personality traits experience (and cope) with exclusion.
5
Conclusion
6
Daily encounters of social exclusion can be distressing experiences. We provide further
7
evidence on this topic by employing an EMA methodology, finding that positive and negative
8
emotions fully mediate the link between social exclusion and psychological distress. Our adoption
9
of EMA design in this research domain represents a methodological advance insofar as the internal
10
validity of numerous laboratory investigations of social exclusion has been shown. Still,
11
ecologically valid methods are necessary to further our understanding of the real-world effects of
12
perceived ostracism (see also Bernstein et al., 2021). Therefore, we argue that the EMA design
13
might have revealed effects (i.e., the moderating role of EA) that could not be observed using other
14
methods. Indeed, we found new evidence that adopting experiential avoidance strategies may
15
ironically provide a partial buffer in coping with the initial impact of exclusionary events by
16
maintaining positive emotions. These results extend existing literature showing that EA can
17
moderate distress from ostracism; however, future research is needed to replicate further and
18
explore these effects.
19
20
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
14
References
1
Benenson, J. F., Markovits, H., Hultgren, B., Nguyen, T., Bullock, G., & Wrangham, R. (2013).
2
Social exclusion: More important t human females than males. PLoS one, 8(2), e55851.
3
Bernstein, M. J., Neubauer, A. B., Benfield, J. A., Potter, L., & Smyth, J. M. (2021). Within-person
4
effects of inclusion and exclusion on well-being in daily life. Personal Relationships, 28,
5
940-960.
6
Brown, P., Powell, W., Dansey, N., Al-Abbadey, M., Stevens, B., & Powell, V. (2022). Virtual
7
reality as a pain distraction modality for experimentally induced pain in a chronic pain
8
population: A exploratory study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 25(1),
9
66-71.
10
Carter‐Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social
11
susceptibility. Social Influence, 3, 143-153.
12
Chung, Y. W. (2018). Workplace ostracism and workplace behaviors: A moderated mediation
13
model of perceived stress and psychological empowerment. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping,
14
31(3), 304317. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2018.1424835
15
Gámez, W., Chmielewski, M., Kotov, R., Ruggero, C., Suzuki, N., & Watson, D. (2014). The Brief
16
Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire: Development and initial validation. Psychological
17
Assessment, 26, 3545. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034473
18
Gelman, A. (2019). Don't calculate post-hoc power using observed estimate of effect size. Annals of
19
Surgery, 269(1), e9-e10. doi: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002908
20
Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences
21
for xperience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
22
74(1), 224-237.
23
Hales, A. H., Kassner, M. P., Williams, K. D., & Graziano, W. G. (2016). Disagreeableness as a
24
cause and consequence of ostracism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42, 782-
25
797.
26
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
15
Hartgernik, C. H., Van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). The ordinal effects of
1
ostracism: A meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. PLoS one, 10(5), e0127002.
2
Hawkley, L. C., Williams, K. D., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2011). Responses to ostracism across
3
adulthood. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 6, 234-243.
4
Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and
5
commitment therapy: Model, processes, and outcomes. Behavior Research and Therapy, 44,
6
1-25. doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006
7
Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford. E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experiential
8
avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional diagnostic approach to diagnosis and
9
treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152-1168.
10
doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.64.6.1152
11
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The
12
process and practice of mindful change, (2nd ed). Guilford Press.
13
Hochard, K. D., Hulbert-Williams, L., Ashcroft, S., & McLoughlin, S. (2021). Acceptance and
14
values clarification versus cognitive restructuring and relaxation: A randomized controlled
15
trial of ultra-brief non-expert-delivered coaching interventions for social resilience. Journal
16
of Contextual Behavioral Science, 21, 12-21.
17
Hoenig, J. M., & Heisey, D. M. (2001). The abuse of power: The pervasive fallacy of power
18
calculations for data analysis. The American Statistician, 55(1), 19-24. doi:
19
10.1198/000313001300339897
20
Hox, J. J. (1998). Multilevel modeling: When and why. In I. Balderjahn, R. Mathar, & M. Schader
21
(Eds.), Classification, data analysis, and data highways (pp. 147154). Springer-Verlag.
22
Howard, M. C., Cogswell, J. E., & Smith, M. B. (2020). The anteedents and outcomes of workplace
23
ostracism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(6), 577-596.
24
Kreft, I., & de Leeuw, J. (1998). Introducing multilevel modeling. Sage.
25
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
16
Lakens, D. (2022). Improving Your Statistical Inferences. Retrieved from
1
https://lakens.github.io/statistical_inferences/. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6409077
2
Levin, M. E., Krafft, J. B., & Potts, S. (2018). When is experiential avoidance harmful in the
3
moment? Examining experiential avoidance as a moderator. Journal of Behavior Therapy
4
and Experimental Psyciatry, 61, 158-163.
5
Levine, M., & Ensom, M. H. H. (2001). Post hoc power: An idea whose time has passed?
6
Pharmacotherapy, 21(4), 405-409. doi: 10.1592/phco.21.5.405.34503
7
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales. (2nd
8
Ed.) Psychology Foundation of Australia.
9
Maas, C. J. M., & Hox, J. J. (2005). Sufficient sample sizes for multilevel modeling. Methodology,
10
1(3), 8692. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-1881.1.3.86
11
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus user’s guide, 7th ed. Muthén & Muthén.
12
Nezlek, J. B., Wesselmann, E. D., Wheeler, L., & Williams, K. D. (2012). Ostracism in everyday
13
life. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, & Practice, 16, 91-104.
14
Pancani, L., Mazzoni, D., Aureli, N., & Riva, P. (2021). Ghosting and orbiting: An analysis of
15
victims’ experiences. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships.
16
Qualtrics. (2021). Qualtrics. Provo, UT. Retrieved from http://www.qualtrics.com
17
Ren, D., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2013). Interdependent self‐construal moderates
18
coping with (but not the initial pain of) ostracism. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16,
19
320-326.
20
Riva, P., & Eck, J. (2016). Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and
21
reducing its impact. Springer.
22
Riva, P., Montali, L., Wirth, J. H., Curioni, S., & Williams, K. D. (2017). Chronic social exclusion
23
and evidence for the resignation stage: An empirical investigation. Journal of Social and
24
Personal Relationships, 34(4), 541564.
25
Riva, P., Williams, K. D., & Gallway, M. (2014). The relationship between fear of social and
26
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
17
physical threat and its effects on social distress and physical pain perception. PAIN, 153(3),
1
485-493.
2
Rudert, S. C., Keller, M. D., Hales, A. H., Walker, M., & Greifeneder, R. (2020). Who gets
3
ostracized? A personality perspective on risk and protective factors of ostracism. Journal of
4
Personality and Social Psychology, 118, 1247-1268.
5
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2013). Attachment orientation and reactions to ostracism in close
6
relationships and groups. In C. N. De Wall (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion
7
(pp. 238-247). Oxford University Press.
8
Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological Momentary Assessment. Annual
9
Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 132.
10
Spoelma, T. M., Chawla, N., & Ellis, A. P. (2021). If you can’t join ’em, report ’em: A model of
11
ostracism and whistleblowing in teams. Journal of Business Ethics, 173(2), 345-363.
12
Tyndall, I., Waldeck, D., Riva, P., Wesselmann, E. D., & Pancani, L. (2018). Psychological
13
flexibility and ostracism: Experiential avoidance rather than cognitive fusion moderates
14
distress from perceived ostracism over time. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 7,
15
72-80.
16
Waldeck, D., Bissell, G., & Tyndall, I. (2020). Experiential avoidance as a moderator for coping
17
with a brief episode of ostracism: A pilot study. Journal of Contextual Behavioral
18
Science, 17, 68-72.
19
Waldeck, D., Tyndall, I., Riva, P., & Chmiel, N. (2017). How do we cope with ostracism?
20
Psychological flexibility moderates the relationship between everyday ostracism experiences
21
and psychological distress. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 6, 425-432.
22
Wenzlaff, R. M., & Wegner, D. M. (2000). Thought suppression. Annual Review of Psychology, 51,
23
59-91.
24
Wesselmann, E. D., Ren, D., Swim, E., & Williams, K. D. (2013). Rumination hinders recovery
25
from ostracism. International Journal of Developmental Science, 7, 33-39.
26
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
18
Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over
1
the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 748-762.
2
Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances
3
in experimental social psychology (Vol 41, pp. 275-314). Elsevier Academic Press.
4
Yaakobi, E. (2021). Can cultural values eliminate ostracism distress?. International Journal of
5
Intercultural Relations, 80, 231-241.
6
Yaakobi, E. (2022). Avoidant individuals are more affected by ostracism attribution. Journal of
7
Research in Personality, 96. 104184. doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104184
8
Yaakobi, E., & Williams, K. D. (2016). Ostracism and attachment orientation: Avoidants are less
9
affected in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures. British Journal of Social
10
Psychology, 55, 162-181.
11
Zadro, L., Boland, C., & Richardson, R. (2006). How long does it last? The persistence of ostracism
12
in the socially anxious. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 692-697.
13
Zirkel, S., Garcia, J. A., & Murphy, M. C. (2015). Experience-sampling research methods and their
14
potential for education research. Educational Researcher, 44, 716.
15
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
19
Table 1 Effects of the between-subject predictors on random intercepts and slopes.
1
b
95% C.I.
p-value
Fixed intercept: Psychological Distress
Age
.002
.014, .010
.736
Gender
.250
.424, .075
.005
Experiential avoidance
.127
.028, .281
.108
Fixed intercept: Positive Emotions
Age
.009
.007, .025
.278
Gender
.377
.127, .626
.003
Experiential avoidance
.111
.314, .092
.285
Fixed intercept: Negative Emotions
Age
.009
.004, .022
.158
Gender
.093
.247, .061
.237
Experiential avoidance
.055
.080, .191
.424
Age
.000
.013, .011
.995
Gender
.193
.059, .327
.005
Experiential avoidance
.001
.113, .112
.991
Fixed slope: Social Exclusion → Positive Emotions
Age
.001
.012, .013
.933
Gender
.117
.319, .085
.255
Experiential avoidance
.142
.009, .276
.037
Fixed slope: Social Exclusion → Negative Emotions
Age
.008
.018, .002
.115
Gender
.219
.020, .419
.031
Experiential avoidance
.093
.226, .039
.167
Fixed slope: Positive Emotions → Psychologial
Distress
Age
.003
.004, .010
.447
Gender
.034
.048, .117
.415
Experiential avoidance
.019
.055, .093
.618
Fixed slope: Negative Emotions → Psychologial
Distress
Age
.003
.005, .011
.479
Gender
.088
.015, .192
.095
Experiential avoidance
.076
.049, .201
.233
2
Ecological momentary assessment of social exclusion
20
Figure 1 The diagram of the model: fixed slopes coefficients and 95% confidence intervals (in
1
parentheses) are reported.
2
3
Note. Solid lines represent significant effects at level p < .001, dotted lines represent non-
4
significant effects.
5
... These techniques allow to assess participants' thoughts, feelings, and behavior as they happen in real life, for instance, using smartphones (e.g., Trull & Ebner-Priemer, 2013). One specific experience sampling technique are time-contingent approaches where participants are alerted at pre-defined time points, asking whether they experienced ostracism in a social interaction since the last time that they had been alerted, or how they feel right now (Bernstein et al., 2021;Pancani et al., 2023). Bernstein et al. (2021) found that participants felt ostracized in approximately 10% of their recent social interactions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Ostracism—being ignored and excluded—is part of many individuals’ daily lives. Yet, ostracism is often studied in laboratory settings and rarely in natural settings. Here, we report one of the first investigations into ostracism in everyday life by documenting how often and where ostracism occurs; who the sources of ostracism are; and how ostracism affects targets’ feelings and behaviors. Two experience sampling studies using event-contingent (N = 323, k = 1,107 ostracism experiences in 14 days) and time-signaling sampling approaches (N = 272, k = 7,943 assessments including 767 ostracism experiences in 7 days) show that ostracism is an aversive experience that takes place in a range of contexts and relationships, as often as two to three times per week on average. Reconciling previously mixed findings regarding ostracism’s effects on behavior and extending existing theory, we propose a novel framework of behavioral reactions based on need-threat levels: When psychological needs are severely threatened, individuals react to everyday ostracism with avoidance (i.e., withdrawal) and antisocial inclinations (i.e., they exhibit significantly stronger antisocial intentions, although they do not engage in antisocial behavior more frequently). Conversely, when psychological needs are threatened to a lesser extent, individuals are more likely to adopt approach behaviors (i.e., prosocial behavior, talking to others, or connecting with them on social media). Our findings considerably extend present theorizing in ostracism research as they allow to understand when and how individuals experience everyday ostracism and how behavioral reactions after ostracism form in real life.
... Also, Tyndall et al. (2018) and Waldeck et al. (2020) suggested that experiential avoidance (i.e., non-acceptance) seems to maintain the negative consequences (e.g., distress/depression) of ostracism. However, similar to the results of distress, but has a significant moderating effect between exclusion and positive emotions by using the ecological momentary assessment (Pancani et al., 2023). These inconsistent results indicate the existence of other factors, such as the way avoidance strategies are used. ...
Article
Depression is closely related to individual social functions. The current study aimed to examine whether depression is associated with ostracism, whether interpretation bias mediates this relationship, and whether trait mindfulness moderates direct and indirect relationships between depression and ostracism. Overall, 389 Chinese college students completed the Center for Epidemiological Survey, Depression Scale, Interpretation Bias Questionnaire, Philadelphia mindfulness scale, and perceived ostracism scale at two-time points. Latent Profile analysis and moderated mediation analysis were performed. After controlling for sex and age, depression (t1) was positively correlated to perceived ostracism, with this relationship being partially mediated by negative interpretation bias (IBN, t2). The effect of IBN on perceived ostracism was weak when awareness was high at time 2. Acceptance had a non-significant moderating role in the relationship between IBN and perceived ostracism at time 2. LPA delineated three profiles: high awareness, high acceptance, and medium mindfulness. The moderating role of the different profiles in the relationship between IBN (t2) and perceived ostracism (t2) was significant. Depressed individuals appear to experience more ostracism because of IBN. Awareness might alleviate the effect of IBN on perceived ostracism.
... Secondly, this study used a cross-sectional correlation design and thus, is unable to account for causality of relationships. Future researchers may consider adopting more longitudinal or ecological momentary assessment designs to detect the fluctuations more precisely between adaptability, social support, and psychological wellbeing across different time points (see Pancani et al., 2023). ...
Article
Full-text available
Malaysian adults are regularly exposed to a wide variety of complex stressors (exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic): these stressors, without sufficient protective resources, threaten to negatively impact upon psychological wellbeing. Recent literature has shown that personal resources (e.g., one’s adaptability) and situational resources (e.g., one’s social support) are associated with psychological wellbeing; however, limited research has examined the unique contribution of these resources to psychological wellbeing among collectivist cultures (e.g., Malaysian adults). Here, a sample of 136 Malaysian adults completed a survey measuring their adaptability and social support as well as different components of psychological wellbeing (i.e., flourishing, psychological distress, and life satisfaction). We found that adaptability and social support contribute significantly, and independently, to psychological wellbeing (all measures) among Malaysian adults, with social support being the stronger predictor in each case. Further, no significant interaction effects between adaptability and social support on psychological wellbeing were observed. The findings corroborate a developing literature suggesting that adaptability and social support may be targeted in efforts to enhance psychological wellbeing but also indicate that among Malaysian adults of a collectivist culture, social support may be more salient. (Journal of Positive Psychology and Wellbeing)
... Thirdly, the self-report data may bring in shared method variance and influence ecological validity of the current study. To improve this problem, an ecological momentary assessment has been used to measure daily life experiences of ostracism (Bernstein et al., 2021;Pancani et al., 2023) and ascertain the relationships between the assessed variables. ...
Article
Full-text available
Although numerous studies have demonstrated the ostracism-aggression link, the potent mechanisms of the relationship remain largely unexplored. Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM) and the Script Theory framework, we propose that anger rumination (AR) may mediate the relationship between ostracism and social aggression. Moreover, the relationship between ostracism and anger rumination may be mutual. The present study used a longitudinal design to examine the relationships among ostracism, AR, and SA in 940 college students. The questionnaires were completed on two occasions with a 6-months interval. A cross-lagged analysis revealed that social ostracism at time 1 (T1) predicted subsequent AR and SA at time 2 (T2), AR (T1) predicted ostracism and SA 6 months later. Moreover, AR (T2) mediated the association between ostracism (T1) and SA (T2). These findings deepen our understanding of the link between ostracism and SA and expand and support the General Aggressive Model and Script Theory.
Article
Zusammenfassung: Soziale Ausgrenzung kommt häufig vor und ist für die Betroffenen oft schmerzhaft und belastend. Der folgende Artikel gibt einen Überblick über die Forschung zu Ausgrenzung aus drei verschiedenen Perspektiven: Erstens die Perspektive der Ausgegrenzten, bei dem insbesondere die kurz- und langfristigen Konsequenzen von Ausgrenzung für die Betroffenen im Vordergrund stehen. Zweitens die Perspektive der Ausgrenzenden, welche betrachtet, aus welchen Gründen und Motiven Ausgrenzung überhaupt zustande kommt. Drittens die Perspektive der Beobachtenden und die Attributionen, welche diese über beobachtete Ausgrenzungssituationen fällen. Darüber hinaus werden neuere Entwicklungen in der Ausgrenzungsforschung sowie mögliche Interventionsansätze diskutiert.
Article
Full-text available
Being ostracised (i.e., ignored and excluded) by others can be painful and distressing. Certain individual differences (e.g., social anxiety) are known to exacerbate the negative psychological consequences of ostracism. However, little empirical research has investigated who (e.g., those with social anxiety) is most likely to feel ostracised by their peers in higher education. The present study recruited 84 undergraduate students who completed an online survey measuring social anxiety (predictor variable) and perceived student ostracism (outcome variable). The results showed that after controlling for age, there was a significant positive relationship between social anxiety and perceived student ostracism. Implications for the way that educators promote social inclusion, particularly for those with social anxiety, within higher education are discussed.
Article
Full-text available
Purpose With the increasing prevalence of smart phones, adolescent smartphone addiction has garnered significant attention from researchers. Previous studies have revealed that smartphone addiction is associated with various internalization and externalization problems. Therefore, this present study aims to investigate the risk factors contributing to adolescent smartphone addiction. Methods Study 1 recruited a sample of 540, 690, and 470 Chinese students aged between 10–17 years for exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and predictive validity analysis of the social pain scale. Study 2 utilized data from a sample of 718 Chinese students aged between 10–17 years to examine the measurement model used revised social pain scale, smartphone addiction scale, harsh parenting scale, and depression sub-scale. Results The present study revealed that (1)The Social Pain Scale had good applicability in Chinese adolescents; (2) There were significant, positive correlations among harsh parenting, smartphone addiction, depression and social pain; (3) Social pain and depression played a partially serial mediating role in the relationship between harsh parenting and smartphone addiction, and similarly the relationship between paternal harsh parenting and smartphone addiction, while a completely serial mediating role in the relationship between maternal harsh parenting and smartphone addiction. Conclusion This study provides a direct path (improving parenting style) and an indirect path (reducing social pain to reduce depression) regarding interventions for adolescents with smartphone addiction, and establishes a basis for improving the situation of adolescent smartphone addiction.
Article
Full-text available
Low social resilience (e.g., susceptibility to social anxiety, and social avoidance) has been associated with poor mental and physical health outcomes, and can lead to ostracism. Support services such as university counselling centres, which deal with non-diagnosable psychological distress, linked to low social resilience, require effective yet brief interventions deliverable by non-experts to meet service demands. As it is not always possible to prevent subjectively negative experiences, acceptance-based interventions aim to change how we respond behaviourally to such experiences. The present study tests the efficacy of an ultra-brief (1hr) non-expert delivered acceptance- and values-based (AV) coaching intervention to increase resilience to negative social interactions. This was compared to a comparable dose of a cognitive restructuring and relaxation-based (CRR) analogue, and a psycho-education and progressive muscle relaxation-based (PE-PMR) control. Participants (N=60) were assessed on perceived burdensomeness, belonging, and 3 scenarios measuring anxiety and likelihood to engage in social situations. Participants then played Cyberball, an ostracising task, before recompleting the aforementioned measures. Physiological measures indicated Cyberball was an aversive experience. In the AV condition only, we observed an improved behavioral intention to engage with social scenarios (dppc2 = .57). Ultra-brief AV-based coaching interventions delivered by non-expert coaches appear promising in increasing participant’s likelihood to continue engaging in social interactions after a stressful social experience. We tentatively conclude that gains in committed action may increase the propensity of at-risk individuals to seek social support.
Article
Full-text available
Ghosting is the practice of ending a relationship without explaining to the partner and avoiding any communication attempts. Orbiting is identical to ghosting, but the disengager still visibly follows the former partner on social media. Despite the increasing attention that ghosting and orbiting have gained in the popular press, they remain largely unexplored phenomena in scientific inquiry. In this work, we explored the psychological and behavioral reactions to ghosting and orbiting from the victim’s perspective, comparing them to the experience of being rejected through direct communication. Participants were randomly assigned to recall one of three conditions (ghosting, orbiting, and rejection), and the reports of 208 young adults were analyzed through qualitative thematic content analysis. The results described different stages of reactions that follow event detection and that are respectively characterized by 1) surprise and confusion, 2) anger, sadness, and guilt, 3) attempts of relational repair, 4) acceptance. The specificities of being a victim of ghosting and orbiting are presented, comparing them with social rejection. The results are discussed in the light of the existing literature on social exclusion, suggesting that ghosting and orbiting can be considered forms of ostracism. Connections between the proposed stage model and traditional relationship dissolution theories are highlighted, and relevant implications for future research and interventions are presented.
Article
Full-text available
Unethical behavior coordinated and concealed by teams continues to represent a troubling and all-too-frequent occurrence in organizations. Unfortunately, those who are most knowledgeable about this behavior and thereby best suited to report it to authorities—the complicit members themselves—are susceptible to unique pressures that often discourage them from blowing the whistle. Team members rely on their teammates for relational and other beneficial resources, making it more difficult to potentially break those ties by snitching. However, we argue that the pressure to stay silent is alleviated for members who are ostracized by their team members. Drawing on social exchange theory, we theorize that ostracism decreases positive affect and increases negative affect, decreasing individuals’ communion striving motivation and, in turn, increasing the propensity to blow the whistle. In Study 1, we examined the link between ostracism and whistleblowing utilizing a field sample of diverse employees surveyed over time. In Study 2, we built upon Study 1 and conducted a lab study to examine affect and communion striving motivation as serial mediators. Results were generally supportive of our arguments, although we did not find support for the mediating effect of negative affect.
Article
Full-text available
The present paper examined whether experiential avoidance (EA) was a potential moderator of recovery from the short-term effects of ostracism. Forty University students completed a measure of EA and were either included or excluded in an online-ball tossing game (Cyberball). Participants then reported need-satisfaction immediately following the game and after a filler task. The results show that being ostracized affected both groups at the immediate (reflexive) stage of the Temporal Needs Threat Model, and that those low in EA recovered their psychological needs of belonging, self-esteem, and meaningful existence (but not control) faster (i.e., after a delay) than those high in EA. Overall, this study provides tentative preliminary experimental evidence that demonstrates that EA may moderate the short-term effects of ostracism. Implications of the present study suggest that decreasing levels of EA may help individuals cope with events of ostracism, but further research is needed to replicate this effect.
Article
Full-text available
Researchers have shown great interest in the antecedents and outcomes of workplace ostracism, which has led to an expansive body of research. In light of this work, the current article fulfills the need for a comprehensive review and meta-analysis of the antecedents and outcomes associated with workplace ostracism. We begin our review by adapting a victimization perspective to understand ostracism as a triadic social process between the victim, perpetrator, and the environment. The meta-analytic results then support that leadership characteristics are the strongest related antecedents of workplace ostracism, followed by certain aspects of personality (e.g., Big Five) and contextual characteristics (e.g., social support). The results also show that workplace ostracism very strongly relates to deviance, and it strongly relates to other performance outcomes (e.g., core-performance, helping, voice), well-being outcomes (e.g., psychological well-being, emotions, self-perceptions), and organizational perceptions (e.g., job satisfaction, commitment, justice). We also show that the relationship of performance, well-being, emotions, and self-perceptions when measured after ostracism was comparable to their relationship when measured before ostracism. These results suggest that the outcomes of ostracism are less certain than previously thought, as they may instead be antecedents of ostracism. Finally, we call for future research to investigate this notion, along with further integration of the victimization perspective as well as the study of contextual predictors and moderators. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
Full-text available
Ostracism, excluding and ignoring others, results from a variety of factors. Here, we investigate the effect of personality on the likelihood of becoming a target of ostracism. Theorizing that individuals low in conscientiousness or agreeableness are at risk of getting ostracized, we tested our hypotheses within five pre-registered studies: Four experiments investigating participants’ willingness to ostracize targets characterized by different personality traits and a reverse correlation face modelling study where we determined and subsequently validated the stereotypical face of an ostracized person. A survey study within a representative German data panel further corroborated our findings. In line with our hypotheses, persons low in conscientiousness or agreeableness provoke more ostracism intentions (Studies 1, 2, and 4), are more likely to be actually ostracized by others (Study 3), represent the stereotype of an “ostracizable” person (Study 5), and report experiencing more ostracism (Study 6). Effects remained stable even after controlling for likeability of the target (Study 2 and 4). Moreover, being described as negative on one personality dimension could not be compensated by being described as positive on the other (Study 4). In exploratory analyses, we further investigated the effects of openness to experience, neuroticism and extraversion. In sum, we find evidence that personality affects the likelihood of becoming a target of ostracism, and that especially low agreeableness and conscientiousness represent risk factors.
Article
Ostracism causes psychological distress. Two experiments examined whether cuing possible external or internal causes of ostracism immediately after the ostracism experience would mitigate ostracism distress, and whether attachment orientations would moderate the effects of attribution on distress immediately and after a short delay after cue. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four different attribution experimental groups - ostracized with no explanation, cuing internal/external attribution, included (not ostracized)-immediately after the Cyberball game. Distress was measured immediately and after the delay. External attribution led to less distress immediately after the ostracism episode and mitigated distress altogether after the delay. Attachment avoidance moderated these attribution effects. The findings suggest that faster recovery may be achieved by cuing an external explanation for ostracism.
Article
Virtual reality (VR) has shown promising results as an adjunct therapy for pain management. Recent literature exploring the use of VR for pain management among a chronic pain (CP) population has produced encouraging results, although little has been done to explore what about a VR intervention is the provider of the analgesic response. Furthermore, as has been suggested in the literature previously, little has been said of the association between pain tolerance and presence. This study primarily aimed to investigate pain tolerance differentiation between VR-head-mounted display (HMD) active and control interventions. Secondarily, this study looked to report on whether presence correlates to pain tolerance, among a CP population. A repeated-measures study design was used. Twelve participants received two 5-minute interventions while being subjected to experimentally induced pain. The interventions were as follows: (a) "active intervention," an immersive and interactive experience (b) "control intervention," and a nonimmersive controlled experience with no interaction. Tolerance to pain was assessed via the total time the participant continued the intervention. Presence was assessed via the Witmer and Singer's presence questionnaire. Participants also completed the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, the Presence Questionnaire, and the Brief Pain Inventory. Pain tolerance was significantly higher in the active intervention compared with the control intervention (p = 0.005). There was a positive correlation between pain tolerance and presence during the active VR intervention. The media as opposed to the medium was determined to be responsible for greater tolerance to pain, as well as greater sense of presence, which was positively correlated to an increase in pain tolerance.
Article
Whether exclusion hurts or inclusion feels good is debated within social psychology, and research designs often compare people who are excluded from those who are included. Here, we examined how participants differ when they are excluded or included relative to when they are not engaging in social interactions. Participants completed an ecological momentary assessment study (7 days, six measures a day). Participants indicated if they were having a social interaction, whether the interaction was inclusionary or exclusionary, and their mood and basic needs. We found that when people were excluded, relative to no interaction, they had lower basic needs and worsened mood; the reverse was true during inclusion episodes. We also found that the within-person effect of exclusion was larger than the within-person effect of inclusion and that exclusion experiences were relatively uncommon (≈10% of all reported social interactions). Future research and the importance of examining within-person effects are discussed.
Article
Ostracism has negative psychological and behavioral outcomes, thus making it crucial to better understand how these effects can be mitigated. Two experiments tested whether cultural values can moderate immediate as well as delayed reactions to ostracism in two populations with very different values concerning interactions with the opposite sex. The Ultra-Orthodox population in Israel constitutes a specific subculture whose values differ considerably from those of secular Jews in Israel. In particular, Ultra-Orthodox Jews adhere to strict separation between genders, which is enforced by Ultra-Orthodox men. It was hypothesized that being ostracized by the opposite gender on a computer game would be less distressing in particular for Ultra-Orthodox men than for secular men and women who cultural values have no such prohibition. In both experiments, Jewish secular and Ultra-Orthodox men and women played Cyberball, a virtual ball-toss game against two ostensible players (half same gender, half opposite, but all with their in-groups). The findings showed that whereas secular men and women were more distressed when ostracized by a member of the opposite sex, Ultra-Orthodox males reported lower distress on both the needs satisfaction and mood measures after they were ostracized by ostensible Ultra-Orthodox female players than when receiving fewer ball tosses from ostensible Ultra-Orthodox male players. It is argued that when cultural values provide a rationale for ostracism, this can eliminate ostracism distress. The discussion centers on ways cultural and other embedded values can mitigate the negative outcomes of ostracism.