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Relationship between athlete stress and burnout: a systematic review and meta-analysis
International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Abstract
Burnout is a negative consequence of stress and has received attention in sports research. On the basis of Smith’s [(1986). Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8(1), 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.8.1.36] cognitive–affective model of athlete burnout, we conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis to quantify the correlation between athlete stress and burnout. After searching academic databases for the 2001–2021 period, we selected 48 empirical studies for analysis, of which 44 used the Athletes Burnout Questionnaire with a three-dimension model to measure athlete burnout. The athlete stress measurement tools were considerably diverse, including the Perceived Stress Scale, the College Student-Athletes’ Life Stress Scale, and the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes. The meta-analysis results confirmed the stress–burnout correlation, yielding an overall effect size of 0.505. The r values for the correlation of athlete stress with overall burnout and the three dimensions of burnout ranged from 0.402–0.532. The correlation between stress and a reduced sense of accomplishment was highest among participants of all ages and competitive levels. Furthermore, the correlation between stress and devaluation of sports participation was relatively low in all groups. The results revealed differences in the stress–burnout correlation in different age groups. However, most of the included studies used student-athletes as research samples, which highlights the need for further research exploring the continuity of and change in the stress–burnout correlation across athletes’ lives. The implications of the results are discussed herein.
... In highly competitive settings, such as the Olympic Games, World Championships, and professional tournaments, competitors experience multiple stressors, including training adjustment, logistic adaptation, social expectations, media relations, interpersonal competitions/conflicts, and organizational demands (Fletcher & Arnold, 2016). Athletic stress, an inevitable part of competitive sports, can lead to injuries as well as negative consequences such as burnout (Lin et al., 2022), physical illness (Humphrey et al., 2000), depression (Nixdorf et al., 2020), and decreased performance (Nippert & Smith, 2008). Thus, it is imperative to examine how stress may influence sport injury. ...
... Further, since competitive sports have unique cultures with embedded diverse stressors that include team and culture, selection, logistics and operations, and coaching (Arnold et al., 2013) as well as burnout (Lin et al., 2022), substance abuse (de Grace et al., 2017), and mental health concerns (Rice et al., 2016), practitioners, coaches, and sports professionals must manage athletes' stressors to help athletes train and compete in a safe and protective environment. ...
... Regarding our discovery that the ES for the stress history/sport injury relationship was larger for adults than for adolescents, Lin et al. (2022) drew similar conclusions from their systematic review and meta-analysis comparing athletes' stress and burnout. They too found that older athletes (age 19-22) had a higher ES in this in this relationship than did adolescent athletes (age 13-18). ...
A history of stressors in athletes represents psychosocial factors that may lead to sport injury. However, empirical studies have provided varying results for the relationship between stress history and sport injury. We examined prior literature on the stress history - sport injury relationship within a systematic review and, by meta-analysis, we offered a pooled estimate of the strength of this relationship. We searched seven major academic databases (Sportdiscus, Psyinfo, Academic Search Premier, Ovid, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed) from January 2000 to September 2023 and identified 19 empirical studies that examined injuries in sports contexts for meta-analysis. In 19 empirical studies of moderate to high publication quality, we found moderate heterogeneity (Q(17) = 98.61; p < .001), low sensitivity (I² 77.82–83.77), and low publication bias (Z-value = 7.74; p < .001). Further, using a random effect estimate-r, we found a low but significant correlation between stress history and sport injury, yielding a small overall effect size (ES) of r = .12. Furthermore, moderation analyses found adolescents (r = .14), contact-sport athletes (r = .09), non-elite athletes (r = .13), and non-European athletes (America r = .16; Asia r = .14; Oceania r = .14) to have a relatively higher ES than their counterparts in this stress history/sport injury relationship. We concluded that inevitable life stressors may lead to many negative consequences for athletes, such that sports professionals should provide stress management educational programs to enhance athletes’ health and well-being.
... Our study found a significant effect of academic adaptability on learning burnout. This is consistent with the conclusion reached by Chen and Lu (64). They find that students who are more adaptive in their learning experience more psychological adjustment in the process of completing their learning Academic adaptability −0.715*** −33.792 ...
... Students are able to positively adapt to the demands of the learning environment, stimulate their maximum learning potential, and are more likely to achieve high levels of achievement and satisfaction through their hard work. This makes them less likely to feel irritability, anxiety, fatigue and other aspects of learning burnout, and they can adjust in time even if their learning status fluctuates (64). Moreover, they are able to actively develop solutions for adverse situations. ...
... There have been many studies related to the negative effects caused by smartphone dependence (14,74,75), which have explored the relationship between smartphone dependence and sleep and academic performance (30), shyness (76), self-esteem (77), and cognitive absorption and social networking services (78). Some other studies focus on academic adaptability and learning burnout (27,64), self-efficacy and academic adaptability (41,79,80) and selfefficacy and learning burnout (26, 69). The correlation between smartphone dependence and learning burnout among university students have also been highlighted (28,29,81). ...
Introduction
Smartphone dependence is closely related to the physical and mental health development of undergraduates and their learning. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between smartphone dependence, academic adaptability, self-efficacy and learning burnout among undergraduates and its underlying mechanisms.
Methods
The study was conducted on 2,110 undergraduates using the Smartphone Dependence Scale, the Undergraduates Learning Adjustment Scale, the Learning Burnout Undergraduates Scale and the Self-Efficacy Scale to develop a mediation model and a moderation model.
Results
The findings of this study revealed that (1) smartphone dependence significantly negatively predicted academic adaptability; (2) academic adaptability significantly negatively predicted learning burnout; (3) smartphone dependence significantly positively predicted learning burnout; (4) academic adaptability partially mediated the effect of smartphone dependence on learning burnout; (5) self-efficacy played a moderating role in the effect of academic adaptability on learning burnout.
Conclusion
These findings can help researchers and educators better understand the underlying mechanisms between smartphone dependence and learning burnout in undergraduates.
... Importantly, existing research has provided some support for each of these perspectives of burnout. For example, the conceptualization of burnout as a response to chronic stress has been supported by the consistent positive correlation between athlete burnout and stress identified in the literature to-date (e.g., Lin et al., 2021). Considering the motivation perspective, existing literature supports the proposed impact of motivational regulation and climate on burnout, with intrinsic motivation consistently negatively related to burnout, and EO climate and amotivated regulation associated with higher levels of burnout, both when tested in isolation (e.g., Reinboth & Duda, 2004;Vitali et al., 2015), and as an integrated AGT-SDT model (e.g., Russell, 2021). ...
... In addition, meta-analyses of the existing literature suggest that motivational regulations are more strongly associated with feelings of RSA and SD than PEE (Bicalho & Costa, 2018;Li et al., 2013), while Vitali et al. (2015) similarly found that EO climate predicted feelings of RSA and SD 6 months later but not PEE. Finally, focusing on the relationship between stress and burnout, a recent meta-analysis (Lin et al., 2021) suggests that stress is most strongly associated with RSA, followed by PEE and then SD. As such, it is possible that considering multiple perspectives of burnout may provide greater insight into the different dimensions of burnout. ...
... Higher total scores on the PSS-10 are indicative of higher levels of perceived stress (Cohen & Williamson, 1988). Existing research has found PSS-10 to be a valid and reliable measure (Cronbach's alpha >.70) of perceived stress in adults ( Barbosa-Leiker et al., 2013), and it is commonly used with athletes (Lin et al., 2021). ...
Burnout, characterized by exhaustion, reduced accomplishment, and devaluation, can have substantial negative implications for athletes. Notably, researchers continue to examine burnout from multiple perspectives, commonly focusing on stress-, motivation-, or commitment-related factors, with limited efforts to consider these perspectives together. In contrast, this study aimed to assess the utility of these multiple perspectives and the key predictors of burnout in the same athlete sample. Data on burnout, stress, motivation, motivational climate, and sport commitment were gathered from 370 Gaelic games athletes. Separate structural equation models incorporating stress, motivation, and commitment factors as predictors of burnout dimensions were assessed. All models showed adequate fit. However, differences in effect size suggest that stress is more strongly associated with exhaustion, while commitment and motivation showed a stronger relationship with reduced accomplishment and devaluation. Evidence of significant predictors across perspectives also supports an integrated approach and may inform integration efforts and targeted intervention strategies.
... Pacewicz and colleagues' (2019) meta-analysis centred on social constructs associated with burnout, including social support, relatedness and negative social interactions. Finally, the most recent review and meta-analysis by Lin et al. (2021) specifically examined the relationship between burnout and stress. The correlates of burnout identified across these reviews include training load, coping with adversity, responses to training and recovery, the role of significant others, identity (Goodger et al., 2007), the satisfaction/ thwarting of psychological needs (Bicalho & Costa, 2018;Li et al., 2013), motivation (Goodger et al., 2007;Bicalho & Costa, 2018), social support, relatedness, negative social interactions (Pacewicz et al., 2019) and athlete stress (Lin et al., 2021). ...
... Finally, the most recent review and meta-analysis by Lin et al. (2021) specifically examined the relationship between burnout and stress. The correlates of burnout identified across these reviews include training load, coping with adversity, responses to training and recovery, the role of significant others, identity (Goodger et al., 2007), the satisfaction/ thwarting of psychological needs (Bicalho & Costa, 2018;Li et al., 2013), motivation (Goodger et al., 2007;Bicalho & Costa, 2018), social support, relatedness, negative social interactions (Pacewicz et al., 2019) and athlete stress (Lin et al., 2021). However, the relatively narrow focus of the four most recent reviews of the literature (Bicalho & Costa, 2018;Li et al., 2013;Lin et al., 2021;Pacewicz et al., 2019) on specific psychological (e.g. ...
... The correlates of burnout identified across these reviews include training load, coping with adversity, responses to training and recovery, the role of significant others, identity (Goodger et al., 2007), the satisfaction/ thwarting of psychological needs (Bicalho & Costa, 2018;Li et al., 2013), motivation (Goodger et al., 2007;Bicalho & Costa, 2018), social support, relatedness, negative social interactions (Pacewicz et al., 2019) and athlete stress (Lin et al., 2021). However, the relatively narrow focus of the four most recent reviews of the literature (Bicalho & Costa, 2018;Li et al., 2013;Lin et al., 2021;Pacewicz et al., 2019) on specific psychological (e.g. stress, motivation) and social constructs, may inadvertently have led to the exclusion of, for example, research examining situational or demographic variables, or variables associated with other theoretical perspectives such as commitment. ...
Athlete burnout is a psychological syndrome with substantial negative consequences, including depression and sport dropout. It has been linked to a range of factors, some of which may vary across different sport-types. This review is the first to synthesise variables examined in relation to burnout in team-sports specifically. An online search of seven relevant databases yielded 59 papers examining 123 burnout correlates. Eligible papers were peer-reviewed, quantitative empirical studies, which assessed burnout using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. Results are reported in-line with PRISMA guidelines. Weighted meta-analysis (WMA) assessed the strength of the relationship between burnout dimensions and 18 variables examined across ≥3 samples. A narrative synthesis of the remaining cross-sectional, longitudinal and mediating/moderating relationships provides a comprehensive overview of the literature. Burnout displayed a negative relationship with autonomy, competence, relatedness, self-determined motivation, positive affect, autonomy supportive coach, harmonious passion, self-oriented perfectionism and social support, and a positive relationship with amotivation, negative affect, obsessive passion, socially-prescribed perfectionism, ego-involving climate, playing experience and controlling coach style in the WMA. Some variability in relationships was identified across the dimensions of burnout. The results highlight the key factors associated with the dimension of burnout in team sports, which may inform targeted intervention strategies.
... Sport participation commonly increases exposure to stressful stimuli (Lin et al., 2021). Stress represents a negative experience that, over time, may lead to detrimental consequences such as athlete burnout (Smith, 1986). ...
... Research has sought to test the efficacy of the ideas proposed by Smith (1986). Most notably, Lin et al. (2021) recently published a systematic review and meta-analysis summarising research that had examined the relationship between stress and athlete burnout. Across 48 studies (including 12,303 athletes), they found significant stress-athlete burnout correlations with an overall positive medium effect size. ...
... The present study aims to build on Avanzi et al's (2018) findings by examining whether team identification predicts athlete burnout through a serial mediation of perceived support and stress in athletes. As most of the current literature relies on cross-sectional designs (see Lin et al, 2021), we employed a two-wave longitudinal design. Longitudinal designs are better suited for mediation models as these assume a temporal link (Schoemann et al., 2017). ...
Sport participation is associated with exposure to high-stress environments that can lead to the development of athlete burnout. Researchers have, therefore, shown great interest in identifying relevant coping resources. While perceived support has been shown to act as such a coping resource, its effectiveness is likely influenced by other social factors. Following the social identity approach, team identification and stress may be relevant factors. Thus, the present study employed a two-wave longitudinal design to test whether team identification predicts athlete burnout through a serial mediation of perceived support and stress. Online surveys were used to assess team identification, perceived support, stress, and athlete burnout in 176 athletes (Time 1) and 95 athletes (Time 2). Path analyses indicated that team identification did not predict athlete burnout directly or indirectly. However, perceived support significantly and negatively predicted athlete burnout via stress. The results suggest that perceived support may reduce stress, and in turn reduce the risk of athlete burnout development in athletes, but the effects of team identification may occur via alternative pathways.
... As such, many players will be de-selected and not offered a professional contract. Experiencing chronic stressors, such as those encountered by the players in Reeves et al. (2011b), can lead to burnout (Lin et al., 2021), which is linked to poorer well-being (Madigan et al., 2019). Given the importance of coping for both sporting performance (e.g., Nicholls et al., 2016a) and well-being (e.g., Nicholls et al., 2016b), understanding more about the relationship between coping and athlete burnout, along with athlete burnout and well-being is warranted. ...
... As such, the imbalance between coping resources and the demands of sport can cause burnout. Support for Smith's model was recently provided by Lin et al. (2021) who conducted a systematic review . ...
... In support of theoretical predictions (i.e., Madigan et al., 2020) and research in non-sport settings (i.e., Veronese et al., 2022), we found that athlete burnout was negatively associated with well-being. Conceptually, this makes sense because athleteburnout is linked to stress (Lin et al., 2021), so when athletes are experiencing burnout symptoms, they have likely experienced high levels of stress over a prolonged period, and stress is itself associated with lower well-being (Nicholls et al., 2016b). Given these findings, more emphasis should be placed on reducing burnout in athletes. ...
Being a player with an F. A. Premier football academy is very prestigious for young players, but it can also be very stressful too. Coping with stress is particularly important given that one of the undesirable consequences linked to chronic stress is athlete burnout, which may also negatively impact psychological well-being. Understanding the most effective ways to cope with stress, therefore, is important for optimizing academy athlete education. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to examine whether coping predicted changes in athlete burnout, and whether athlete burnout predicted changes in well-being across 14 weeks of the competitive season. A sample of 26, under-18 and under-23, male F.A. Premier academy athletes completed weekly assessments of coping (task-, distraction-, and disengagement-oriented), athlete burnout, and psychological well-being on 14 separate occasions. The results of within-person analyses revealed that task-oriented coping predicted decreases in athlete burnout, which in turn predicted decreased well-being. Teaching high-level academy athletes task-oriented coping strategies may be useful in reducing athlete burnout, which may additionally protect athletes' well-being.
... Raedeke and Smith (2001) believed that prolonged monotonous training can lead to emotional and physical exhaustion in athletes, while excessively difficult goals can decrease athletes' sense of achievement. Additionally, high competitive pressure and low social support both significantly increase the level of athlete burnout (Lin et al., 2021;Martinez-Alvarado et al., 2021;Shang and Yang, 2021). The perspective that athlete burnout results from a combination of external and internal factors is gaining more attention (Zhang et al., 2006;Chen and Zhou, 2008). ...
... From a social science perspective, the social environment factors play a crucial role in the development of athlete burnout (Gould et al., 1996;Moen and Federici, 2017;Lin et al., 2021). The coach-athlete relationship, as a unique social environment, can create a comfortable social interactive environment in which individuals are less likely to experience athlete burnout in sports because mental needs are continuously satisfied. ...
Purpose
Athlete burnout is an adverse factor that usually decreases athletes' sports performance and reduces their passion for athletic career development. The present study examined the association of coach-athlete relationship, training satisfaction, and athlete burnout, and then explored the training satisfaction as a mediating role of the effect of coach-athlete relationship on athlete burnout among college soccer players.
Methods
Soccer players from seven Chinese higher education institutions were recruited for the study. The participants were selected using stratified random sampling and included 218 participants. The Coach-Athlete Relationship Scale, Training Satisfaction Scale, and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire were used to collect data from the participants. Pearson's product-moment correlation analysis, linear regression analysis, and bootstrap method were conducted to analyze the collected data set.
Results
The results showed that (1) there was a significant correlation between coach-athlete relationship, training satisfaction, and athlete burnout. (2) coach-athlete relationship and training satisfaction significantly negatively predicted athlete burnout (β = −0.39, p < 0.001; β = - 0.29, p < 0.001). (3) training satisfaction had a significantly mediating effect on the relationship between coach-athlete relationship and athlete burnout (β = −0.15, p < 0.001, ES = 0.28).
Conclusion
Coach-athlete relationship can not only directly negative impact athlete burnout but can also negatively influence athlete burnout through the mediating effect of training satisfaction. Therefore, we suggest the following to alleviate athlete burnout: on one hand, coaches can provide more communication opportunities for athletes to improve the coach-athlete relationship. On the other hand, teams can enhance training satisfaction by building team culture.
... Elite athletes have an increased risk of stress fractures and are also affected by common sport-related syndromes that impact their health, such as related energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) or the female athlete triad (Triad) (Duclos, 2020). Elite athletes are also frequently affected by mental health symptoms and disorders, such as depression and anxiety (Gouttebarge et al., 2019) eating disorders (Chapa et al., 2022) or stress and burnout (Lin et al., 2022). Some may even neglect their health to order to keep competing and engage in transgressive behaviours like doping (Nicholls et al., 2020). ...
... Thus, parents and coaches, who spend a lot of time with athletes, are considered to be those who directly impact them (Moreland et al., 2018). Moreover, elite athletes are subjected to a set of constraints that lead to specific risks such as injury (Sghir et al., 2021) anxiety, or burnout (Lin et al., 2022;Gouttebarge et al., 2019). The coach-athlete relationship is crucial for their well-being (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). ...
Elite athletes are continually subjected to a range of constraints specific to high performance, and these can have a negative impact on their health. Although many studies have explored the individual factors related to risky behaviours and disorders in elite sport contexts, few have focused on health promotion. Consequently, the interpersonal, institutional, and policy factors of the health-related behaviours of elite athletes are still poorly explored. Based on the socioecological model, this study aimed to identify the factors involved in the health-related lifestyle of elite athletes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 45 participants: athletes (N = 32), their coaches (N = 6) and the managers of elite sport centres (N = 7). Both deductive and inductive thematic analyses were performed. Our results highlight the views of the actors. Regarding intrapersonal factors, resilience qualities and health literacy appeared as key factors in influencing the health-related lifestyle of elite athletes. At the interpersonal level, parents and coaches emerged as the main sources of educational support. Regarding institutional factors, the health policies of the elite sport centres were key factors in supporting the athletes’ healthy lifestyle. These results encourage the development of health promotion programs at different levels of intervention.
... Specifically, Yang et al. [21] reported that in junior high school, lower grade's athletes had higher athlete burnout than higher grade's athletes. As for training experience, studies suggested that athletes with different training experience exhibit different levels of burnout [22][23][24][25]. For example, Yang et al. [23] pointed out that female college baseball players with greater training experience had higher burnout. ...
... The correlation coefficients of athlete stress with overall burnout and the three dimensions of burnout ranged from 0.40-0.53. A study from Hamlin [43] investigated 182 young (18)(19)(20)(21)(22) elite student-athletes' stress levels. The study collected the elite athletes' mood state, energy level, academic stress, sleep quality/quantity, muscle soreness, training load, injury, and illness over a 4-year period. ...
Previous studies suggested that athletes’ psychological capital level is related to life stress and burnout. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the influences of university baseball athletes’ psychological capital on their life stress and burnout and provide practical suggestions for athletes and coaches to reduce their life stress and burnout. In this study, we used athletes’ control variables (grade, year of training experience, and training days per week) and psychological capital (self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience) to predict their life stress and burnout. A total of 428 division I baseball athletes from 16 teams of the national college baseball sports league in Taiwan participated in this survey, with a return rate of 89.2%. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to test the relationships among the above-mentioned variables. The results showed that the athletes demographics such as grade (β = 0.03, p > 0.05) and years of baseball training experience (β = 0.00, p > 0.05) had no significant influences on athlete burnout, while the days of baseball training per week (β = 0.32, p < 0.05) had a positive influence on athlete burnout. As for psychological capital, self-efficacy (β = −0.09, p < 0.05), hope (β = −0.27, p < 0.05), and optimism (β = −0.20, p < 0.05) had negative influences on life stress, while resilience (β = −0.07, p > 0.05) had no significant influences on life stress. Hope (β = −0.20, p < 0.05) had negative influences on athlete burnout, while self-efficacy (β = −0.00, p > 0.05), optimism (β = −0.06, p > 0.05), and resilience (β = −0.01, p > 0.05) had no significant influences on athlete burnout. Life stress (β = 0.52, p < 0.05) had significant influences on the burnout. Based on our research findings, suggestions were made to reduce the athletes’ life stress and athlete burnout.
... Negative consequences of athlete burnout 49 include reduced performance levels, dropout from sport, physical illness and depression (De 50 Francisco et al., 2016;Raedeke et al., 2002). Athlete burnout has been closely linked to sport 51 demands and stress, both in existing research (Lin et al., 2021) and theoretically. For 52 example, Smith's (1986) cognitive-affective model posits that burnout occurs as a result of 53 prolonged periods of high sport-related stress, where-in athletes feel ill-equipped to face 54 demands associated with sport participation, while Gustafsson and colleagues (2011) also 55 specify both stress and training demands as antecedents of athlete burnout in their integrated 56 model. ...
... We ran three HMR analyses, one for each of the dimensions of burnout. In order to 254 partial out the impact of burnout BC-19 and perceived stress, which has been strongly 255 associated with burnout(Lin et al., 2021), the burnout dimension score BC-19 and PSS-10 256 score AC-19S were included in step 1 in each HMR. The following variables were included 257 at step 2; (1) perceived negative impact of the suspension period, (2) perceived positive 258 impact of the suspension period, (3) extent to which the period was viewed as an opportunity 259 ...
The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in social-distancing measures and the suspension of organised sport globally, and has been shown to have negatively impacted mental health. However, athletes may have experienced reprieve from sport demands, which have previously been linked with maladaptive responses such as burnout and stress. The aims of this study were (1) compare levels of burnout and stress reported by Gaelic games athletes pre- and post-COVID-19 suspension period, (2) explore how athletes utilised and perceived this period and the return to sport, and (3) examine the implications of this for burnout. Participants completed an online questionnaire, which included the athlete burnout questionnaire, perceived stress scale, sport emotion questionnaire, demographic questions, weekly training hours, and other hours for sport (e.g. travel) before Covid-19 (BC-19) and after the Covid-19-induced suspension (AC-19). Questions relating to how athletes utilised (e.g. training focus) and perceived (positive/negative impact) the period were included AC-19. Data was compared across time-points and we explored predictors of burnout AC-19.Ninety-two athletes completed the questionnaire at both time-points. No significant differences in burnout or stress were identified, suggesting the suspension period did not significantly impact these variables. Burnout BC-19, stress AC-19, unpleasant emotions about returning to sport and using the period to rest/recover positively predicted burnout AC-19. Reduction in other hours across time-points and pleasant emotions about returning predicted lower burnout. Results suggest an athletes’ response to a suspension period and subsequent return to sport can impact feelings of burnout, and may have implications for future unanticipated change events.
... According to this model, the imbalance between the demands of a situation and the coping resources to deal with them can lead to stress. As noted in a recent meta-analysis and longitudinal studies, stress is one of the factors most strongly related to athlete burnout (Lin et al., 2022;Madigan et al., 2022;Nixdorf et al., 2020;Pires and Ugrinowitsch, 2021). Another theory discussed in this context is self-determination theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan, 1985). ...
Introduction
Prior research has shown that increasing training and competition loads, along with associated stressors, can negatively impact athletes’ mental health and contribute to burnout. While athlete burnout can be associated with various negative sports-related consequences, such as withdrawal from sports or injuries. Although most studies on athlete burnout employ cross-sectional designs, longitudinal approaches could provide valuable insights into athlete burnout changes over time and potential causal relationships between variables and burnout. Therefore, this study aims to systematically examine longitudinal design studies to offer a comprehensive methodological, conceptual, and practical overview of athlete burnout and its associated factors.
Methods
Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, this review explores what factors influence changes in burnout levels among athletes throughout a sports season. Therefore, studies were selected that examined athlete burnout across both genders, all age groups, and various sport types, using repeated measurements. Published articles from 2014 to 2024 were collected. Eligible studies were identified through three databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science.
Results
A total of 32 studies were analyzed. Quantitative mapping highlights study demographics, measurement approaches, and procedures, while qualitative mapping identifies 26 factors categorized as risk, protective, and factors influenced by burnout. The review highlights the use of tools like the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and identifies optimal data collection intervals for tracking burnout dynamics.
Conclusion
This scoping review offers insights into the multidimensional and nonlinear nature of athlete burnout, emphasizing its development through longitudinal studies and the importance of monitoring specific dimensions. The findings revealed various athlete burnout influencing personal and sport-environmental factors, including risk factors like perfectionistic concerns and negative social interaction, protective factors such as resilience-related skills and relatedness, and social support. The study emphasizes the importance of early detection and longitudinal monitoring to prevent burnout and mitigate its impact on athletes’ mental health and performance. Further research is needed to explore additional risk and protective factors to develop effective interventions aimed at reducing the risk of burnout in athletes.
... Nursing staff, as the frontline of healthcare services, often face significant work pressures such as high workloads, emotional distress, and demands of professional responsibilities. These conditions can lead to high burnout among nurses, which not only affects service quality but also increases the desire to leave the job (turnover intention) (Lin et al., 2022); (Bilahmar et al., 2023). Other factors such as work engagement and job security also affect employee turnover intention (Abdat et al., 2020); (Wang et al., 2020). ...
High labour turnover rates in the health care sector are a major concern for human resource management. This phenomenon has an impact on the quality of health services, the workload for the remaining staff, and the cost of recruiting and training employees, so it is necessary to understand the factors that cause it. Therefore, this quantitative study aims to analyze the influence of burnout, work engagement, and job security on turnover intention mediated by job satisfaction in nursing staff using a cross-sectional approach. Purposive sampling was used to select 129 health workers in a private hospital in Jakarta. Data collected through online questionnaires were analyzed using the PLS-SEM analysis method. The results showed that burnout has a positive and significant effect on turnover intention as indicated by the T-statistic value >1.96 and P-value <0.05, while work engagement, job security, and job satisfaction have no effect on turnover intention with a T-statistic value <1.96 and P-value>0.05. In addition, job satisfaction cannot mediate the relationship between burnout, work engagement, and job security. This finding has practical implications, namely that hospital management HR professionals must be able to overcome burnout conditions among clerical staff at XYZ Jakarta Hospital. This is because from the results of this study, burnout is proven to be one of the factors that can affect the high and low turnover intention among nursing staff.
... Although some studies show that sleep patterns were modified during the pandemic (Jurecka et al., 2021;Romdhani et al., 2023), our findings corroborate studies in which the assessment during confinement was positive (Keemss et al., 2022). The changes in sleep observed seem to reflect the athletes' adaptation to this period, with greater flexibility in rest times and the possibility of using personal coping techniques, which may have contributed to better adaptation to confinement (Lin et al., 2017(Lin et al., , 2022Ivarsson et al., 2020;Bernabe-Valero et al., 2021). ...
Objective
To analyze the anxiety levels and sleep quality of elite soccer athletes in training pre-pandemic and during the lockdown caused by COVID-19.
Method
This is an exploratory study with a longitudinal design carried out with elite soccer athletes from two Brazilian soccer clubs. Data collection took place in person pre-pandemic (training) and online (during lockdown) between February and May 2020. The instruments used to assess sleep, daytime sleepiness, and anxiety were the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Epworth Daytime Sleepiness Scale-(ESS-BR), and Competitive Anxiety Scale (SCAT). For data analysis, descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, maximum and minimum) and non-parametric inferential statistics were used, establishing a significance of p < 0.05.
Results
In total, 76 male soccer athletes participated in the study. A significant increase was observed in anxiety levels in confinement compared to pre-pandemic training (p = 0.017; g = 0.83), and sleepiness significantly reduced in training compared to baseline levels (p = 0.007; g = 0.48). The athletes demonstrated good sleep quality and the pandemic did not significantly alter daytime sleepiness compared to training and baseline.
Conclusion
From the results it can be concluded that elite soccer athletes presented alterations in anxiety levels compared to training during confinement, however, no effects of confinement were observed on sleep quality and sleepiness. New studies are needed to analyze the long-term consequences of the pandemic and the relationships between anxiety and sleep in training and competition in athletes.
... The observed negative and significant association between burnout and the OR underscores the intricate interplay between these constructs. Previous research in the field of sports psychology has consistently demonstrated that burnout can compromise athletes' ability to effectively recover from the physical and psychological demands of training and competition [53]. The reciprocal relationship suggests a vicious cycle, wherein heightened burnout symptoms impede the recuperative process, potentially leading to prolonged fatigue, decreased performance, and increased susceptibility to further stressors [54]. ...
The aims of this study were: (a) to explore the relationships between adaptive defense mechanisms (ADMs), maladaptive defense mechanisms (MADMs), stress, recovery, resilience, and sport burnout; and (b) to examine resilience, stress, and recovery as mediators of the relationship between defense mechanisms and burnout. One hundred and seventy-five athletes (M = 20.30 years, SD = 3.75) completed self-report questionnaires assessing defense mechanisms, resilience, stress, and recovery. Correlation analysis revealed that MADMs were positively associated with burnout, while ADMs had no significant link with burnout. Concerning mediation analysis, results showed a mediating effect of resilience in the relationship between ADMs and burnout. The findings also demonstrated a mediating effect of resilience and recovery in the relationship between MADMs and burnout. Our study highlighted that certain defenses categorized as adaptive might not be suitable in specific situations, thus underscoring the influence of mediating variables. The findings of mediation analysis demonstrated that resilience appears to serve as a particularly protective factor against burnout. On the contrary, MADMs would have a deleterious influence in the management of stress, which could lead to burnout. Coaches may consider fostering athletes' resilience in conjunction with ADMs and implementing targeted psychological exercises to reduce the use of MADMs.
... Athletes are subject to highly stressful environments with various physiological and psychological demands [6]. From a physiological perspective, athletes must manage high volumes of training both in terms of duration and intensity [7]. ...
Knowledge of anticipatory stress responses before sports competitions is limited, thus this study examined the relationship between anticipatory stress in terms of salivary cortisol secretion in athletes on the morning of a competition and a comparison baseline day. Thirty-seven athletes collected three saliva samples over a 45-min period post-awakening (0, 30 and 45 min). Anticipatory stress was expressed as Area Under the Curve compared to ground (AUCg; total cortisol secretion). There was no significant difference in AUCg between baseline and competition days. However, a mixed two-factor ANOVA with day and sport type (individual vs. team) revealed a significant main effect of sport type (p < 0.01) and a significant interaction (p = 0.001). Individual athletes demonstrated increased AUCg on competition day compared to baseline, while team athletes demonstrated decreased AUCg on competition day compared to baseline. This blunting response was also observed when analysing the raw cortisol secretion levels upon awakening. These findings suggest there may be substantive differences in anticipatory stress between individual and team sport athletes.
... The positive correlations between athlete burnout and various dimensions with mental health indicators, in line with previous findings (r = 0.402-0.532) (Lin et al., 2022), were found to be relatively stronger in this study (r = 0.53-0.66). The highest correlation was observed between the physical/emotional exhaustion dimension and perceived stress, whereas previous research had identified a stronger connection between the reduced sense of accomplishment dimension and perceived stress (Lee et al., 2017). ...
Background
This study aims to explore the relationship and influencing pathways between mental health indicators and athlete burnout among Chinese competitive athletes.
Methods
A cross-sectional study was conducted on 501 elite Chinese athletes from several national and provincial sports teams. Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) was used to measure anxiety, Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ- 9) was used to measure depression, Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire (APSQ) was used to measure perceived stress, and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) was used to measure burnout. The results were derived using reliability testing, descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and structural equation modeling.
Results
The following results were obtained: (a) the clinical detection rates of anxiety and depression in this sample were within normal levels, but the detection rate of perceived stress (78.64%) was relatively high; (b) all three mental health indicators were significantly correlated with athlete burnout; (c) in our model, there was a direct path with APSQ directly contributing to 69.95% of the variance in athlete burnout, and two indirect paths with APSQ exerting an indirect effect through depression or/and anxiety accounting for 30.05% of the variance.
Conclusion
The findings revealed the psychological characteristics of Chinese competitive athletes and the direct and indirect effects of the APSQ on burnout. Future research should actively promote the international development and application of burnout assessment tools, conduct more comprehensive studies on athlete mental health monitoring, and intensify efforts in athlete education, treatment, and support services, as well as strategies for athlete’s coping stress.
... Por lo tanto, en el ámbito deportivo existe un conjunto de variables que afectan al deportista y que por su amplitud, dificulta el control para la intervención y prevención del burnout. Recientemente, Lin et al. (2022) y Woods et al. (2022 han señalado nuevas necesidades investigadoras cuando se trata de analizar el burnout en deportistas, destacando aspectos novedosos como el optimismo y la resiliencia como variables protectoras en el desarrollo del burnout. ...
... This makes the participant's focus and execution not ideal so it can cause effects, for example, not having enthusiasm. to compete ((Reynoso-Sánchez et al., 2021), (Lin et al., 2022)). Stress can occur in all types of sports, especially karate. ...
This research aims to analyze in depth the stress management abilities of karate athletes in West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. This type of research is quantitative descriptive research, with a survey approach. The sample for this research was 30 male karate athletes who were undergoing PELATDA (Regional Training) and would be prepared to participate in the national karate championship in Indonesia. Athlete characteristics: age 18.01±3.2 years, training experience 10.46±0.5 years, age at first competition 11.87±5.9 years, number of competition involvement in one year 3 – 5 competitions. The instrument used in this research was a questionnaire prepared using a Likert scale. There are four dimensions in this instrument, namely the competition dimension, emotional dimension, substantial dimension and mental dimension. Data analysis was descriptive using a percentage formula, then grouped into four categories. The results of this study were 11 athletes (36%) had 'very high' stress, 5 athletes (19%) had 'high' stress, 6 athletes (21%) had 'low' stress 8 athletes (24%) had 'very low' stress'. This conclusion is that stress is a psychological condition that must be managed well by athletes. Because stress can affect an athlete's performance directly or indirectly. Practical ways to manage stress are positive thinking, taking special time for yourself, relaxation, and mental exercise. This research hopes to provide in-depth insight and information on the importance of managing stress in athletes in all types of sports.
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... Accordingly, findings support the role of personality, motivation and emotion that may predict athlete burnout (e.g., athletic identity, perfectionistic concerns, negative affect, trait anxiety, ego goal involvement) or protect from burnout (e.g., intrinsic motivation, perceived control, optimism, mindfulness) (Eklund and DeFreese, 2020;Goodger et al., 2007;Gustafsson et al., 2018aGustafsson et al., , 2018b. Moreover, chronic stress and maladaptive coping strategies have been found to be central antecedents of burnout in athletes (Eklund and DeFreese, 2020;Lin et al., 2022). In this respect, psychological burnout research has often focused on the individual. ...
Drawing on theories from the sociology of work and organizations, such as Leiter and Maslach's concept of burnout and Siegrist's model of effort–reward imbalance, this paper argues that burnout symptoms in elite sport are related to a mismatch of investment and gratification. Building on data from a sample of German elite athletes ( N = 312), findings show that high time investments for training and competitions, the experience of time and role conflicts and negative emotions related to daily training are associated with more burnout symptoms, while sporting success, social support and training-related positive emotions are associated with lower burnout scores. Vulnerability to burnout is increased in situations that qualify as gratification crises, in which athletes perceive that high time commitment does not pay off in terms of sporting success.
... Perceived stress among elite athletes has received considerable interest recently (Johnston, Roskowski, He, Kong, & Chen, 2021;Lin, Lu, Chen, & Hsu, 2022;Wahl, Gnacinski, Nai, & Meyer, 2020), not least because participation in high-performance sport and its prevailing demands have frequently been linked to detrimental consequences on athletes' well-being (Arnold & Fletcher, 2021;Madigan, Rumbold, Gerber, & Nicholls, 2020). Coping successfully with these demands and paving the way to athletic excellence is not only an important task for the individual athlete but also for the surrounding support system (e.g., federations, coaches, peers, and family). ...
Previous research has demonstrated that psychosocial resources are associated with elite athletes’ perceived stress. However, these resources have mainly been studied separately. Using a person-oriented approach, this study aimed to identify meaningful profiles of athletes’ psychosocial resources, their stability over time, and their relationship with perceived stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. To identify such patterns, separate latent profile analyses (LPA) at two measurement points T1 (June 2020) and T2 (March 2021) and a subsequent latent transition analysis (LTA) were conducted with athletic identity, resilience, perceived social support, and self- esteem for a sample of 373 Swiss elite athletes. Perceived stress was analyzed at and between T1 and T2 with a mixed-design ANOVA. For LPA, theoretical considerations and statistical criteria led to a solution of four profiles: (1) Athletic Identifiers With Above-Average Resources (nT1 =235; nT2 =240), (2) Below-Average Athletic Identifiers With Below-Average Resources (nT1 =84; nT2 =90), (3) Variable Athletic Identifiers With Below-Average Internal and Clearly Below-Average External Resources (nT1 =14; nT2 =7), and (4) Athletic Identifiers With Below- Average Internal and Above-Average External Resources (nT1 =40; nT2 =36). For LTA, both structural and individual stability was demonstrated. A large and significant main effect of perceived stress was observed for resource profiles, while there was no significant main effect for measurement point nor interaction effect. Direct comparisons revealed that Athletic Identifiers With Above-Average Resources perceived significantly less stress than the other profiles at both time points. In conclusion, regardless of psychosocial resource profile, the perceived stress of elite athletes was stable during the COVID-19 pandemic, but exhibiting a pattern with high psychosocial resources seems to buffer against stress compared to a lack of specific resources. Therefore, sport federations and practitioners should provide tailored support programs to help athletes build all these resources.
... Raedeke and Smith [10] believed that prolonged monotonous training can lead to emotional and physical exhaustion in athletes, while excessively high goal setting can decrease athletes' sense of achievement. Additionally, high competitive pressure and low social support both signi cantly increase the level of athlete burnout [11][12] [13] . Currently, the perspective that athlete burnout results from a combination of external and internal factors is gaining more attention [14] [15] . ...
Purpose: Athlete burnout is an essential adverse factor that usually decreases athletes’ sports performance and reduces their passion for entire athletic career development. The present study examined the association of coach-athlete relationship, training satisfaction, and athlete burnout, and then explored the training satisfaction as a mediating role of the effect of coach-athlete relationship on athlete burnout among college soccer players.
Methods: Two hundred and eighteen college soccer players who came from seven Chinese higher education institutions participated in this study. The Coach-Athlete Relationship Scale, Training Satisfaction Scale, and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire were used to measure the basic information of participants respectively. Pearson’s product-moment correlation analysis, linear regression analysis, and bootstrap method were conducted to analyze the collected data set.
Results: The results showed that 1) there was a significant correlation relationship between coach-athlete relationship, training satisfaction, and athlete burnout. 2) emotion, behavior, and cognition in coach-athlete relationship significantly negatively affected emotional/ physical exhaustion and sport devaluation in athlete burnout; emotion and behavior in coach-athlete relationship significantly negatively affected reduced athletic accomplishment in athlete burnout; emotion and behavior in coach-athlete relationship significantly positively affected training satisfaction; training satisfaction significantly negatively affected emotional/ physical exhaustion, reduced athletic accomplishment, and sport devaluation in athlete burnout. 3) training satisfaction has a significantly mediating effect on the relationship between coach-athlete relationship and athlete burnout.
Conclusion: Emotion and behavior in coach-athlete relationship can not only directly negative impact on athlete burnout but can also negatively influence athlete burnout through the mediating effect of training satisfaction. Therefore. We suggest that to mitigate athlete burnout, coaches should ensure timely communication with collegiate athletes during training, and collegiate athletes should incorporate mental training techniques into their routines.
... Those stressors rooted in their developmental process might harm athlete's wellbeing Rose et al., 2023). For example, Lin et al. (2022) conducted an systematic review and meta-analysis indicated stress-burnout correlation, yielding an overall effect size of 0.505. In their conceptual model for athletic injury, besides, Kalkhoven et al. (2020) also indicated immediate and repetitive stress and strain closely related to athlete various types of injury. ...
For athletes facing high levels of pressure and experiencing significant psychological and physical demands, mere adaptation to the pressure is insufficient. They must also possess psychological resilience, which entails the ability to rebound from stressful conditions or even surpass their previous performance levels. Previous research has indicated that receiving unilateral positive support is one of the factors contributing to psychological resilience. Therefore, the objective of this study is to examine the relationship between athlete gratitude and psychological resilience. Gratitude is considered a relational, reciprocal, and prosocial construct that aligns well with the interdependence inherent in the sports context. This research focuses on both the environmental and individual levels of gratitude, drawing on the multilevel model of gratitude framework. The study investigates how the grateful climate, representing environmental gratitude, influences athletes’ psychological resilience through individual gratitude. A longitudinal survey method was employed, involving a total of 289 high school student-athletes from 49 teams who participated in a five-wave survey conducted over a three-year period. The results indicate a significant influence of the grateful climate on changes in athletes’ psychological resilience. This influence operates through individual gratitude, which acts as a mediating factor in predicting changes in psychological resilience. The findings of this study can provide practical guidance for human resource managers and educators by highlighting the importance of fostering gratitude at both the individual and environmental levels to enhance athletes’ psychological resilience.
... The next research (Pacewicz et al., 2019) suggest that social construction influences burnout, including social support, negative social interactions, and connectedness. And finally, a meta-analysis written (Lin et al., 2022) specifically states that stress is related to burnout. ...
Researchers have found that the maladaptive experience of exercise called burnout is a determining factor in athletes' athletic development and performance. To reduce or mitigate the burnout phenomenon, research examines the relationship between social support provided by teammates and athlete burnout in futsal players. This research is expected to find aspects of social support that have the greatest role in preventing athletes' burnout experiences. This type of research is descriptive correlation. The sample used was 20 UKM Futsal UPI athletes who had participated in national competitions. Social support was measured using the Social Provisions Scale and adapted to refer specifically to teammates as a source of support and athlete burnout was measured using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. Based on the research results, it found that social support and burnout had a correlation coefficient of -0.490 with a Sig value. of 0.028. This means that there is a negative correlation between social support and burnout in futsal athletes. And based on the regression test carried out, the attachment aspect of social support is the most dominant aspect in preventing burnout in futsal athletes.
... Although the studies included in this review have investigated important psychological variables that contribute to the field of Paralympic sport psychology, athletes with disabilities, and professionals involved with Paralympic sport or adapted sport. No studies have analyzed a possible association between burnout and coping in athletes with disabilities, although we can affirm that the achievements in high-performance sports require long-term exposure to challenges, arduous training days, and stressful situations, which may cause burnout (Lin et al., 2021). Coping is any mechanism for managing stress (Poulus et al., 2021) and predicting the symptoms of burnout (da Silva et al., 2021). ...
This systematic review aimed to synthesize the literature on burnout and coping in athletes with disabilities and identify the psychological and physical variables associated with burnout and coping in this population. The present study was conducted in accordance with the updated PRISMA 2020 systematic review guidelines. The Scopus, PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO, SciELO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases were searched. Eight articles were included in the study. Five of them investigated coping, and three investigated burnout. Their sample sizes ranged between 10 and 209 athletes with a total of 588 from the eight studies. Burnout was associated with socially prescribed perfectionism and sleep, and coping was associated with self-determined motivation, engagement, anxiety, depression, performance, and classification. This is the first systematic review of burnout and coping in athletes with disabilities that provides an overview of the studies conducted. Scientific research on the psychological constructs of coping and burnout in athletes with disabilities is in an incipient phase. The results highlight the key factors associated with burnout and coping in this population, which may inform targeted intervention strategies.
... Moreover, this era is also notable for its focus on meta-analytic work. Metaanalytic studies have built on earlier systematic review efforts (Goodger et al., 2007) and systematically summarized key antecedents of burnout-through a collection of meta-analyses highlighting key burnout antecedents including motivation (Li et al., 2013), stress (Lin et al., 2022), perfectionism (Hill & Curran, 2016), and social factors (Pacewicz et al., 2019). And, most recently, work has sought to summarize possible consequences of burnout for athletes' health (Glandorf et al., 2023). ...
... Similarly, while a history of sport injury, insomnia, stress, being a female, and adverse life events have been shown to be risk factors of depression, factors such as sport satisfaction, support from inside and outside of sport, a starting status, and help-seeking intentions have been found to predict lower depression scores in elite athletes (Kuettel & Larsen, 2019;Kuettel et al., 2021;Perry et al., 2022;Tahtinen et al., 2021). Finally, higher levels of athlete burnout have been shown to be predicted by greater levels of stress, extrinsic motivation, perfectionism issues, and poor social interactions (Edison et al., 2021;Gustafsson et al., 2017;Lin et al., 2022). ...
The present research sought to examine the prevalence of elite youth athletes’ mental health and its relationship with talent development environments (TDEs). A sample of 248 Chinese elite youth athletes completed a self-report survey measuring demographic variables, TDE factors, and mental health outcomes
including generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), depression, and athlete burnout. The results revealed moderate levels of burnout, with 19% of the participants meeting the diagnostic cut-off of GAD, and similar numbers for depression. The multiple regression analysis revealed alignment of expectations was the only TDE factor to significantly predict GAD and depression. Holistic quality preparation was the only significant TDE predictor of burnout. The results of cluster analysis suggested a three-cluster solution:
cluster 1—“slightly below average TDE”, cluster 2—“high TDE”, and cluster 3—“very low TDE”. Among the three clusters, cluster 2 had the lowest levels of GAD, depression, and burnout. Cluster 3 reported a higher burnout level than cluster 1, and the two clusters showed no differences in other two mental health
outcomes. These findings suggest a need to manage mental health symptoms of elite youth athletes, and the roles of TDE could be considered in the management of mental health.
... Based on this definition, the authors also provided the first robust measure of burnout for athletesthe Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001)which recent reviews show is the most widely used for the quantification of burnout in athletes (e.g. Lin et al., 2021). ...
Burnout is a mental health problem that appears to be increasingly common among athletes. Importantly, burnout may also simultaneously increase the risk for other health consequences. In order to examine this idea further, in the present study we provide the first systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between athlete burnout and mental and physical health outcomes. A literature search returned 54 studies (N = 13,976 athletes) examining various negative (e.g. depression, anxiety, insomnia; 27 studies) and positive (e.g. satisfaction, vitality, quality of life; 19 studies) mental health outcomes and physical health outcomes (e.g. biomarkers, somatic symptoms, physiological indices; 18 studies). A systematic review of this literature showed that athlete burnout was associated with both increases in negative mental health outcomes and decreases in positive mental health outcomes. However, evidence for an association between athlete burnout and physical health outcomes was mixed. This broad pattern of findings was supported by a meta-analysis. Our review suggests that burnout may indeed have many negative implications for athletes’ health. The findings also identify a need for further research in this area, especially in relation to burnout and its longitudinal association with biomarkers and physiological indices.
... Studies have shown that the maladaptive profile of perfectionism (Yook and Shin, 2014;Olsson et al., 2022), low level of openness (Li et al., 2018;Garcia-Hernandez et al., 2020), low mental toughness (Wang et al., 2014;Guo et al., 2021), and other endogenous factors have significant positive correlations with athlete burnout. Exogenous factors found to significantly predict burnout include the pressure of sports competition (Yang, 2018;Lin et al., 2021), the pressure within sports organizations (Wu et al., 2021;Wu, 2022), and lack of social support (Lu et al., 2016;Martinez-Alvarado et al., 2021;Shang and Yang, 2021). In the context of China's competitive sports, athletes participate in intense training throughout the year and spend much time outside of training with teammates and coaches. ...
Introduction
Athlete burnout has many potential negative effects on athletes’ sporting performance and careers. Maintaining and promoting the coach–athlete relationship to meet athletes’ basic psychological needs is one way to reduce burnout. Existing studies of the correlation between coach-athlete relationships and athlete burnout have mainly focused on the coaches’ leadership style, with little attention given to relationship-maintenance strategies and the mechanism of athlete burnout from the athletes’ perspective.
Methods
Using an online survey of 256 adolescent athletes, we explore the relationship between relationship-maintenance strategies and athlete burnout, including the potential mediating effects of the coach–athlete relationship and basic psychological needs satisfaction.
Results
(1) Athletes’ relationship-maintenance strategies negatively predicted athlete burnout. (2) Besides the direct effect, we found evidence to support three mediation paths: (a) the coach–athlete relationship, (b) basic psychological needs satisfaction, and (c) both as serial mediators.
Discussion
These findings enhance understanding of the mechanism of athlete burnout, demonstrating the influence of factors beyond the coach’s role. The study also provides a theoretical basis for practical intervention by coaches, athletes, and sports organizations to reduce athlete burnout by focusing on athletes’ perspectives.
... Although the precise etiology of athlete burnout is uncertain, athletes' stress is associated with development of athlete burnout symptoms (Lin et al., 2021). Previous longitudinal research has found that raised levels of stress precede increases in athlete burnout (DeFreese and Smith, 2014). ...
The aim of the present study was to provide support for the validation of the Teammate Burnout Questionnaire (TBQ). Athletes from a variety of team sports (N = 290) completed the TBQ and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed acceptable fit indexes for the three-dimensional models (i.e., physical and emotional exhaustion, sport devaluation, reduced accomplishment) of the TBQ and the ABQ. Multi-trait multi-method analysis revealed that the TBQ and ABQ showed acceptable convergent and discriminant validity. The preliminary validation of the TBQ indicates the utility of the scale to reflect athletes’ perceptions of their teammates’ burnout and offers researchers the opportunity to quantitatively assess an important aspect of the social environment in the development of athlete burnout.
College athletes in higher education experience unique challenges due to dual pressures from their academic and athletic commitments, which may negatively affect their mental well-being. Social support is acknowledged as a protective factor that contributes to the mental well-being of college athletes. However, the mechanisms mediating this relationship remain largely unexplored. The Person-Environment (P-E) Fit Theory and Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT) provide theoretical insights into the mediating mechanisms that explain how contextual factors influence individual well-being. This study examines the independent and sequential mediating roles of P-E fit and basic needs satisfaction in the relationship between social support and subjective well-being among college athletes. Data were collected through cluster random sampling from 822 college athletes across Jiangsu and Yunnan Provinces, China, averaging 20.33 years of age, with 70.44% being male. Structural equation modeling was adopted to examine the hypothetical model. The results indicate that social support directly enhances subjective well-being. Both P-E fit and needs satisfaction partially mediate this relationship, with adjustments for demographic and sports-related variables. The results showed that college athletes’ subjective well-being was interpreted as 47.2% by the overall mode. This study advances the understanding of how social support impacts college athletes’ well-being through specific mechanisms and suggests methods to strengthen support systems in higher education.
Burnout has never been more relevant. This is especially the case for athletes, who train and compete under extreme and, it would appear, increasing levels of stress (e.g., Lopes Dos Santos et al., 2020). For example, the significant challenges and disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, such as training in quarantine, restricted access to facilities, and the uncertainty of rescheduled competitive seasons, may have drastically accelerated the risk that athletes will develop burnout (e.g., Spagnoli et al., 2021).Unsurprisingly, these issues pose a significant challenge for those working with athletes (e.g., Schinkeet al., 2020). As noted previously (e.g., Madigan et al., 2021), however, there is a limited evidence base in sport from which to make applied recommendations. Consequently, in this chapter, given the much larger body of evidence, we provide a review of research that has examined the efficacy of interventions in reducing burnout outside of sport. Based on the findings of this review, we provide suggestions for how practitioners might reduce burnout in athletes. But first we introduce athlete burnout. This includes providing a definition and description of burnout, details of how to measure burnout, models outlining the development of burnout, and an overview of the consequences of burnout for athletes, before moving on to our review.
Despite governing agencies and universities pursuing evidence-based initiatives to promote positive health and well-being outcomes, intercollegiate student-athletes report significant barriers to mental wellness. According to cognitive affective stress model, coping strategies may reduce the likelihood of chronic stress and athlete burnout. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between religious commitment, social support, and burnout among student-athletes at a religiously affiliated institution. Findings suggest both religious commitment and social support were significant predictors of athlete burnout. Interestingly though, religious commitment was positively associated with athlete burnout. Further investigation is required to examine the positive and negative nuances of religion on athlete burnout.
With the increasing prevalence of mental health difficulties in sport, athletes may be at greater risk of burnout than ever before. In the present study, we tested this possibility by examining whether average athlete burnout levels have changed over the past two decades, from 1997 to 2019. A literature search returned 91 studies (N = 21,012) and 396 effect sizes. Findings from cross-temporal meta-analysis suggested that burnout symptoms have increased over the past two decades. Specifically, we found that athletes' mean levels of reduced sense of athletic accomplishment and sport devaluation have increased. As burnout symptoms are now typically higher among athletes than in the past, we can expect more athletes to be prone to the negative effects of burnout. Sport is therefore in urgent need of prevention and intervention strategies to stop and reverse this trend.
Psychological science faces a call to action researching the implications of the corona virus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic. Rapid reviews have reported that maintaining rigorous research standards is a priority for the field, such as ensuring reliable and valid measurement, when investigating people’s experience of Covid-19 (O’Connor et al., 2020). However, no research to date has validated a measure mental health symptomology for an athlete population. The current research addresses this gap by examining the internal consistency, factor structure, invariance, and convergent validity of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995) in two athlete samples. Participants completed the DASS-21 and sport-specific measures of mental health such as the Profile of Mood States – Depression subscale (POMS-D), Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), and Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire (APSQ). In sample one (n = 894), results of exploratory structural equation modeling indicated that a three-factor model provided good fit to the data, but a bifactor model provided better fit. Factor loadings indicated minimal misspecification and higher loadings on the general-factor. Invariance testing suggested equivalence across gender, athletic expertise, sport type, and injury status. Further, latent mean differences analyses indicated that females and injured athletes scored higher than male and non-injured athletes on all DASS-21 factors reporting higher mental health symptomology, those with more expertise scored higher on the general-factor and depression and those with less expertise scored higher on anxiety and stress, and no differences between team and individual athletes. In sample two (n = 589), the bifactor structure was replicated. Results largely supported the scales convergent validity with depression predicting POMS-D scores, whereas all three subscales predicted the SAS-2, ABQ, and APSQ scores. Internal consistency was acceptable in both samples. The current work provides initial support for use of the DASS-21 as an operationalisation of mental health symptomology in athletes. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
There exists a strong need for research in clinical sport psychology which does not merely gather information on prevalence rates for psychological disorders and case studies of affected athletes. Rather, research should also uncover the underlying psychological variables which increase the risk for depression and burnout in elite athletes. Many studies gather general factors (e.g., gender, injury, sport discipline) and stay on a more descriptive level. Both constructs (burnout and depression) are based on a temporal, stress-related process model assuming the development of either syndrome results from unfavorable personal (e.g., dysfunctional attitudes, perfectionism, negative coping strategies) or environmental (e.g., cohesion) factors coexisting with severe stressors (i.e., chronic stress). Integrating this knowledge, we propose a shared model for depression and burnout in athletes: a sport specific diathesis-stress model. The present longitudinal study assesses data throughout one sporting season to analyze predictors for both constructs in junior elite athletes. Hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses resulted in six predictors for best model fit. The following factors demonstrated a significant impact on predicting (a) burnout or (b) depression scores at the end of the season: dysfunctional attitudes (a and b), coping strategies (a and b), perfectionism (a), recovery (b), stress (a) and the level of depression at onset (b). Variables such as cohesion or attributional style did not significantly predict depression or burnout. The study supports the structure of a process model (diathesis-stress model) for burnout and depression with the assumption of temporal progression. With some vulnerabilities and their temporal, developmental link identified, prevention can become athlete-specific, effective and economical.
In search of positive strengths that bolster athletes’ reaction to stress, the purpose of this study was to examine the moderating effects of athletic mental energy on the athletes’ life stress–burnout relationship. This study recruited two samples (Study 1 = 230; Study 2 = 159) and administered the College Student-Athlete’s Life Stress Scale (CSALSS; Lu et al., 2012), Athletic Mental Energy Scale (AMES; Lu et al., 2018), and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke and Smith, 2001). Two separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses found that the emotional and cognitive components of athletic mental energy moderated the athletes’ life stress–burnout relationship across the two studies. Results provided the initial evidence that athletic mental energy can be positive strengths in buffering the stress–burnout relationship. Theoretical implications, limitations, practical applications, and future research directions are discussed.
The main purpose of the current study was to examine how the coach-athlete working alliance, psychological resilience and perceived stress are uniquely associated with burnout among junior athletes in sport. A sample of 670 Norwegian junior athletes practicing a variety of sports participated in the study. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the bond dimension of the working alliance, the protective factors ‘planned future’ and ‘structured style’, as well as perceived stress, all contributed uniquely to the explanation of athlete burnout. A dominance analysis identified perceived stress to have the strongest relative influence on athlete burnout among the set of variables investigated in this study. The findings are discussed in terms of applied implications and possible future research.
Social support is an adaptive resource associated with lower levels of burnout in sport. The effects of social support on burnout have typically been demonstrated through (1) a main effects model (direct negative associations between social support and burnout) and (2) a stress-buffering model (social support buffering the negative effects of stress on burnout). While both models provide insights into functional adaptations to burnout and stress in sport, evidence for significant main and stress-buffering effects are inconsistent. Reasons for this is include: (1) testing of a singular perspective of support in empirical research, and (2) a lack of specificity when analyzing social support and burnout (e.g., adoption of global-level analyses). To address this, the purpose of the study was to test differing perspectives of social support (perceived availability of support and received support) in regards to the main and stress-buffering effects of dimensions of social support (emotional, esteem, informational, and tangible) on dimensions of burnout (reduced sense of accomplishment, devaluation, emotional and physical exhaustion). Cross-sectional data were collected from 222 athletes. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed that: (1) higher levels of stress were associated with higher levels of burnout (all dimensions); (2) higher levels of perceived availability of support were associated with lower levels of reduced sense of accomplishment and devaluation (with the exception of perceived availability of emotional support upon devaluation), and (3) perceived availability of emotional support buffered the negative effects of high stress upon devaluation. There were no significant main or interactive effects for any dimensions of received support. The significant interaction suggests that higher levels of perceived availability of emotional support may result in a functional adaptation to higher stress such that individuals may be protected from higher levels of devaluation of sport.
The current study investigated associations between cognitive components such as psychological resilience and perceived stress, and affective components such as positive and negative affect, and athlete burnout and perceived performance among 670 Norwegian junior athletes attending high schools specialized for sports. A hypothesized model of the relations between the constructs was analyzed by structural equation modeling (SEM). The results in the current study show that athlete resilience is a key in understanding athlete burnout and perceived performance, and that cognitive (perceived stress) and affective reactions (negative and positive affect) are important mediators in this process.
Although considerable research indicates that mental energy is an important factor in many domains, including athletic performance (Cook and Davis, 2006), athletic mental energy (AME) has never been conceptualized and measured. Therefore, the aim of this study was to conceptualize and develop a reliable and valid instrument to assess AME. In Study 1, a focus group interview established the initial framework of AME. Study 2 used a survey to collect athletes' experiences of AME and develop a scale draft titled “Athletic Mental Energy Scale (AMES).” In Study 3, we examined the psychometric properties and the underlying structure of AMES via item analysis, internal consistency, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA). In Study 4, we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine AMES's factorial validity; and examined concurrent and discriminant validity by examining correlations with athletes' life stress, positive state of mind, and burnout. In study 5, we examined the measurement invariance of the 6-factor, 18-item AMES with Taiwanese and Malaysian samples. Study 6 examined the predictive validity by comparing AMES scores of successful and unsuccessful martial artists. Across these phases, results showed a 6-factor, 18-item AMES had adequate content validity, factorial structure, nomological validity, discriminant validity, predictive validity, measurement invariance, and reliability. We suggest future studies may use AMES to examine its relationships with athletes' cognition, affect, and performance. The application of AMES in sport psychology was also discussed.
Background: Burnout has long been understood as work-related physical, emotional, and cognitive exhaustion. However, burnout symptoms can also be found among younger people, including school-aged adolescents. While the Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM) is a widely applied instrument, its psychometric properties have not yet been investigated in adolescent populations. We therefore examined the psychometric properties of the SMBM in three independent samples of adolescents.
Methods: In total, 249 high school students, 144 vocational students, and 257 adolescent elite athletes completed the SMBM, along with questionnaires related to perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. Descriptive statistics, gender differences, and internal consistency, convergent/discriminant validity, and factorial validity (including measurement invariance across genders) were examined in each sample.
Results: The SMBM had adequate internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that both a first- and second-order model achieve good model fit. Moreover, evidence for sufficient convergent and discriminant validity was found. Finally, in two of the three samples, female adolescents reported higher SMBM scores.
Conclusions: The SMBM has been widely used in international burnout research. However, this is the first study providing empirical evidence that the SMBM has acceptable psychometric properties and satisfactory convergent/discriminant and factorial validity among young people. The SMBM is a concise and economic tool to assess self-rated symptoms of burnout, and presents a valuable alternative to existing school burnout inventories. In particular, the SMBM can facilitate the investigation of the transition of young people from school to working life.
Objectives: Having psychometrically sound instruments is essential to the understanding of the determinants and consequences of athlete burnout. Therefore, this study examines the psychometric properties of a German version of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) and its usefulness as a screening tool for the detection of clinically relevant burnout symptoms.
Design: Prospective study.
Method: 257 young elite athletes were recruited from Swiss Olympic Sport Classes (37% females; M = 16.8 years, SD = 1.4). 197 students were assessed a second time after six months. All students filled in a standardized questionnaire about domain-specific and domain-unspecific burnout symptoms, depressive symptoms, stress, and life satisfaction.
Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure of the ABQ. Moreover, all subscales had acceptable internal consistency. Support was also found for the convergent validity of the ABQ; all subscales were positively correlated with perceived stress, burnout and depression, whereas negative correlations existed with life satisfaction. By contrast, some ABQ subscales shared only limited variance, the three ABQ subscales did not predict each other across time, and none of the ABQ subscales was suitable for the screening of clinically relevant burnout symptoms.
Conclusions: While the factor structure and internal consistency of the ABQ was supported, our study corroborates previous concerns about the psychometric properties and validity of the ABQ. While the ABQ has advanced research on athlete burnout, we hold that further debates about the most suitable way to assess burnout among elite athletes are urgently needed.
This study explored the implementation of a 90-minute “Attitude of Gratitude” workshop among 51 NCAA Division I student-athletes. Levels of state gratitude, psychological distress, life satisfaction, sport satisfaction, athlete burnout, and perceived available support in sport were measured the week before, immediately after, and 4-weeks post-intervention. Significant increases in well-being (state gratitude, sport satisfaction, social support) and significant decreases in ill-being (psychological distress, athlete burnout) were observed post-intervention. Results of this pilot study warrant further exploration of gratitude interventions in applied sport psychology. Limitations, practical implications, and recommendations for future research are discussed in light of the current findings.
Objectives: To examine in a sample of young elite athletes (a) the presence of clinically relevant symptoms of burnout and depression, and (b) a possible interaction of perceived stress and mental toughness in the prediction of burnout and depressive symptoms.
Design: 6-month prospective study.
Methods: A representative sample of 257 young elite athletes (M=16.82 years, SD=1.44, 36% females) was recruited in North-Western Switzerland. 197 athletes were followed-up across a 6-month period. Burnout was assessed with the Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM), and depression with the 9-item depression module of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Values of ≥4.40 (SMBM) and >14 (PHQ-9) were considered indicative of clinically relevant burnout or depression. Stress perceptions were assessed with the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and mental toughness with the Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to test stress-buffering effects.
Results: The percentage of athletes with clinically relevant levels of burnout and depressive symptoms was 12% and 9%, respectively. Both cross-sectional and prospective analyses showed that compared to participants with low mental toughness, those with higher mental toughness scores reported significantly fewer mental health issues, when exposed to high
stress. By contrast, when stress levels were low, mental toughness was unrelated to psychological health complaints.
Conclusions: About every tenth young elite athlete reported burnout or depressive symptoms of potential clinical relevance. While high perceived stress was associated with increased psychological health complaints, mental toughness was able to off-set some of the negative consequences resulting from high stress exposure.
Although many studies adopted Smith’s (1986) cognitive–affective model of athletic burnout in examining stress–burnout relationship, very few studies examined the mediating/moderating role of perceived stress on the stress–burnout relationship. We sampled 195 college student-athletes and assessed their life stress, perceived stress, and burnout. Correlation analyses found all study variables correlated. Two separate hierarchical regression analyses found that the “distress” component of perceived stress mediated athletes’ two types of life stress–burnout relationship but “counter-stress” component of perceived stress-moderated athletes’ general-life stress–burnout relationship. We concluded that interweaving relationships among athletes’ life stress, perceived stress, and burnout are not straightforward. Future research should consider the nature of athletes life stress, and dual role of perceived stress in examining its’ association with related psychological responses in athletic settings.
Background
Using Smith’s (1986) cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout as a guiding framework, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among athletes’ stress in life, negative thoughts, and the mediating role of negative thoughts on the stress-burnout relationship.
Methods
A total of 300 college student-athletes (males = 174; females = 126, Mage = 20.43 y, SD = 1.68) completed the College Student Athlete’s Life Stress Scale (CSALSS; Lu et al., 2012), the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ; Hollon & Kendall, 1980), and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001).
Results
Correlational analyses found that two types of life stress and four types of negative thoughts correlated with burnout. Additionally, hierarchical regression analyses found that four types of negative thoughts partially mediated the stress-burnout relationship.
Discussion
We concluded that an athlete’s negative thoughts play a pivotal role in predicting athletes’ stress-burnout relationship. Future study may examine how irrational cognition influences athletes’ motivation and psychological well-being.
*** Open Access: https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2017.1407363 ***
The starting point of this contribution is the potential risk to health and performance from the combination of elite sporting careers with the pursuit of education. In European sport science and politics, structural measures to promote dual careers in elite sports have been discussed increasingly of late. In addition to organisational measures, there are calls for educational-psychological intervention programmes supporting the successful management of dual careers at the individual level. This paper presents an appropriate intervention programme and its evaluation: stress-resistance training for elite athletes (SRT-EA). It comprises 10 units, each lasting 90 minutes. It is intended for athletes and aims to improve their resistance to chronic stress. The evaluation was carried out in a quasi-experimental design, with three points of measurement (baseline, immediately after, and three months after) and two non-randomised groups: an intervention group (n = 128) and an untreated control group (n = 117). Participants were between 13 and 20 years of age (53.5% male) and represented various Olympic sports. Outcome variables were assessed with questionnaires. Significant short- and mid-term intervention effects were explored. The intervention increased stress-related knowledge, general self-efficacy, and stress sensitivity. Chronic stress level, stress symptoms, and stress reactivity were reduced. In line with the intention of the intervention, the results showed short- and mid-term, small to medium-sized effects. Accordingly, separate measurements at the end of the intervention and three months later showed mostly positive subjective experiences. Thus, the results reinforce the hope that educational-psychological stress-management interventions can support dual careers.
We tested the structural relationships between stress, burnout, athletic identity, and athlete satisfaction in student athletes attending Korea’s physical education high schools and analyzed the differences between paths by ego resilience. Data were collected from student athletes at three Korean physical education high schools. Before data collection, each instruments’ content validity was confirmed, and after data collection, construct validity was tested using factor analysis. The results were derived using reliability testing, descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and structural equation modeling. After testing the final research model, the following results were obtained: (a) high levels of stress had a strong correlation with burnout and high levels of burnout was negatively related to athletic identity and athlete satisfaction; (b) in our model, burnout showed full mediation of the relationship between stress and athlete identity/athletic satisfaction; and (c) the high ego resilience group showed a weaker relationship compared to the low ego resilience group in the pathways from stress → burnout and burnout → athletic identity/athlete satisfaction.
Background
Although Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, Cohen, Kamarack & Mermelstein, 1983) has been validated and widely used in many domains, there is still no validation in sports by comparing athletes and non-athletes and examining related psychometric indices.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the measurement invariance of PSS between athletes and non-athletes, and examine construct validity and reliability in the sports contexts.
Methods
Study 1 sampled 359 college student-athletes (males = 233; females = 126) and 242 non-athletes (males = 124; females = 118) and examined factorial structure, measurement invariance and internal consistency. Study 2 sampled 196 student-athletes (males = 139, females = 57, Mage = 19.88 yrs, SD = 1.35) and examined discriminant validity and convergent validity of PSS. Study 3 sampled 37 student-athletes to assess test-retest reliability of PSS.
Results
Results found that 2-factor PSS-10 fitted the model the best and had appropriate reliability. Also, there was a measurement invariance between athletes and non-athletes; and PSS positively correlated with athletic burnout and life stress but negatively correlated with coping efficacy provided evidence of discriminant validity and convergent validity. Further, the test-retest reliability for PSS subscales was significant ( r = .66 and r = .50).
Discussion
It is suggested that 2-factor PSS-10 can be a useful tool in assessing perceived stress either in sports or non-sports settings. We suggest future study may use 2-factor PSS-10 in examining the effects of stress on the athletic injury, burnout, and psychiatry disorders.
Introduction: In the sporting context, athletic burnout is an imperative issue concerned by
many researchers and sport-related personnel. Notably, college student-athletes are a unique
population that requires special attention as they might experience stress and develop burnout if
they do not have the coping resources to deal with both academic and sport demands. It has been
generally accepted that seeking social support is a form of coping strategy when athletes are faced
with competitive pressure (Crocker, 1992) or in a poor performance phase (Madden, Kirkby, &
McDonald, 1989). When athletes are stressed, the social support provided by athletes’ significant
others can reduce or lower the negative effects of stress, however limited studies examined the
mechanism of how social support influences athlete burnout. Therefore, the purpose of this study
was to examine whether social support have life stress-mediated influences on athletes’ burnout.
Methods: A total of 244 (74 females, 170 males) Division A college student-athletes representing
six different sports (tennis, taekwondo, track and field, archery, basketball, baseball) were
recruited (Mage = 19.98, SD = 1.37). All participants voluntarily completed the Student-Athletes
Social Support Scale, College Student-Athletes Life Stress Scale (CSALSS), and Athletes Burnout
Questionnaire (ABQ). Preliminary analyses were conducted using SPSS 18.0 and mediation
analyses were conducted using Mplus 7.0 statistical software with structural equation modeling.
Results: (a) All types of social support negatively predicted sport life stress and burnout; (b)
Daily and sport life stress positively predicted burnout; (c) Daily life stress did not have mediating
influence on the relationship between any types of social support and burnout; (d) Sport life stress
fully mediated the relationship between all types of social support and burnout. Conclusion: In
order to effectively prevent athletes from burning out, coaches, trainers, or related competitive
sport personnel should understand the type of stressors that causes athletes’ burnout before
providing athletes with the appropriate social support required.
This article investigates the impact of mindfulness on stress, perceived performance in school and sports, and on athlete burnout. In the present investigation 483 Norwegian junior athletes from seven different schools for elite sports were invited to partake in an online survey of which 382 athletes responded (79%). The athletes were from different sports such as cross country skiing, Nordic combined, ski jumping, volleyball, handball, track and field, ice hockey, biathlon, cycling and orienteering. We tested whether mindfulness affected stress, perceived performance in school and sports, and athlete burnout utilizing structural equation modeling. As hypothesized, mindfulness was negatively related with stress and burnout, whereas stress was positively related with burnout and negatively related with perceived performances in school and sports. Mindfulness was positive related with perceived performances in sports and in school, whereas perceived performances in sports where negatively related with burnout. Hence, for this investigation it seemed that mindfulness was an important stress buffer and may help elite youth athletes to avoid burnout and perform better. The results are discussed in regard of applied implications and possible future research.
This chapter provides a review of current issues in organizational stress in competitive sport. Two main areas are addressed: (a) conceptual and operational considerations, culminating in definitions of stress-related constructs, and (b) theoretical relationships among stress, emotions and performance, based on a meta-model outlining key processes, moderators and consequences. As the chapter progresses, attention focuses on the practical implications and research directions emanating from the literature review.
Background/Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship among perceived stress, burnout and depression in a sample of athletes. It was hypothesized that stress is an antecedent of burnout and depression a possible consequence of both stress and burnout. Method: A sample of 453 athletes participated in the study. Stress and depression were measured with Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) and athlete burnout with Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). Data analysis was conducted under the approach of structural equation modelling (SEM). Results: The direct effects of stress on burnout and depression were .66 and .24, respectively, and the direct effect of burnout on depression .53, all of them significant (p<.001). Stress accounted for 43% of the variance of burnout, and jointly stress and burnout for 50% of the variance of depression. Indexes of overall model fit were: χ2 (224)= 520.881 (p < .001), χ2/df = 2.32, Goodness of fit index (GFI) = .91, Comparative fit index (CFI) = .89, Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .054 (90% confidence interval, .048-.060), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = .063. Conclusions: This study provides evidence of the relationship among stress, burnout and depression in an only model.
Objective: In line with Smith's (1986) cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout, the purpose of this
study was to examine the conjunctive effects of athletes' resilience and coaches' social support on the
relationship between life stress and burnout.
Design: Cross-sectional, self-report survey.
Methods: A total of 218 student-athletes (Mage ¼ 20.04 yrs, SD ¼ 1.32; males ¼ 159, females ¼ 59)
participating in team and individual sports completed life stress, resilience, coaches' social support, and
athlete burnout scales. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses with one- two- and three-way interactions
examined disjunctive and conjunctive moderations.
Results: Resilience and coaches' social support conjunctively moderated the stress-burnout relationship.
Specifically the interaction of athletes' resilience with coaches' informational and tangible social support
moderated athletes' stress-burnout relationship in high and low life stress conditions.
Conclusions: We suggest coaches provide useful social support and foster athletes' resilience to prevent
stress-induced burnout in athletes.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and burnout and whether this relationship is mediated by perceived stress, negative affect and positive affect in elite junior athletes. Participants were 233 (133 males and 100 females) adolescent athletes, ranging in age from 15 to 19 years (M = 17.50; SD = 1.08). Bivariate correlations revealed that mindfulness had a significant negative relationship with both perceived stress and burnout. To investigate mediation we employed non-parametric bootstrapping analyses. These analyses indicated that positive affect fully mediated links between mindfulness and sport devaluation. Further, positive affect and negative affect, partially mediated the relationships between mindfulness and physical/emotional exhaustion as well as between mindfulness and reduced sense of accomplishment. The results point towards mindfulness being negatively related to burnout in athletes and highlight the role of positive affect. Future research should investigate the longitudinal effect of dispositional mindfulness on stress and burnout.
Young athletes in intensive training settings are confronted with a series of daily stressors although they have a smaller and less flexible coping repertoire than adults. Moreover, previous studies neglected the multivariate nature of coping. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to first identify coping profiles of young athletes in response to daily stressors related to their competitive sport involvement. Secondly, the study examined: (a) if such profiles were similar across the three waves, (b) how many participants belonged to the same profile along the three waves, and (c) whether individuals from distinct profiles differed on burnout, stress and recovery. One hundred and forty-seven young table-tennis players involved in intensive training settings completed the CICS, RESTQ-Sport and ABQ three times during a two-month period. Cluster analyses indicated three similar clusters across the three waves: Task-oriented coping, Distraction- and disengagement-oriented coping, and Low coping profiles. The distribution of athletes significantly varied across waves. Burnout, stress and recovery significantly differed across the coping profiles. Athletes from the task-oriented coping profile were characterized by the best psychological adjustment (high scores of recovery and low scores of stress and burnout). In contrast, athletes from the distraction- and disengagement-oriented coping profile were characterized by the worst psychological adjustment (high scores of stress and burnout and low scores of recovery). These findings highlighted that the coping profiles allow examining coping within a holistic approach, teasing out the complex associations with key outcomes, such as burnout, stress and recovery.
Objective: The purpose of this study was to (1) examine swimmers' and basketball players' perceptions of their dual career development (2) explore these perceptions for possible differences between male and female participants as well as between swimmers and basketball players. Design and method: Semi-structured interviews with 12 retired Slovene elite level swimmers and basketball players (six males and six females) were used to discuss about transitions, demands and challenges which occurred throughout their dual career development. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using the qualitative analytic software program Nvivo 10. Results: Qualitative analysis of interviews revealed that athletes perceived their athletic career in strong and reciprocal connection to other domains in their lives, i.e. academic/vocational, psychological, psychosocial, financial level. Some of the transitions occurring in their dual career were experienced as particularly important (e.g., transition to university, finishing university study) and connected to several challenges occurring at different levels of development. Differences between male and female participants, swimmers and basketball players in this study were identified. Conclusion: The study revealed a usefulness of using a holistic perspective when investigating athletes' dual career development, and a reciprocal nature of transitions occurring at different levels of athletes' development.
College student-athletes have unique life stress that warrants close attention. The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable and valid measurement assessing college student-athletes' life stress. In Study 1, a focus group discussion and Delphi method produced a questionnaire draft, termed the College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale. In Study 2 and Study 3, the properties of the items and the underlying structure of the College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale were confirmed through item analysis, factor analysis, and reliability examination. A 24-item College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale with eight factors was established. In addition, examining concurrent and discriminant validity via correlations among College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale, positive state of mind, and burnout experiences provided further evidences of criterion validity. Across these phases, results showed adequate factorial structure, criterion validity, and reliability of the College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale. The investigators suggest that College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale could be used as a tool for researchers and practitioners to assess college student-athletes' life stress.
Social support and negative social interactions have implications for athlete psychological health, with potential to influence the links of stress-related experiences with burnout and well-being over time. Using a longitudinal design, perceived social support and negative social interactions were examined as potential moderators of the temporal stress-burnout and burnout-well-being relationships. American collegiate athletes (N = 465) completed reliable and valid online assessments of study variables at four time points during the competitive season. After controlling for dispositional and conceptually important variables, social support and negative social interactions did not moderate the stress-burnout or burnout-well-being relationships, respectively, but did simultaneously contribute to burnout and well-being across the competitive season. The results showcase the importance of sport-related social perceptions to athlete psychological outcomes over time and inform development of socially driven interventions to improve the psychological health of competitive athletes.
This study aimed to: (a) identify motivational profiles among a sample of 141 young table-tennis players involved in intensive training settings; (b) examine the consistency or change of motivational profiles for the same athlete over time; and (c) investigate differences between these profiles on burnout, coping, stress and recovery. Latent profile transition analysis revealed two or three distinct profiles that are similar for the three measurement occasions: Self-determined profile, moderate profile, and low profile. Motivational profiles exhibited both stability and changes over time from an intra-individual perspective. Athletes from the self-determined profile were characterized by the best psychological adjustment.
Forest plots are frequently used in meta-analysis to present the results graphically. Without specific knowledge of statistics, a visual assessment of heterogeneity appears to be valid and reproducible. Possible causes of heterogeneity can be explored in modified forest plots. Forest plots in meta-analyses appear to be a valid and useful tool to quickly and efficiently scan and interpret the evidence. The expression ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’ certainly expresses the value of forest plots.
Objective - This study examines the relationship between perceived stress, athletic burnout and leisure amongst badminton players. Methodology/Technique - The research subjects were all first national ranking tournament badminton players in 2012. The study uses convenience sampling to conduct a questionnaire survey. 350 questionnaires were distrubuted, with 288 valid questionnaires being returned (male 195, female 93). The rate of effectiveness was 82%. All of the data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistic and hierarchical regression analysis. Findings – The research subjects were all first national ranking tournament badminton players in 2012. The study uses convenience sampling to conduct a questionnaire survey. 350 questionnaires were distrubuted, with 288 valid questionnaires being returned (male 195, female 93). The rate of effectiveness was 82%. All of the data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistic and hierarchical regression analysis. Novelty – The study highlights that badminton players who participate in leisure-based activities are able to effectively adjust their perception of pressure to a "reduced sense of accomplishment" which has an effect on athletic burnout. Additionally, the study results give rise to variety of proposed solutions or suggestions for dealing with burnout or stress. Type of Paper - Empirical Keywords: Hierarchical Regression Analysis; Sources of Stress; Leisure; Badminton Players. JEL Classification: M10, Z20.
Elite athletes undergo intensive training and competitive pressure to succeed, making them susceptible to professional strain. However, they differ in their subjective reactions in the form of burnout levels and psychosomatic stress symptoms. Following a motivational perspective, these differences may be explained by the goals that athletes pursue. The current study therefore examined the effects of elite athletes’ achievement goals on their burnout levels and psychosomatic stress symptoms, and to what extent they can be explained by athletes’ use of adaptive coping strategies. Based on the answers of 125 German elite athletes, path modelling revealed that mastery approach goals were negatively associated with burnout levels and psychosomatic stress symptoms, while mastery avoidance and performance approach goals were positively associated with burnout levels. Coping strategies partially mediated the effects of mastery approach goals on burnout levels and psychosomatic stress symptoms. These findings suggest practical implications for supporting elite athletes through goal setting processes.
Dobson, J, Harris, B, Claytor, A, Stroud, L, Berg, L, and Chrysosferidis, P. Selected cardiovascular and psychological changes throughout a competitive season in collegiate female swimmers. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Measures that reflect the balance between training-induced fatigue and recovery can provide valuable feedback to help revise training plans. The aim of this study was to use multidimensional measures of the vagal control of the heart rate (HR), psychological stress, and burnout to investigate the impact of overload training and tapering in female swimmers. Thirteen female Division-1 swimmers completed the HR and psychological measures 3 times during a competitive season: (a) at the beginning of the season (BL), (b) eleven weeks later during a period of overload training (OL), and (c) eleven more weeks later and after a taper (TP). Cardiovascular measures included the resting logarithm of the root mean square of successive R-R intervals (lnRMSSD), HR responses to forced breathing (HRdiff), and HR responses to sustained handgrip exercise (HRhg). Psychological measures consisted of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire. Repeated measures analyses of variance revealed that sport devaluation, reduced accomplishment, general stress, and emotional exhaustion all increased throughout the season (all were p < 0.05). Also, lnRMSSDrest decreased (p < 0.01) and HRhg increased (p < 0.05) during OL, both of which then returned to BL levels during TP (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively); whereas HRdiff values fell progressively during the season (p < 0.05). The results indicate that OL impaired cardiac vagal stimulation, and the bulk of evidence indicated that it was fully restored during a TP. In conclusion, lnRMSSD and HRhg were particularly sensitive to changes in workload throughout the season, and so those measures may be especially useful for preventing an excessive accumulation of training-induced fatigue.
Objectives:
The first aim was to examine mental health problems (MHP) in elite athletes addressing prevalence, sex-differences, onset, recurrent episodes, help-seeking, symptoms of specific disorders and previous psychiatric diagnoses. The second aim was to investigate if sport-specific instruments could indicate clinical levels of psychiatric symptoms.
Design:
Cross-sectional survey.
Methods:
Elite athletes representing different Swedish national teams and applying for a university scholarship (n=333) answered a web-based survey. Females represented 58.9%. Mean age was 24.6(±3.1) years and 77.2% were individual- and 22.8% team-sport athletes.
Results:
Lifetime prevalence of MHP was 51.7% (females 58.2%, males 42.3%). Point prevalence was 11.7% (females 13.8%, males 8.8%). Onset of first MHP episode peaked at age 19 with 50% of onsets between ages 17-21. Recurrent episodes were common, and females sought help more than males (females 37.8%, males 16.8%). Overall 19.5% reached the clinical cut-offs for symptoms of anxiety and/or depression (females 26.0%, males 10.2%). Previous psychiatric diagnoses existed among 8.1% (females 10.7%, males 4.4%). A depressive disorder, an eating disorder or a trauma and stress related disorder (self-reported as burnout) were most common. Finally, most sport-specific instruments (80%) demonstrated a fair diagnostic accuracy compared to clinically validated instruments.
Conclusions:
Lifetime prevalence of MHP was reported by more than half of the athletes. Symptoms manifested in young age and recurrent episodes were common. Sport-specific instruments indicating when symptoms reach clinical levels are potentially useful for data summary purposes on a group level, but without sufficiently high sensitivity and specificity to be recommend for applied work with athletes.
Background: Athletic burnout is common when demands of the sport exceed the rewards. Individuals with certain personality dispositions, such as perfectionism, are at increased risk of experiencing perceived stress and subsequent burnout (Fender, 1989; Gould, Tuffey, Udry, & Loehr, 1996; Stoeber, 2011). Perfectionism has both adaptive and maladaptive dimensions, with the more maladaptive qualities leading to greater perceived stress (Hamachek, 1978; Rice & Van Arsdale, 2010).
Objectives: This study examined the influence of perfectionistic strivings and concerns on burnout, and perceived stress as a mediator of this relationship in Division II and III specialized and multiple-sport athletes (N = 351).
Design: Cross-Sectional.
Methods: Participants completed a demographic questionnaire and online measures of perfectionism, stress, and burnout during the latter part of the competitive season.
Results: Results showed a positive, direct effect of perfectionistic concerns on burnout. Stress partially mediated this relationship. Additionally, perfectionistic strivings had a negative direct effect on burnout for specialized athletes.
Conclusion: The relationship between perfectionistic concerns and burnout is partially explained by stress. Multiple sport athletes showed lower levels of stress compared to specialized ones. Finally, perfectionistic strivings are associated with lower levels of burnout for specialized athletes.
Inconsistent findings have been reported regarding the association between athletic identity and emotional exhaustion, a key dimension of athlete burnout, indicating a need to identify boundary conditions that shape the role of athletic identity in the development of emotional exhaustion. To reconcile the mixed findings, the authors propose that psychological flexibility, identified as “the ability to contact the present moment more fully as a conscious human being and to change or persist in behavior when doing so serves valued ends” (Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Misuka, & Lillis, 2006, p. 8), can moderate the association between athletic identity and the development of emotional exhaustion. Using a two-wave, time-lagged survey, a total of 132 college athletes (mean age = 19.97 years) completed assessments of athletic identity at Time 1, psychological flexibility at Time 1, and emotional exhaustion at Time 1 and at Time 2 three months later. The results indicated that athletic identity is positively associated with the development of emotional exhaustion over time among individuals with low psychological flexibility but is negatively associated with emotional exhaustion for individuals with high levels of psychological flexibility. This study suggests that the association of athletic identity with increased or decreased emotional exhaustion over time depends on the athlete's attributes. Practically, our findings highlight the importance of understanding athletes’ levels of psychological flexibility to prevent emotional exhaustion.
This study examined the prognostic relevance of self-determined motivation, coping, burnout, perceived stress and recovery experienced by 159 youth table-tennis players involved in intensive training centers with regard to their participation and success six years later. Results of ANCOVAs showed that players who still practiced at time 2 (T2; six years later; n=130) reported lower time 1 (T1; while they were involved in intensive training centers) amotivation (large effect), disengagement-oriented coping, sport devaluation and reduced accomplishment (moderate effects) than their counterparts who dropped out at T2 (n=29). Results of ANCOVAs also showed that international (n=18) and/or national players (n=86) at T2 reported significantly lower T1 amotivation (large effect), disengagement-oriented coping and sport devaluation (moderate effects) in comparison to regional (n=26) players at T2. Finally results of correlational analyses showed that T2 performance and/or six-year performance progress were significantly and weakly correlated with introjected and external regulations, perceived stress and perceived recovery, and significantly and moderately correlated with amotivation, disengagement-oriented coping, sport devaluation, and reduced accomplishment. Overall, this study provided insights into the role played by self-determined motivation, coping, burnout, perceived stress and recovery in the table-tennis players’ dropout and performance level six years later. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1476730
The purpose of this study was to translate Arnold and her colleagues’ (Arnold, Fletcher, & Daniels, 2013) Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers (OSI-SP) into Chinese and examine its psychometric properties with Taiwanese athletes. In study 1, the psychometric properties of the items and the underlying structure of the translated Chinese OSI-SP were examined. In study 2, we used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the factorial structure and examined measurement invariance across genders. In study 3, we examined concurrent and discriminant validity via correlations among the Chinese OSI-SP, coping self-efficacy, perceived stress, and burnout to provide further evidence of criterion validity. Study 4 examined the test-retest reliability of the Chinese OSI-SP. Across these phases, results showed the 5-factor, 16-item Chinese OSI-SP had adequate factor structure, measurement invariance, criterion validity, and reliabilities. We suggest future studies may use this revised Chinese OSI-SP in Taiwan and other Chinese athletic settings.
Findings on burnout and depression in athletes highlight their potential severity. Although both constructs are discussed in similar, stress-based concepts, it is unclear how they relate to each other. To address this issue, we conducted a crosssectional multiple linear regression analysis (MLR; N = 194) and a longitudinal analysis of a three-wave cross-lagged panel (CLP; n = 92) in German junior elite athletes. MLR showed that depression and burnout were both associated with chronic stress. Stress was a significant better predictor for both burnout and depression than each was for the other. CLP analysis on the constructs of burnout and depression revealed support for cross-paths in both directions. Thus, burnout and depression might cause each other to some degree, with no distinct direction of this link. However, as both syndromes do not fully explain each other, interchanging both terms and syndromes should be avoided. Preferably, future research might consider the transfer of knowledge between both syndromes to draw founded conclusions.
Burnout is a construct that has garnered considerable attention in sport psychology within recent years. Several hypothesized models regarding how the three dimensions (exhaustion, devaluation, and reduced sense of accomplishment) temporally relate to each other have been advanced. One proposal outlined by Maslach and Leiter suggests that exhaustion predicts devaluation which predicts reduced sense of accomplishment. However, there is not consensus amongst researchers as it has been argued that exhaustion predicts devaluation and reduced accomplishment separately. The aim of this paper was to test multiple alternative hypotheses regarding the relationships of the burnout dimensions in athletes. Two samples of Swedish youth elite athletes with differing time-spans between measurements were used. Specifically, one sample involved time intensive measures collected every week over an eight week period, the other sample included four measurement points across an 18 month period. Results showed that none of the previously proposed models outlining the burnout dimensions temporal relations were supported. Statistical analysis of the models including the cross lagged predictions of dimensions did not have any statistically significant impact except when exhaustion negatively predicted devaluation between time one (month zero) and time two (month six) in the 18 month sample; this relation faded in the following timepoints. Further, issues regarding the stability of devaluation and reduced sense of accomplishment emerged as their autocorrelation were very weak in the time intensive sample. These findings raise a number of points for further theoretical and practical discussions about the athlete burnout construct.
The purpose of this study was to investigate fear of failure in highly competitive junior athletes and the association with psychological stress and burnout. In total 258 athletes, (152 males and 108 females) ranged in age from 15 to 19 years (M = 17.4 yrs, SD = 1.08) participated. Athletes competed in variety of sports including both team and individual sports. Results showed in a variable-oriented approach using regression analyses that one dimension, fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment had a statistically significant effect on perceived psychological stress and one dimension of burnout, reduced sense of accomplishment. However, adopting a person-oriented approach using latent class analysis, we found that athletes with high levels of fear failure on all dimensions scored high on burnout. We also found another class with high scores on burnout. These athletes had high scores on the individual oriented dimensions of fear of failure and low scores on the other oriented fear of failure dimensions. The findings indicate that fear of failure is related to burnout and psychological stress in athletes and that this association is mainly associated with the individual oriented dimensions of fear of failure.
Clinical scenario:
Student athletes experience a variety of stressors from school and social activities, as well as the additional demands of sport participation. Mindfulness-based interventions can help increase mental awareness and acceptance, as well as mitigate negative thoughts and emotions. The use of mindfulness-based interventions may be beneficial for reducing thoughts of stress, injury reduction, and improving overall wellbeing.
Clinical question:
Does the use of mindfulness-based interventions for student-athletes aged 13-24 years reduce stress and injury as well as improve overall quality of life?
Summary of findings:
The literature was searched for studies that investigated the use of mindfulness-based strategies for student-athletes specifically for reducing stress and injury and/or improving quality of life. The literature search returned 8 possible studies related to the clinical question and 3 studies met the inclusion criteria (1 randomized control trial, 2 non-randomized control cohort studies). All 3 included studies demonstrated overall improved levels of mindfulness among student-athletes after the use of a mindfulness-based intervention. Mindfulness-based interventions had positive effects for reducing negative thoughts and levels of perceived stress. The number of injury occurrences were found to decrease following the integration of a mindfulness-based intervention within an athletic population. Clinical Bottom Line: There is sufficient evidence supporting the use of mindfulness-based interventions with student-athletes for increasing mindfulness, managing negative emotions and perceived stress, as well as improving overall well-being. There is also current literature that advocates the use of mindfulness-based interventions for reducing injury, but further research is needed for support.
Strength of recommendation:
Grade B evidence exists to support that the use of mindfulness-based interventions for student-athletes will reduce stress and improve overall well-being as well as support the possibility that if a student-athlete is more mindful, it may help decrease risk of injury incurred if the student-athlete is under mental stress.
This study examined the factorial validity of the Eades Burnout Inventory (EABI) and the prevalence of burnout in adolescent elite athletes and whether burnout is more common in individual sports than in team sports. The EABI was distributed to 980 athletes (402 females and 578 males) in 29 different sports. Confirmatory-factor analyses revealed an acceptable factorial validity for a theoretically supported four-factor model of the EABI. Between 1% and 9% of the athletes displayed elevated burnout scores on these four subscales. The hypothesis of higher prevalence of burnout in individual sports was, however, not supported. Furthermore, no correlation between training load and burnout scores was found. These findings suggest that factors other than training load must be considered when athletes at risk for burnout are investigated.
Background
The purpose of this study was to implement and assess the impact of a person-centered, feel-based self-regulation intervention on the stress, burnout, well-being, and self-regulation capacity of eight university student-athletes experiencing burnout. This was warranted given the negative outcomes associated with athlete burnout, the scarcity of burnout research focusing on student-athletes, and the lack of intervention research addressing burnout in sport.
Method
A mixed methods design including questionnaires administered at four time points during the athletic season, pre- and postintervention interviews, and multiple intervention sessions was used.
Results
Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed that stress and burnout levels significantly decreased, and well-being and self-regulation capacity levels significantly increased as the intervention progressed. The qualitative data supported these findings.
Conclusion
It appears that university student-athletes participating in this type of intervention can learn to effectively manage themselves and their environment to reduce adverse symptoms and improve optimal functioning.
Objectives: The aim of the current study was to examine (1) associations between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship as perceived by athletes and athlete burnout and, (2) the role of achievement goals in mediating the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout. Design: Cross-sectional. Method: 359 athletes completed measures of the perceived quality of the coach-athlete relationship (the 3Cs model), achievement goals (the 2 × 2 model) and burnout (the athlete burnout model). Results: Structural equation modeling revealed negative relationships between the perceived quality of the coach-athlete relationship and the three dimensions of athlete burnout (df = 118, χ2 = 215.37, RMSEA = .05 [.04; .06], TLI = .97, CFI = .97). Moreover, results suggested that mastery-approach goals partially mediated the relationship between the coach-athlete relationship and two dimensions of athlete burnout: sport devaluation (i.e., indirect and direct effects: p < .001) and reduced accomplishment (i.e., indirect and direct effects: p < .01). Conclusion: The current study confirms and broadens previous knowledge on the socio-cognitive correlates of athlete burnout by demonstrating that the level of athlete burnout is associated with the perceived quality of the relationship with the coach. Results also highlight that achievement goals partially mediate these relationships.
This study investigated the relationship between organizational stressors in sport and athlete burnout and involved a cross-cultural comparison of English and Japanese soccer players. Ninety-eight male players completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (Raedeke & Smith, 2001) to determine levels of perceived burnout. Based on data reported in previous research, and the thresholds developed by Hodge, Lonsdale, and Ng (2008), 22 of the players were identified as exhibiting higher levels of perceived burnout. Nine members of this subsample (4 English and 5 Japanese players) were subsequently interviewed to explore the relationship between their experiences of burnout and the organizational stressors they encountered. Results revealed multiple demands linked to the dimensions of athlete burnout and identified specific organizational-related issues that players associated with the incidence of burnout. Cultural differences between English and Japanese players in terms of the prevalence and organizational stressors associated with burnout were also identified, with the main differences being the relationship with senior teammates and the coaching style.
