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In the eye of the beholder: Situational and dispositional predictors of perceiving harm in others' words

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Abstract

One manifestation of society's increased sensitivity and reactivity to harm is the notion that words can be labeled as harmful, regardless of how subtle and regardless of their intent, if perceived as harmful by the receiver of that speech (Haslam, 2016). However, it is unclear what specific words should be considered harmful, particularly if harm is in the eye of the beholder (Lilienfeld, 2017). Here, we tested the hypothesis that situational and dispositional factors can prime individuals to interpret others' verbal communications as harmful. In Study 1 (n = 217 U.S. college students), a one-sentence prime about harmful words led individuals to perceive ambiguous phrases from others as harmful. In Study 2 (n = 1092 U.S. college students), participants showed far more within-person than between-person consistency in their emotional reactions to widely varying ambiguous statements, and negative emotionality was a consistent predictor of between-person differences in feeling hurt and anxious by such statements. Taken together, findings from the two studies raise the possibility that well-intentioned efforts to boost awareness of the potential harm conveyed in others' words may have the inadvertent effect of exacerbating perceptions of harm, particularly among individuals already inclined toward such perceptions.

This document is a pre-proof. The paper has been accepted for publicaon at
PAID (Personality and Individual Dierences).
In the Eye of the Beholder:
Situaonal and Disposional Predictors of Perceiving Harm in Others’ Words
 !"# $% &' ()* !& )!
# +&,!!*,&- !)% * ,
.!/,01!!2 &3 43!)!+ &
"5 !)6 ,* .!/,
Author Contribuons
April Bleske-Rechek73!& 8 $!')+,!/$+ $!  3& $!1$!+2+! 
 91$!+2/!6& 8 $!*&/!
Robert O. Deaner7!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+6& 8 $!
Kae N. Paulich73!& 8 $!')+,!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Michael Axelrod73!& 8 $!')+,1$!+2/: !))$!+
Stephanus Badenhorst73!& 8 $!!/$+ $!  3& $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Kai Nguyen7!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Eleni Seyoum7')+,!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Parker S. Lay71$!+2/: !))$!+
Acknowledgments/Author Note
 : &),0 &,;&)!  $/ + !0-<0
  !)*!)%+ - .!/,01!! &3 1 !' 
!!* -& !) /)* - !0--!!/&) 90- !&4:
 !: !!,-&/:0!&$/0) )   !)-  0=
 /  !&* +7>7;;0;?@A;
Highlights
%-!+ -)/ -+&& -!  -0&
10&!)!+:!!!!,!!/ & -+&& -!
+ $/-$! ,))!)/)& B! -+&& -!
Data Statement
3-&),-   !))  0*&), !)*&),"  /  !!*!
 -: >7;;0;?@A;
Ethical Statement
:))! ! )&! ) !:3)00
1)')  $!0(-!!//!+&- !!0-)!!:  !)0
(-! $!:&- !&=
 "
Abstract
!- !0 $!0,B! )!$/, !) $/, -!$! :) !
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7:) ! -!! -- ++!!+ $/-$! ,-!+
!&$-!
 L
1.0 INTRODUCTION
-M!N: !)&),  -C"DEF)( !))- !$
 )/$-0/ & - )!*G ,  - +&) !& 
 &- &,!+-!   !)=&) /!)/$-!&)-) !)
&!-!  !,))! +&!+ --! )&!),!+!
!/ &  )-)- ! ,:):!!$!)  $!+!$/, -
C  - "D"D4%!"DF  -/))/)!  - )! /
( !))!&)!!,(! ,/G  !+(!& &=$/
,+ (!&+! - ! ),!!B&=$/(!0
!+ -)  !!/) /C  -"DEF  -))- ++! 
- ,( -0! &:M -N0-,0)!,,  $!
- ++! ( -0  ! )  -0&+ )0:& !)
+ )0!!0/)  -0&, +0 C3! "D""4
  -"DE4& !KO )"D@F
- ++!!: &+ >!$!0- ! -,+ 
--&!,, )1!+*& !) +&C*& "DDHF:)G!)- ++! 
M0 !)--! ) ,/  / !/!-! !)+!$:!!$! 
&!!!$!  --&! $)+ ,!+ $/  + !)!&: )
0NC"HF*& B)&!0- ++!/)  !- !-!)
 )-,+,0!$!&)=&) (!,C)!"D"F&+
- ++!!: !$ ,))!!(0 !( !))+
!//!+(&  !)+!))!$,C /O# &1"DJ4 0) "DP4
"DJF3!!:( -0!--! & / ,0!)/)& 
>&!&)!+ +),:+-!  +!$/ , !),  , /-
 P
!- ),-M- ++!NC- !%,+  $!Q%R"D"4*.
3!0/, !)!&!"D"F&- ++! !:)G!) M0/ 
!!/  /  !)!/!-! !)+!$ --&! )+ , S&)!$!
: ) )K!TBNC%"D"PF
! -!/ !)$ / & $!0!$G &0- ++!
!!0)C"DHF)&))<&$  ):2 0
- ++!2  -,)G!)C!0)"DHF!0) +&) 
- ++!!& ,)G!)  -+&&& !)-$-&!!!$! + !)
!)+!$C*&"DD4*& "DDHF /0&88,&!) C'JHHF3!)!+ 
)G!$!0- ++!)!0,,0--&! $! !) $! &)
!))+!)+!$!0) )/) M( !-,: !$& 
- ++!&: )NC"DHPP- !+! F( -+ )!+: 
)!$& - ++!($!+)G!$!&++, !!!/  : / 
C*&"DD4*& "DDHF4 !)+ )!+: )!!$& - ++! 
/ C+ F !)!!/ C+,  > F   !+! ,)) 
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&=$/(!C*& "DDHF-  /)-)! !) !
>- ! --  )/)( $!0!C)!"D"F! -0
 !)-  >!$!&( -  /!) 0
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 &!- ++!F !))$! 0 C+!&$-F-+!U&!!)/)& B
$!0 -!B:) -& :)-/)  
, !)! : ))-,- $ ,,&),!+)+:
 A
 !-),& $!)$!!B/ --&! $! 
 -0&
' ++! !!+ /:- !!++ 0 !+B : !0
!$  - ,)!:!B:)&,- , /  & $! 0  
 !-/ -:,:&)! /:C 5 "D"D4!0)
"DH4& !KO )"D@F%-! ,/)!!&0,-0- &),0
  - ++!,*- !)%,C"DJF::) (& G/-!&
$/ !!+!M+!8!+' ++!N)/ -+&&& $! 
- -0&K!/ !,))0 !!+ 0 &),"H+&)!
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-&)! ))+:,/)& $! -0&K!/9
,/:) :>! !)& ( !),0- ++! !)- + 
- ++! !!/,C*&"DDF!:!&)! ) !:C&-  F
0-0 - !)K!:+!G !,+ !
C*-O%,"DJF1+!8 )<&) :  ! $!0-
&!! $!0G!)!+  !!+)-- : 0
C & ,($!+F -!B:)&+/!!!&=$/, !) -+&,0
& $! !! $!  !!+)/ -:,:&)!
 /::))! & ,(
&!&! :)+!)*&),(,)   !+B
: !0!$  - ,)!B:):&) )/B:)
 -0&!*&),: -  0*- !)%,C"DJF:/)K)0-
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 E
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- !- !)2-- !, !)$!!
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- +! 8))+&(! - ++!($!+ &  ,
)- ++! )! !!)/)& BM(!$  ,NC*&"DHHF:&)
+ &++ !!B(!$  ,0!+ +0 &+!&
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/ ,!+)-!!0/+ !)! ! )!&) !) -/,!) 
+!) !)(& +&)!$$  +:!+!&-0!)/)& - ,/-/ 
) )/ ! +))0: & ! !!C+)&/0
> $/!!- $-& ,+!$/ ,),:+4*.3!0
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-$! ,:&)-) K0& $! -!$!0 -!)/)& 
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* &V /  O :"D"F!))G!/ & - )!C&  &-  !)
=&)F- ), !)C'5 O  -"D"D4'5  "DJF !) 
 $& ,!W/!0-))W/!+ -+&&$-& $ !!+
C' :O' )"DDAF&:)) : !!+ B:) !!/,
 -:&) / !+K0: +!!+ $/-$! ,
!  -0*&),": ( !)&!)$!  0!+ $/-$! , 
)0/!+ -!/ & -+&& -! &)!)  -0&
 H
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 $$ !!:!0- ++!:-)M  )(0+!! 
!!,NC"DHAAF :(!!+!,0- ++! 
,(!!+0-0- ++!C  - "D43! !$!"DDH4
' "D4 "DDFG!)!+-: &!!&$/ &M
(!0!- ++!)!! ,! )0 !NC!+ 
"DLJDF!),!0)C"DHAEFM' ++! )- !
(-,)/ 0+!& !)!&0/ &- ! $!+0- )/  ,0
!)/)& C*& "DDHFN*! :,-!)/)& :! +&:&)!!,
 !0- !,!)0- ++!0-- !,)K!!- !,)K!
& $!: !)/)& :!  -+&:&)!!,!!0)C"DHF
&++)   -0:!!)K!!)+:
!!,(!!+- ++!-+( !),:!!)K!!
!+ $/-$! ,
 &0: $$ :!*&),:)+!)*&),"),)  
:+!!+ $/-$! ,!!,! -+&& -! 
,+ , -0&1-) !  ,0 -! &)!) &X& !)
: ))+:!)/)&  )!+ $/, -!1)) 
:&)0 -:!! !:!!!!,!!!$ ,
&X& -! !) !)/)& B/0!+ $/-$! ,:&)))+
:, !+ $/,:),/ ,!+ -!
2.0 STUDY 1
2.1 Method
2.1.1 Parcipants
 @
% $ !!*&),:"H&)!0- +! &&!/,!'):!
.!)* C +IJ@"Y@J4AA-!ED:-!"&! )F1 ) -)0  -80
"PEC0@DZ:)- -)&-K0- !& $!F&))! 
)) -8 -8: !)/))@DZ:)-)&- +
K0&!)!)!/  1!&B-!G &/) -
 -&!+ +&)!! /&! , - $/, &M !)!/ $!N
&),:  /),!$&$! /: ) &!/, !) !) )&- !&=
:0:)1))! !,)-+ !0- $!,!)+!))!$, !)
+4  ;!-$!0&!/,0-: -: ) :!- ,
1:Z&)!0
2.1.2 Measures and Procedure
*&),:  LC-F("C,0 -!F-()&=)+!:!+ $/
-$! ,  !$!&&-) /  G!)!)!/  -!+!)$!: 
:!&= !) )/7 $ !/)!-C!F -0
&!!!$!  - -0!!$!  -, !)- +!-! $ !:+/!!
0/!0?&$!! !!!)$!!)&,!! )
M &++ , !!+ +!-0-0!/ $!:/
!+:/"A ) ,&+&0- !,! $!: !+0!)
  people say or ask about all kinds of di7erent things.N!
!)$!, ) &++ , !!+ +!-0-0
!/ $!:/!+:/"A ) ,&+&0- !,
! $!: !+0!) somemes people say or ask things that they don’t
even realize are harmful and can create a hosle environment for othersN! ,!
!)$!, )M &++ , !!+ +!-0-0
 J
!/ $!:/!+:/"A ) ,&+&0- !,
! $!: !+0!) somemes people intenonally say or ask things
that are harmful and can create a hosle environment for othersN)0!: &)! & 
?&$!! 1()  $ !::-)/ -,!+()
)   , -0&!+:&)/  - -0& !:&)
 $ !!!!)$!::!-) & -0&:)& &
&- !/!!)) - : !)- -:, !&!!!)) -C+-
O"DL4"DAF !)/&0& -- !&!!!)) - !) $/0
- !!!C,- !O5- !JJ@F:()$!0 -!+!
 --!)$! !! --!)$!
% $ !! !)$!:! )M:),&! 00:!+
 -!;?&$![N,:+/!" G/0::!+!C!F !)/!0
:: -+&&C :! /)F)/ G/--0
  -G!)!)!,+! )/ ( -0: ,0: 
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+)&!G/!+! C:?&$! -!F !)/! -+&& C!
?&$!!?&$!; -! !)G/ -!F!+! :M: ,&) ,
![NM !B+&!+4 /:  NM - ,+!+-:!)N
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0:7M/,!+ ,[&$)NM&&)&&!!!+NM& )K! !
 )G(),&:&)NM/&!)?& G)&)!B+=/?& G)
NM,&0&0  C.!/,FNM,&0- - :![N !)M - ,
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 D
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CHF
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! $! !) ++!F-:! /)4 $ !!))&!+ G/! 
 !+!+0-CFCAF &--!+ ++!
!) ! $!0 0!+ $/-$! ,0-%]:)!! !!,C^/ &
_PAF:->)-0- ! ,4G! -- &!&))G/-0
 $! !)P@-0!&$-C^IJLF1 )-/  M+ $/
-$! ,NC&):: -:!:->) ++! !)
! $!0--- &F
2.2 Results
1!)&):!$ !/ ),0)   & $ !
-)! , -! 9 $!+ -!  !0: ! ,8)
!)!B!+ $/-$! ,  0&!$!0-!+!)$!:!! 
- !& $!))! K $ !B!! ,- &C""PFIDDE
IJPE $ `"IDDF
*!):: !)& G/-:) !+!:!0 /)
!+!!/!!  0!+!  ) -) !0C -F
!)!+$/:40& $ !!))- , :,:
) ?&$! -!C?&$!/ -! ) -C"LFID@AILJHF
 
&:-&) -0 !)!B $!G/!+! C^
IHP4IEAID@"JAZ3QAPHERF
5/!!! !!)&-!)!/&&)0- ++!C  -
"D43! !$!"DH4' "D4 "DDF !)!! !!,:
)&-!)!!&!+! :!)&) ! ! , $ !B!! 
!!,!! -+&& &+:!,/! -+&& 
!) -- &,/ ):),!)- !C+,    !!+!+
&!+!+!& - &,F ! ,/ )& !$ !! C:!!F!!,C^I
HDF& &+ $ !/):  ! !) ?&$!C+M
/,!+ ,[&$)NF -0&/  !G/!)  -!
C )C""FIAE@_DDF-/!+0 0-!! !!, ! ,
))!- !!+0&, !!  ,CHDHF !)-/!+0-
!! !!,-/!+  !&)):)  ?&$! ))! 
&-0 ! ,)):&: ) -0  $ !B
 $!+0/! -+&& CIPD@IDJEJAZ3QLJAP"RF1&!&
0!! !!,!)&!
G=$/0*&),: , -!+!)/)& /
B:)  -0&:&) K -0&! $!+!+0 6/ ) 
- !& $! K)/) -0&!0 -+&& C""DFILJJID"D
 $ `"IDPC-))! K $!+0!+! C""FIDAIEDP $ 
`"IDDA:&++!+! :&,!) !+!F:& ! ,
/ )  () $ !::-)/ - -!)0
 $ !::-):)  M , -0&!+N ) -+&&
  - -0& !!+& $ !)))KIDL"JAZ3QDDADEDR
 "
ID"IDLP! ))$! ) ,)!+& $ !() -
- ) -+&&  - -0& !!+& $ !))CIDAF
:/&!( $! $ !() --))!)K0-
!+&CIP"JF!)),)K0- --+&CI"ALF
!)=$/: : $ !B/0!+ $/-$! ,:&)
-) K0- !& $!& K0M , -0&!+N-
:&)+!) -!+!)/)& : +!!+ $/-$! ,& ) ,)
! &+ $!:! $ !B!+ $/-$! , !) -0&!
 $!+! -!+!)$!:!)))$!  $!::  !)!
 $$ ,+!G !
2.3 Discussion
*&),/))!$ &0&, -!+!)/)&  &,
0 -!B:)! )0/!+B:)  -0&*G ,
,&++$!+  , -0&!+-/)  & $! !U&!!
$!0 -+&&--&! $!  -0&!! !)K: -)C-!)
 --/&!IDLPF! !)K: !/  !): 
 $$ ,+!G !) - !& $!0: : 7:  0!!!-
-)))!!)&,-  0G +0?&$!!  !):& -
 $ !  !)$!0 ) )!)&,!!,0  
10&!)  $ !:/)&!!!$!  --/)- -!
 -+&&  !!+& $ !))&:/)!!$!  -
-))!)K0-!+&&!!!$!  -+&G!)!+!
: :))&  -+/) !( ! $!%!)/:
!+ +!&0& -  $& ,- !C,- !O5- !JJ@F !)!!$!  - 
 L
 $& ,) - +!+C-O"DLF4& ::-) &&0&
 -:!! $!+ ($!+(,- !)+ ,--&! $! !)!
W:! , ):!(,- !  W/)- !   
 -0&
3! ,( $!!+ $/-$! ,: !  $$ ,+!G !-) 0
!)/)& B $/,-&+  $!:!!+ $/-$! , !)
/) -0&!0 -+&& -!:$/,::  !)! $$ ,
 ( ! $! : )-):)!:!!+ $/
-$! , !) -0&! $!+:! !)$! !)/! !)$!: )@DZ
:)!, $!0" /
!*&),:&0&,+! ) -+&&  &))/), !,!
!)/), !,!+ )0+&)!$,4& -!:&)- ,! /
)!+0-$!  $!  -!$)-,+&0)K!$ 
/+:&):/ :!!+& +)K!!! -+&&
/&!+! -!CC"DFI"@E_DDIJHF)-!   -+&&
 -!$)$!0 -
) ,)!+&" $ !:)!+:!!!!&!=&)+-!0
!+!   $/, -C*:I"DL#&IE""F ,, :!!
/  $!!=&)+-!0 -+&& C*:IDH#&IDD"F* &+
 $ !:)& !$ !!!,! $! -+&& 
C^IHDF,)K)0-! !! $!   &+ !,
!)/)&  $ !!))   -+&& - ,C:!!!!,F
 $ !)K)0-! !! $!+0 -+&& C:!!
/  $!F)+0:!!!!,!! -+&& !$ ,
 P
&!+ &:!,/! !),:)+!)?&)K!0-!
!( -! -+&& -! )!$ / !, G!),
:+CM&&)&&!!!+NF:  ! )!$ / ! !+!+
CM&-&0&0  Q.!/,RNF !! ,CM& )K! ! )G
(),&:&)NF !)$ !!& - &,CM - ,-)a,&
!!+  ,- &)! , \NF3!!:!0)BC"DHF)&!0
M  )(0+!! !!,N   -0!! !!,:
/) -!0- &  )-!0 -/&0- !-!:!
 !)/)&  - !0)!! $!0)K! 
0:)+!)*&),"!/$+ :!!/&:!!!!,
! $! -+&& -! !):- $$ :, !)/)& 
)K!!!+ $/-$! , :// ) -!:
,- $ , !):),/ ,!+ -! &)!) &X&*!):
))+: -!)/)&  - , -! !))+
:)K!!)/)&  - , -!1)) :&)0 
-:!! !:!!!!,!! !) !)/)& B/0
!+ $/-$! ,:&)))+:, !+ $/,:),/ ,!+
 -!
3.0 STUDY 2
3.1 Method
3.1.1 Nominaon of Statements
 ?&  )0 -+&&!$ ,&X& -! ::&)&!*&),
":&$8) ! !-! $!)&  !+!  -!&/.!)+ )& 
   )&)!! !   ! -& !) )-:  
 A
=*&)!: +):+/!!0:/!0 ! !-! $!0-6!
CIL@F: )+!)!-! $!0!!$! ,&X& -!!!) )7
M /,&/ )-!+-), : &X&[!!:
 !+,& / ) :!!$! ,&X&N! ) )7M -!
/ )-!+,& : &X&[!!: !+
 / ),& :!!$! ,&X&N6!"CIL"F: )+!)
!-! $!0&X& -!?&$!:M /,&/ )
-!+-), :  ! &X&/!&+,&))!B!!)&X&[N
!)M -!/ )-!+,& ,& &X&/!&+,))!B
!!)&X&[N)8!!:/))!  +0&)!/)
!1))! !,)-+ !0- $!
*&)!+! ) !,:0-"L  -!!0! !) )0
4-) !: P!-! $!/ ):),!)- ! !+!+0- -! &
!+! !)! ,,+! !),  >&  !)- $!+:
&)!  !)G &!)!)!,-! ))&!) ! -! !)
 +8)M!!$! ,&X&N!-! $! !)M&!!!$! ,&X&N!-! $!!
  -- +! G! 0E + &/  -!:
!-! ) !!$! , !)&!!!$! ,&X&C+M,&&)[N;N*-$-!
,& &)NM& /! !&N;NB=& =NF:G)!$G)!
&X& -!0- 0E +G&G!! -!
: -+&, !)&, /!$ /)  -0&C*& "DDHF4:!
+! )    -! !)  !C!+!F -!0 
 +,G! 0P@ -!!&))E +0 -!1!  +,
:  $/ -! !&!!!$! ,&X& -! !) !!!$! ,&X&
 E
 -! ) ,)! "$/ -!/)  0! -!0
::():!!!!, !):!!!!,!!
3.1.2 Parcipants
*&)," $ !CIDJ"F:&)!0-:&&!/$!'):!
.*:-) !!!&/,0( )): )-$!0 & 
?&-!*&)!:&)&+!!&=  &!/,  $!
+ ! +!!!+0- !):  )::0 :0 
&),:  /),!$&$! /: )  &!/, !) !) )&- !&=
:0:)
'&)!! $ !&=:!)!+! )& $!& !)
&/ )!- ,  0&),C"DZ* *!"Z & *!"ZO
&- !$AHZ%%0! Q)& $!&!+&!RF% $ !0-.!/,
)(  +CIPA"4@Z:-!4 +IJDLYLPF% $ !0-.!/,"
) ++&0- 0$!CIEPD4HAZ:-!4JJHZ::!@"JF1
))!)-+ !0- $! & >!0&))!)K0:
 -:-!))  
3.1.3 Instruments and Procedure
9!) $!+!0-)!! !)!)!+)-+ ?&$! $ !:
!)P@ -!! !)-), !)- +!-!!+&0 $ !
C!ILEHF ):,:  ! ,!+  -!:  
 $!+:&)  - !& $! )-!:!!$! ,&X&
 -!:!0 /) -!!$! ,&X& !&!!!$! ,&X&
 -!:% $ !+ / $!+! DDD :!)!0"#
$" "#%&' 
 H
:+&0 $ !/))-$!  $! -!!
+&CILE"F):(,:&)00-! )  -!-4
CILELF):,:&)0!!  -!% $ !+ /
 $!+! DDD :!)!0()'(()
9 $!+ -!  $ !!))A-0-: %! ,
]&$!! C%]4!! ! "DDAF - &0 0+ $/-$! ,
C $! ! $! !) ++!F&+:00  ))-! )!! 
!!,!*&),: !)&0A-0-%] &0/&,
)&-!)&$,C!! ! "DDAF !)$-8&/,-$! ,!+
&/,  ! ,-:!)!  !)-)4 $ !
!))&!+ G/!  !+!+0-CFCAF-
0 ++!:)!! !!,C^IPLF:(&))0- ! ,4G! 
-- &!&))0&-0 ! $! !)G/-0 $!C^IHPF1
 )-/  M+ $/-$! ,N
3.2 Results
 $!+!!!&/G) !!$! ,&X& -! !)
&!!!$! ,&X& -!: +8)  ,- !/)!!&
0!!$! ,&X& -!CIHJHDIHJ4^I@F: 0 + !0
&!!!$! ,&X& -!CIAPIAPH4^I@EFCLALFIPHH@_DDI""A
 ()$/ -!: U!/)!!&X&CIEADI
HEL4^I@F
&G)$!:  :&)-:!!!!, !:!
!!!,!-$!  $! -! &)!) &X&:!
! L&&))$!+ )0:,:$!+:&
 @
,:&)0!!  -!: !(&,:&)0!! 
 -! $ !:)!+:!!!!,! $!$/
 -!&!!!$! ,&X& -! !)!!$! ,&X& -!
 -$- $ !!,:)!+!!!&! $!$/
C!F -!( -!0: !(&,:&)0!!$/
 -!: & !$ $/:0"DJ:@LZ0 $ !!)!+!
:"AZ0 !!  $!&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X& -!
:-!- ,)&)!  -::/ &:!YD >!0!+
:!!!!&0$/C!F -!&!!!$! , !)
&!!!$! ,&X& -!: /!-!&!)0+&0 $ !:
):&,:&)0
!!$! ,&X& -!) +- !/0 !(&! !)& !
&!!!$! ,&X& -!))C!(&7EJD/A"P@4&7A@HA/P@JF:
&!!!$! ,&X& -!:)-/  ,  $ !!!
( -!0: !(&,:&)0!!&!!!$! ,&X&
 -!Z0 $ ! )!:?& 0 PZ!&?& 
!):!-)) 00!  >!0/  ,!0) 
 &!!!$! ,&X& -!  -+&& !)!! $!+&L/) 
/& ) ,0+!  >!0& -0 $ !:/))=&)+-!0:
&,:&)0!!  -!:!!G+& $ !:)!+
!!&C:!!!!,F!:&,0! $!$/C!F
 -! !) !!&!:&,0! $!&!!!$! ,&X&
 -!
 J
&!))$!:  !)/)& B/0!+ $/-$! ,:&))
)+:, !+ $/,:)  /!$ !) &X&
& :!! P:()!+ $/-$! ,))0!+&!!
 :)  ,0&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X& -! -: 0&!)00!+
!(&4!0 !)/)& +!!+ $/-$! ,)0!+- !(&/!!
!! -!"  $!:!!+ $/-$! , !)0!+0
& !) !(&!!!&!!!$! ,&X& -! ) ,)!+&P
3.3 Discussion
!*&),":0&!) !)/)& B-$! !! -!: +,
)$/0-$! ! -! :!!!!,: +
! ))$!:!!!!,!!&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X&
 -!: -&+ !:!!!!,:  !) -8!*&),"
/)) $$ :/  !)/)& )K!!!+ $/-$! ,&)
&!0 !!/ $!C! / +AZF0:!!/  !!!
&+!: : !)/)& B)$! /0!+ $/-$! ,/!))
: !(&,0!!! -!G!)!+&++ !)/)& :
+!!+ $/-$! , !),!0!+/$-8)- ) !)!C* &
V /  O :"D"F- ,!/     !))--!))!!&
!),- ,&-! !:  !! & ,- !:! ! ,M& 
 ,NC*FM& /&+ 0!)NC+
,-*%*F!:!!+ $/-$! , !)B $!
!$ ,&X& -! : $/ -!!0!0)BC"DHF!
 - ++!! 0&88,&!) :!)G!)!,0)
!:!!+ $/-$! , !) $!/ --&! $!!+!  - 
 "D
!)!/$+ )$!  !) S&)! /   - ,-) B
 $!B:)( -::&)) !)/)& :)!+0 
:) ! -C "D@F !):) )!0 -C'5 O  -"D"D4
'5  "DJF 0-& !) !(&!! / ,0 -! !)
?&$!0-
G!)!+0*&)," -! , !)- ! ): -
+!& - !) -+!&0 -!1 -)- ,:,&!+
)&0-:.*&!/$ !):))!!&)$-&& -!  !
!/ && +!)(& ,   )  !-0 !&$-
& -: -)0 ,  -!0!)/)& 4!+ $/-$! ,/) &!)
$ -)!0  !): !- ,)&)CI"@PIDEE*:ID@F
'/ :!! "  :&$8)!&),C&)0-&!))
!-! ), -F))U / ,0)- !  /&!/ - ! 
&& !))!$,+&7 > $/!! ,!+!- $!+ !) !+!+C&
"DJ4#!O5/&"DLF,!+ -! !//) / ,0)- !:
- !$-8)  +/!!)/)& :&) )K!,/ &
 -!4! ):)&-!)!+:!!!!,
4.0 GENERAL DISCUSSION
!*&), 0: !!+ &!$ 0 , -0&!+)
+!)$!0 -0&!0 -+&& -!!*&),")$! 
!&$-))0!+&!!!!$! , !)&!!!$! ,&X&C -+&&F
 -! !))$! !&$-))0!+ !(&!! !)0
 -!2/!$/ -!&/  -/ !?&
!B/ --&! $!  -0&:!--&! $!:
 "
- ! -0& !+&G!)!+0-:&)&++ - ++!
&,!,0)&)-+!U&!) -&,& $!  !)
)$! 0  , & - ++!C/ !)+!,F:!/!+ -!
B:)G!)!+  :!+ ,:)! )!$/,
 -C  -"DE4  - "D"DF !)!$G) &&!)!+- ++!
!C!0)"DH4*&"DHF
!) /- ++!! ! ),)G!) M0/ 
!!/  /  !)!/!-! !)+!$ --&! )+ , S&)!$!
: ) )K!TBNC%"D"F !)&0:)M- ++!N!:--! 
!)& $!  !)-,-!!(- ++! !!+ !) !+& ++&)   0
!&-&K0  0 !)-0 !/!-!0 !)/)& 1 !-,!+
 K &!- ! , / &4!))$ :: )!&/
 !/!-!!:)/,0 0- !/C'&  "D"DF:/! :
- !!+&$! K$/ !)M-- ,!)&)!+- - !+)NC)!O
6 !"D"DP4 /!O"D""F!))!- $!0&G!)!+ :
!!$!)K  : ! &&+ !)!&- , / !! )/!K0
! !+)+: /!+ $/( !!! $!:
C )"DH4& !KO )"D@4 5 "D"DF!&$!+ &!+ $/
- +!/,)! 0  !)?&$!- , )-- -W !)!$ ,
- -0&W &!)- !,:&):
!: ,- ++! ) !!+- ,)-! /,!$&$!
! !!$G&&0!:)+0( - 0-0!$&$! 8)/&$! ,
-+, !!)&W0(! !)0- $!+0-$!+) 
C &JJL"D"FW !)!)&- ,&!), !!+ -  !0 !
 ""
&!!:!- +! !,0:)C)!O6 !"D"DF(-!  !))
(:(&$/ !!+!- ++! !)!&/ !+& + K
!)&( - !!,--,/B
:)  -0& !)0 -0&!!& -,0 !0- ,!+
!+!+2/!!+ -+ , +)&!  $/,!!&& &, 
0 ):)&)!)  ++/- !)'/0- ++!
!) !,0)!$ ):!)0$/!&/
 !+& + !!+&)- !000/ ,!+)!$$
1 !:/&++$!+  )!$,/ !1+!8  !
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--0- +! 8)+&/:)0: /-:/-!
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:-!!: :/ &))!/) !,- !)  !$!
0!=&$:!:/)C:!&/ !)&)! :0
 -(F1) 0! ::>!:)/  0- &/ !) 
- &)! ()K!!/)!=&$ !)!!$/,:&))-!4:/
: ) ()K!:&)!!+/!,0)-! $! + !
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 "L
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&G&), !)/& C*-O%,"DJF::&)) 0 !(-! 
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- ++!=&)+!+&& $! !)!+&))! !!+:&)! 
B$!0!=&$ !)!!$/,!! + )0)!$$0
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-$! ,:  !! 0)+:),:&)0&
0 !(&/- /!!!!! -+&& -!"G!)!+ 
!0)BC"DHF!! &&!:  !) - &+ !)!& &,+ 
 -&+:+!8 - ,- !!+:!!&C&O%,JJ"4
# ! "DH4# ! "D"D41 -"D"41 - "D"FG - 
!!$!  !)&!!!$! +,+  -C&- "D"43  "D""4
 )  "DP4B#0 "DA4  "DEF !&),(-!  
&-& $! &) /)&-!) !  $!:!CF$!0
(!!+- ++! !)C"F!+ $/-!  &-C3  "D""F&
&++ - ++!!+ $/&-! / )!0!0- $! 
)  - ,!0&!)!+ $/-$! ,7!)/)& : +!!+ $/-$! , 
,&++:-!  !!C : "D"43 O'<>"D@F !)
(!!+ !)!+&,+ !)!&C' "DF!0&&&) 
& &(-! )+!K0 -+&&--&! $!!!)/)& B
,+ :!+:)K:-!&!) -!+:+/
0!+ $/-$! ,
 "P
0    & !(:!$!0,+  -,B
:) !)!+ $/-!  &-!!$ !+ $/K0- ++!
-!+!!)/)& B-!   !):!+&)! !+, !+
&0*&) !)"-, & $! 0 - ,(  )$! /&! $
$!0 -!)/)& 0:-:)  ),/)  ) !+& - ,
 $& ,!U&!),- + - 8 ! -!B:),
(  $!+  ),($!+) $!,+ :!+ -!+0)K!+/0
-$! ! ,!:) !&/ !+& + !!+:-
0- ++!-+)- - !+)0:   ),-$! ,
&!  !))(,
4.1 Conclusion
& !)  & $! C-!+F !))$! C!+ $/
-$! ,F0  !!U&!!)/)& B$!0 -!B:)'/:
0&!)+!! !!,:!&= )&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X&
 -!&$!+ - - / )!0 - !)
C'5  "DJF&+&G!)!+ -! , !)!!)0 $!&&)
/) !- $/!&=$/! &0- ++!! !),
 , :!!$!)K : !0!$  -!/,)!
B:)- , /! )/!K0(  $!+$!0 - !)&X&!!!
  - !) +&C"D"DF!)!)&!0 )!!+0 - )
!&! :!?&!0,:)! )!$/, - 
- ,) - ,&!) 
 "A
Footnotes
1!!!!,: C^IEHF:!!+! !) -+&& -!:
! ,8) !0-
"-!+ $ !!$-&&/ ) $!+&: )  -!0) 
--&! : &X&!+ $/-$! ,))+/0/)
!!&C!!$! ,&X& -!7IAJAZ3QDP"AR4&!!!$! ,&X&
 -!7I@JAZ3QD@"@R4$/ -!7IHJAZ3QDE"HRF
 "E
References
5 'C"D"D*EF/,- !/, ) !!+
>7;;-& + -;"D"D;DJ;E;)/,- ! ) !!+;
- !%,+  $!C"D"F!&/ !+& ++&)!
>7;;:::  +; &;  ;?&,)/,!&!; !+& ++&)!)0
-O*C"DLF!!$!  - :/!:!,B!.
/0CJFHAAHE">7;;)+;DHH;DJAEHJHELP@DADH
-O*C"DAF%/)!!-$/ - +!0,/) -.%
11/C"FLAJJLEDA>7;;)+;DDHL;! ADAJ""
  -#'!  )!*-!bO1 #C"DF' &!+-&$-!,
75%03' ++!* 2!3'
.14ELHP
 /'O# &1*C"DJF,- >7*(& ! $!- ++!!+
5678"91:CF@LDE>7;;)+;DD@D;JLEEAL"D@ALPEL"
 :3&bO1) )*C"D"F&$- !)))0-$!7!:
,!2.;<CAFPDPH
>7;;)+;DHH;DJELH"P"DLD"AL
 0)K- !!O!)*C"DPF,&: [%$!0+!)
- ++!!: .+=;>CLFLPDLPJ
>7;;)+;DHH;DLEE@PLLAP"D
1b!%b' ,bC"D@F++: !!+7- /)!  )5
8!"'(.:1LPP
>7;;)+;DDE;=="D@DHDD"
 "H
&-1/ 6,!O!!,C"D"F $!0- ++!:
& !) !(, -!+!-!,+&)!!  ,1
!$&$!2!'.1>CFPA2AP
>7;;)+;DDLH; DD"APAH
&O%,'CJJ"F ++!?&$!! 5.
.:;PA"PAJ
&'C"DJF'!?"CE)F&)+
3 O'<>C"D@F0! !)!0 7'! ))!!)-!!"
%5.14@CJF@L@PP
>7;;)+;DHE;  ="D@H"L@L
3!b!+''!#O>%C"D""F3 0M))!+N73+!$/
)$!) 0,-!)0 :) ! - !)++: !!+
!)-!!+&)!.-!A1>@"PL
>7;;)+;DDE;= )"D""PL
3! !$!'5C"DDHF  - ++! + !0 !- !!!  
&!!+ $!52.@0E
3 %'&<b1:!*6!*  O'!#C"D""F
' ++!7'+ --&[-  ! ,52
.1H>7;;)+;DDD";=""@@A
3 %O'3 CJJAF- ! !)0 7  ! , -!&!+
/)%! ,!/!,5.%:0CF"AD
>7;;)+;D"DH;"AL"HHA"= EPDc"
 "@
/!%5OC"D""F/, !!++ - $! !)-7/:0
-&$)! , &%&!.B4;PDLP"J
>7;;)+;DPE; !!&/,DED"""""A
!! !'3!+O&8>5C"DDAF3! )/ ),0 +-!
!)!+&)!  ! ,0: ! ,?&$!! 7 ! $/
'%]5&.;CPA@P@A>7;;)+;DDE;=="DDPDADDP
3'1)0)'5 !*8!+%O65C"DJF)/ !!+ 
!5]- ++!7,-!+/:0- &5
(::CDFLPALHJ>7;;)+;DD@D;DDJ@LEJ"D@ALJA@
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.1/CFHEHH>7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJEEEEHDAD
  -C"DEF3!7%,+,B( !)!+!0 - !) +,
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  - !3  !'5 'bb6,-/ 1 /!+'O1'
C"D"DF -!U $!7' !+!0!'&!.
;1CF"AP"@E>7;;)+;DD@D;DPEL"@L"D"DHJED@D
,- !5O5- !*CJJ@F&!+)!&-$/!0- $!-  !0!
!.;0C"FLDL">7;;)+;DDLH;DD"EPJLP"LD
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U$!! !  )(.!.1:CAFJL"JAA
>7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJE"JJ@EL
# !b11 -'#&8,!'' !# &('O!3C"DHF
-! ,! $!:!- ++! + !  !)
 "J
 - -!+:+&)!&.C"J"JJ
>7;;)+;DDDH;"AA"DHJ"PD
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1  3O!3C"D"DF- &-! !)&&0- ++/
--&! $!,: + ! &.1/L"LLPL
>7;;)+;DDDH;"AA"D"DDJ"J@:
#!O5/&6C"DLF"?!
E 
 #1!+3O1'C"DEF* !!)! !)! !0&! !, 
-) :!  - ++! !) !(, -!+ !)/)& 5
2.:;C"F"PD2"PE>7;;)+;DDL;&DDDD"L
!0)*C"DHF' ++!7*!+ -! )?& /)!.!
.1/CFL@EJ>7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJEEEAJLJ
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A104HJ@P>7;;)+;DDE;= )"DJDPDA
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@@CAFPEPHP>7;;)+;DLAL;)"DPDDA
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Z"D5&)cDLA")0
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* &V /  *O :C"D"F?%
5&0)%
*-O%,bC"DJF/, !!+-)!!0$ ! !)
$!0- ++!.25.&/0C"FDE"
>7;;)+;D"P@LJ;"L"AHLP"b"P"DE
*&13 )&3'!53&b') ) #O?&!'C"DDHF
  - ++!!/,) ,07- $!0!  $%
.B:/CPF"H2"@E>7;;)+;DDLH;DDDLDEEdE"P"H
*&1C"DDF!?&BB(1,
*&1C"DHF' ++! !)M/)!N7- (!$  ,[.!
.1/CFHDH">7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJEEEEPPLH
'1O&:C"DDF  - ++! !),+ 0&!$!!+
-!++, /!+0 !- !7-()-)  53
2./CCDFDHP2DJJ>7;;)+;DA";="DD"JDDHP
1 !O3 CJ@PF+ $/ K$/,7)$!(! //-$! 
 .8C:CLFPEAPJD>7;;)+;
1 -'C"D"F' ++!  0-0 ++!8!"@/HDJHJ
>7;;)+;DDE;="D"DDJDD
1 -'3!+1O5 bC"D"F.!) !)!+ ++! !)- ++!,
!) + !0&2!8!"10"A
>7;;)+;DDH;HAPPHD("DDD"LP
 L"
 LL
Table 1
1?!!'&B2
!'&B2
2K.L
M41
I
M41
-
M4@
CFCFCF
+ $/-$! , "HHCDAAF "HACDAAF "HPCDA@F
!+!C3!F%  H"CD@JF A@CDE@F EECD@JF
-+&&%  L@ECDJF PLCDLF PDECDJF
3 $!7+ $/-$! ,
!) -0&! $!+0!+!
% CJAZ3F
LQLER HQDELJR DQLL"R
3 $!7+ $/-$! ,
!) -0&! $!+0
-+&&% CJAZ3F
D"Q"""AR @QDAPDR "Q"LPR
 LP
Table 2
I/
2 .! I 

- 

2 M,0,&
: N
e f)K!0-: 
,&&& ,: e
M:&)!/:  N
 M&-+)N M&&):N M&-N
%H! M&B+)!+N M&B+S!++)
!+N
M&B&+,N
 M/,&-N M&&),!/ +!N M& )N
 M&  ,N M& -!+
) ,N
M&  :0&N
 M& &+!+N M& !/!++
(!N
M& /!0N
. e& /,Ue e&!-& &
: !0
,&e
M,&  &,&0N
- e5 =e e&G! ,))e e&:!/ )
 e
- e!,,&&) /
!:)  )?&$!
 e
e&)!B!: [e e1, ,&)&-[e
 e& /,e e&&) )e e&e
8 e& ! ,+) e e&&)(-e e& 0 e
 e!,!:&): !) 
,&e
e& /) 
+ ) e
e))!f! !,!:&)
/: !) ,&e


e&B + 0!)e e' !+0!)-+ 
&++0,&e
e!: !,&
0!)e
 e& /&+ 0!)e e)!B!::,,& 
0!):-e
e&0!)  -e
 e&0!+ )G!,
/ )e
e: =& =e e*- !+ +) &0
e
. e& e e3 !,&=&!
$-[e
e3&)!B,&=&!- [e
 LA
Table 3
!'&/B.&
6/@NB@<NBI/@N&O
P KL  
N
/@N
N
@<N
N
/@N
%(CILE"F
%$/C3!F
* -!
JL "A@CADAF "DJ AHL @LP EL DL
.!!!$! ,
&X&
JL A"P@C"DHEF DL DP  HPP P"
!!$! ,
&X&
JA EJDC"LDEF DAH DPL JA APE LAJ
CILELF
%$/C3!F
* -!
@J "HECEE@F ADL L"E JH@ "" DD
.!!!$! ,
&X&
JD P@JC@L@F D"" DAJ @H HJE H
!!$! ,
&X&
JP A@HAC""EPF DEH D"@ DA E "@P
EO &-/  !  !+)0-DDD
 LE
Table 4
%8!''&$,+/
.!K8L

I 

- 

:!(& LQ"PDR PEQLHAPR PQL"PJR
:& DJQD"DR LPQ"APLR L"Q""PR
_D4_DD6 &:! !JAZ30
 LH
Figure 1
1?&8%.B.2
!+!%  -+&&% 
3!C%-F
.!!!$!  -
!!$!  -
Harm less
& 
 -0&
E !Y"*'!)  M -N: )) M& N P !)
M -0&N H
 L@
Figure 2
1?&8.%.
Benign Phrases
Ambiguous Phrases
 LJ
Figure 3
/?8G.&
Posive Statements
Unintenonally Hur>ul Statements
Intenonally Hur>ul Statements
 PD
Figure 4
/?%8!'&I 

How Anxious Would You Feel if Someone Said this to You?
How Hurt Would You Feel if Someone Said this to You?
Article
This article offers my personal assessment of the recent efforts to censor certain metaphors in higher education within the United States. Many universities have created extensive speech codes that censor various metaphorical words and phrases for their potential harm, especially for possibly being offensive to different individuals and marginalized communities. I discuss some of the problems with these efforts and offer a brief defense of the importance of metaphors, good or bad, in our public conversations.
Article
Full-text available
While research on microaggressions has accumulated in recent decades, doubts have arisen over their impact on individuals. Hence, the purpose of this study was to analyze the relations between microaggressions and psychological well‐being, physical health, job outcomes, and positive and negative coping. Potential moderators (i.e., microaggression target, publication year, publication status, sample occupation, and inclusion of nonstigmatized group members) were also examined. A meta‐analytic approach was chosen to summarize the findings in the microaggression literature. Several search terms and databases were used to identify articles for inclusion. After review, a total of 141 articles with 154 samples contributed effect sizes to our analyses. The results showed that microaggressions were negatively related to psychological well‐being and physical health and positively related to coping. The pattern of results was generally the same regardless of the microaggression target, the year the study was conducted, the publication status of the paper, the occupation of the sample, and whether the sample included nonstigmatized groups members or not. This meta‐analysis demonstrates the stable, harmful effects associated with experiencing microaggressions. Specifically, microaggressions predicted negative outcomes across individuals and contexts. Thus, actions should be taken to decrease their prevalence within educational and occupational settings.
Article
Full-text available
In their book, The Coddling of the American Mind, Lukianoff and Haidt (2018) contended that the rise of “safetyism” within American society has inspired beliefs and practices that hinder college students' socioemotional development. One of their most controversial claims was that college students' safetyism-inspired beliefs (e.g., emotional pain or discomfort is dangerous) are rooted in and supported by cognitive distortions, or negatively biased patterns of thought (e.g., emotional reasoning). Citing evocative anecdotes, they argued that such distortions emerge in students' perceptions of offensive or ideologically-challenging experiences as disproportionately harmful or traumatic. However, no empirical work has substantiated an association between cognitive distortions and safetyism-inspired beliefs or practices. In a large (N = 786), ethnically and economically diverse sample of college students, we conducted the first examination of the relationship between these variables. Aligning with Lukianoff and Haidt's assertions, we found that students' self-reported prevalence of cognitive distortions positively predicted their endorsement of safetyism-inspired beliefs, the belief that words can harm, and support for the broad use of trigger warnings. Considering our exploratory results, we argue that greater empirical scrutiny of safetyism-inspired beliefs and practices is warranted before such customs become more widely adopted.
Article
Full-text available
Three studies (Ns = 350, 301 & 341) examined the reliability, validity, and correlates of a new measure of harm inflation, the individual differences counterpart of ‘concept creep’. The Harm Concept Breadth Scale (HCBS) assesses variability in the expansiveness of concepts of harm (i.e., bullying, mental disorder, prejudice, trauma), such that these concepts refer to a wider range of phenomena among people scoring high on the scale. Study 1 developed 66 vignettes representing potential instances of the four concepts, selected optimal subsets of 10 vignettes for each concept, and demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency of the subscales. Study 2 demonstrated that the HCBS had excellent internal consistency, and established construct validity through associations with measures of moral foundations, justice sensitivity, general category inclusiveness, and political orientation. Study 3 employed participants from a different national background and further clarified the correlates of the HCBS via measures of empathy, moral expansiveness, and the Big Five personality traits. The findings indicate that concept breadth is a reliably measurable individual difference variable with weak to moderate associations with harm-based morality, prosocial concern, political liberalism, female gender, and negative emotionality. The HCBS is a valid psychometric instrument for examining the causes and implications of harm inflation.
Article
Echoing the 1960s, the 2020s opened with racial tensions boiling. The Black Lives Matter movement is energized, issuing pleas to listen to Black voices regarding day-to-day discrimination and expressing frustrations over the slow progress of social justice. However, psychological scientists have published only several opinion pieces on racial microaggressions, primarily objections, and strikingly little empirical data. Here I document three trends in psychology that coincide with the academic pushback against microaggressions: concept-creep concerns, especially those regarding expanded notions of harm; the expansion of right-leaning values in moral judgments (moral foundations theory); and an emphasis on prejudice symmetry, with the political left deemed equivalently biased against right-leaning targets (e.g., the rich, police) as the right is against left-leaning targets (e.g., Black people, women, LGBT+ people). Psychological scientists have ignored power dynamics and have strayed from their mission to understand and combat prejudice against disadvantaged populations, rendering researchers distracted and ill-equipped to tackle the microaggression concept. An apparent creep paradox, with calls to both reduce (e.g., harm) and expand (e.g., liberal prejudices, conservative moral foundations) concepts, poses a serious challenge to research on prejudice. I discuss the need for psychology to better capture Black experiences and to “tell it like it is” or risk becoming an irrelevant discipline of study.
Article
Efforts to understand racial microaggressions have focused on the impact on targets, but few studies have examined the motivations and characteristics of offenders, and none has examined microaggressions committed by members of racialized groups. The purpose of this study is to determine if racial microaggressions should be conceptualized as a form of aggression when committed by racialized individuals by examining the relationship between propensity to commit microaggressions and aggressive tendencies to help inform interventions. This nationwide survey recruited 356 Asian, Black and Hispanic American adults. Participants completed measures of likelihood of committing anti-Black microaggressions, aggression, negative affect, and ethnic identity. There was a significant negative correlation between ratings by diversity experts of microaggressive interactions being racist and participants’ likelihood of engaging in those same interactions. For each ethnoracial group, likelihood of committing anti-Black microaggressions was significantly positively correlated with all measures of aggression examined. The correlation between microaggressions and aggression was strongest for non-White Hispanic participants and weakest among Asian participants. A linear regression showed that aggression uniquely predicted microaggression likelihood, after controlling for respective co-variates within groups. Among non-White Hispanic participants, there was a significant positive correlation between negative affect and propensity to commit microaggressions, but this association disappeared in the regression analysis after accounting for aggression. A positive ethnic identity was not correlated with microaggression likelihood among Black participants. Findings indicate that microaggressions represent aggression on the part of offenders and constitute a form of behaviour that is generally socially unacceptable. Implications and cognitive behavioural treatment approaches are discussed. Key learning aims (1) People of colour generally recognize that racial microaggressions are unacceptable. (2) People of colour may commit microaggressions against other people of colour. (3) Anti-Black microaggressions are correlated to aggression in perpetrators. (4) Microaggressions are not solely attributable to negative affect or low ethnic identity. (5) Therapists should address microaggressions, even when committed by people of colour.
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We describe an approach to anxiety, depressive, trauma-related, and other disorders, which we conceptualize as “emotional disorders” because of shared underlying dimensions uncovered by the study of traits or temperaments. We then explicate a functional model of emotional disorders based largely, but not exclusively, on the temperament of neuroticism and describe common factors that account for the development and maintenance of these conditions. We conclude by describing, and presenting supporting data for, a unified transdiagnostic approach to the treatment of emotional disorders that directly targets the underlying temperament of neuroticism and associated temperamental characteristics.
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In this review, we utilize a narrative approach to synthesize the multidisciplinary literature on diversity training. In examining hundreds of articles on the topic, we discovered that the literature is amorphous and complex and does not allow us to reach decisive conclusions regarding best practices in diversity training. We note that scholars of diversity training, when testing the efficacy of their approaches, too often use proxy measures for success that are far removed from the types of consequential outcomes that reflect the purported goals of such trainings. We suggest that the enthusiasm for, and monetary investment in, diversity training has outpaced the available evidence that such programs are effective in achieving their goals. We recommend that researchers and practitioners work together for future investigations to propel the science of diversity training forward. We conclude with a roadmap for how to create a more rigorous and relevant science of diversity training. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 73 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Most efforts to understand microaggressions have examined affected group members, but little work has been done to understand the motivations and characteristics of offenders. The purpose of this study was to determine whether microaggressions are best conceptualized as a form of aggression, as per common definitions advanced in social psychology, by examining correlations between propensity to commit microaggressions and aggressive tendencies. This cross-sectional study was conducted using MTurk Prime to survey a sample of White and Black adults across the United States (N = 610). Measures administered included the Cultural Cognitions and Actions Scale (CCAS) to assess the likelihood of committing microaggressions, Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ), Inventory of Hostility and Suspicious Thinking (IHS), Overt–Covert Aggression Inventory (OCAI), and the Positive and Negative Affectivity Schedule (PANAS). The CCAS was found to be highly and significantly positively correlated with all three measures of aggression. There was a significant negative correlation between Black participants’ ratings of microaggressive interactions being racist and White participants’ likelihood of engaging in those same interactions. There was a significant positive correlation between negative affectivity and the propensity of White participants to commit microaggressions. In a regression predicting microaggressive propensity from aggressive tendencies, the BPAQ was highly significant, whereas negative affectivity was not. Findings indicate that microaggressions represent aggression and hostility on the part of offenders and a form of aggressive behavior that is generally socially unacceptable. Future research should explore the relationship between the many forms of microaggressions and aggression among different groups.
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Previous research on microaggressions has emphasized the frequency of and distress produced by microaggressions as reported by people of color. The current research supplements the existing literature by developing a self-report measure of White individuals’ microaggressive likelihood against Black people, the Cultural Cognitions and Actions Scale (CCAS). Study 1 developed the CCAS through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of responses to CCAS items from a sample of 978 non-Hispanic White undergraduate students. The final scale comprised four factors (Negative Attitudes, Colorblindness, Objectifying, and Avoidance) assessing microaggressive likelihood, and CCAS total and factor scores were significantly related to several other indicators of racism and bias. Study 2 involved 31 of the previous participants in a lab-based discussion of race-related issues with a confederate and provided initial support for the predictive validity of the measure. Overall, this report supports a growing literature that microaggressions are more than innocuous, harmless behaviors, unrelated to racism, and instead represent relevant processes within the science of racism and bias. It also provides a potential means of testing the effectiveness of interventions intended to reduce the commission of microaggressions.
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“Concept creep” is the gradual semantic expansion of harm-related concepts such as bullying, mental disorder, prejudice, and trauma. This review presents a synopsis of relevant theoretical advances and empirical research findings on the phenomenon. It addresses three fundamental questions. First, it clarifies the characterisation of concept creep by refining its theoretical and historical dimensions and presenting studies investigating the change in harm-related concepts using computational linguistics. Second, it examines factors that have caused concept creep, including cultural shifts in sensitivity to harm, societal changes in the prevalence of harm, and intentional meaning changes engineered for political ends. Third, the paper develops an account of the consequences of concept creep, including social conflict, political polarisation, speech restrictions, victim identities, and progressive social change. This extended analysis of concept creep helps to understand its mixed implications and sets a multi-pronged agenda for future research on the topic.