Content uploaded by April Bleske-Rechek
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by April Bleske-Rechek on Oct 10, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
This document is a pre-proof. The paper has been accepted for publicaon at
PAID (Personality and Individual Dierences).
In the Eye of the Beholder:
Situaonal and Disposional Predictors of Perceiving Harm in Others’ Words
!"# $% &' ()* !& )!
# +&,!!*,&- !)% * ,
.!/,01!!2 &3 43!)!+ &
"5 !)6 ,* .!/,
Author Contribuons
April Bleske-Rechek73!& 8 $!')+,!/$+ $! 3& $!1$!+2+!
91$!+2/!6& 8 $!*&/!
Robert O. Deaner7!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+6& 8 $!
Kae N. Paulich73!& 8 $!')+,!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Michael Axelrod73!& 8 $!')+,1$!+2/: !))$!+
Stephanus Badenhorst73!& 8 $!!/$+ $! 3& $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Kai Nguyen7!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Eleni Seyoum7')+,!/$+ $!1$!+2/: !))$!+
Parker S. Lay71$!+2/: !))$!+
Acknowledgments/Author Note
: &),0 &,;&)! $/ + !0-<0
!)*!)%+ - .!/,01!! &3 1 !'
!!* -& !) /)* - !0--!!/&) 90- !&4:
!: !!,-&/:0!&$/0) ) !)- 0=
/ !&* +7>7;;0;?@A;
Highlights
%-!+ -)/ -+&& -! -0&
10&!)!+:!!!!,!!/ & -+&& -!
+ $/-$! ,))!)/)& B! -+&& -!
Data Statement
3-&),- !)) 0*&), !)*&)," / !!*!
-: >7;;0;?@A;
Ethical Statement
:))! ! )&! ) !:3)00
1)') $!0(-!!//!+&- !!0-)!!: !)0
(-! $!:&- !&=
"
Abstract
!- !0 $!0,B! )!$/, !) $/, -!$! :) !
) -0&+ )0:& !)+ )0!!0/) -0&,
/0 C -"DEF:/&! : G:)&)
!)) -0& $& ,0 -!,0)C!0)"DHF:)
, & $! !))$! 0 !-!)/)& !B/
--&! $! -0&!*&),C!I"H.*+&)!F !!!- &
-0&:))!)/)& / -+&& 0- -0&!*&),"C!I
DJ".*+&)!F $ !:)0 -:!! !:!!
!!,!-$! $!:),/ ,!+ -+&& -! !)!+ $/
-$! ,: !!)0:!!)K!!0!+& !) !(&,
& -! !+G!)!+0-:&) , :
!!$!)K : !0!$ -!/,)!B:)- , /
! )/!K0( $!+$!0 - $& , -!+!)/)& ),!!)
: )&$!
7:) ! -!! -- ++!!+ $/-$! ,-!+
!&$-!
L
1.0 INTRODUCTION
-M!N: !)&), -C"DEF)( !))- !$
)/$-0/ & - )!*G , - +&) !&
&- &,!+-! !)=&) /!)/$-!&)-) !)
&!-! !,))! +&!+ --! )&!),!+!
!/ & )-)- ! ,:):!!$!) $!+!$/, -
C - "D"D4%!"DF -/))/)! - )! /
( !))!&)!!,(! ,/G !+(!& &=$/
,+ (!&+! - ! ),!!B&=$/(!0
!+ -) !!/) /C -"DEF -))- ++!
- ,( -0! &:M -N0-,0)!,, $!
- ++! ( -0 ! ) -0&+ )0:& !)
+ )0!!0/) -0&, +0 C3! "D""4
-"DE4& !KO )"D@F
- ++!!: &+ >!$!0- ! -,+
--&!,, )1!+*& !) +&C*& "DDHF:)G!)- ++!
M0 !)--! ) ,/ / !/!-! !)+!$:!!$!
&!!!$! --&! $)+ ,!+ $/ + !)!&: )
0NC"HF*& B)&!0- ++!/) !- !-!)
)-,+,0!$!&)=&) (!,C)!"D"F&+
- ++!!: !$ ,))!!(0 !( !))+
!//!+(& !)+!))!$,C /O# &1"DJ4 0) "DP4
"DJF3!!:( -0!--! & / ,0!)/)&
>&!&)!+ +),:+-! +!$/ , !), , /-
P
!- ),-M- ++!NC- !%,+ $!Q%R"D"4*.
3!0/, !)!&!"D"F&- ++! !:)G!) M0/
!!/ / !)!/!-! !)+!$ --&! )+ , S&)!$!
: ) )K!TBNC%"D"PF
! -!/ !)$ / & $!0!$G &0- ++!
!!0)C"DHF)&))<&$ ):2 0
- ++!2 -,)G!)C!0)"DHF!0) +&)
- ++!!& ,)G!) -+&&& !)-$-&!!!$! + !)
!)+!$C*&"DD4*& "DDHF /0&88,&!) C'JHHF3!)!+
)G!$!0- ++!)!0,,0--&! $! !) $! &)
!))+!)+!$!0) )/) M( !-,: !$&
- ++!&: )NC"DHPP- !+! F( -+ )!+:
)!$& - ++!($!+)G!$!&++, !!!/ : /
C*&"DD4*& "DDHF4 !)+ )!+: )!!$& - ++!
/ C+ F !)!!/ C+, > F !+! ,))
- ++!:/ &- ++! ) )!+!)/)& B
&=$/(!C*& "DDHF- /)-)! !) !
>- ! -- )/)( $!0!C)!"D"F! -0
!)- >!$!&( - /!) 0
- ++! !,0)! , !,!+&)!)
- ++!C )"DH4!0)"DHF&-& $! 0 C+(&
&!- ++!F !))$! 0 C+!&$-F-+!U&!!)/)& B
$!0 -!B:) -& :)-/)
, !)! : ))-,- $ ,,&),!+)+:
A
!-),& $!)$!!B/ --&! $!
-0&
' ++! !!+ /:- !!++ 0 !+B : !0
!$ - ,)!:!B:)&,- , / & $! 0
!-/ -:,:&)! /:C 5 "D"D4!0)
"DH4& !KO )"D@F%-! ,/)!!&0,-0- &),0
- ++!,*- !)%,C"DJF::) (& G/-!&
$/ !!+!M+!8!+' ++!N)/ -+&&& $!
- -0&K!/ !,))0 !!+ 0 &),"H+&)!
G/:) 0- ))/ &,0 - ++! !)0
-&)! ))+:,/)& $! -0&K!/9
,/:) :>! !)& ( !),0- ++! !)- +
- ++! !!/,C*&"DDF!:!&)! ) !:C&- F
0-0 - !)K!:+!G !,+ !
C*-O%,"DJF1+!8 )<&) : ! $!0-
&!! $!0G!)!+ !!+)-- : 0
C & ,($!+F -!B:)&+/!!!&=$/, !) -+&,0
& $! !! $! !!+)/ -:,:&)!
/::))! & ,(
&!&! :)+!)*&),(,) !+B
: !0!$ - ,)!B:):&) )/B:)
-0&!*&),: - 0*- !)%,C"DJF:/)K)0-
*- !)%,BC"DJF&),!/ : ,7:&) :!&=!,C
!;F)+!K0 !+!! & -0&:)!B
E
$!/ -!*!):--!))K!!)$!!&)!+ !
- !- !)2-- !, !)$!!
: $ !/)!- ):&0&,&) -+&& &)
)/), !,! !)/), !,!+ )0)!$,+&&+
!(!:- ++!!: !)&)- !-& --0
- +! 8))+&(! - ++!($!+ & ,
)- ++! )! !!)/)& BM(!$ ,NC*&"DHHF:&)
+ &++ !!B(!$ ,0!+ +0 &+!&
!/ ) $!)!?& 0,0, ! --0 G)!$,'/ : !0
/ ,!+)-!!0/+ !)! ! )!&) !) -/,!)
+!) !)(& +&)!$$ +:!+!&-0!)/)& - ,/-/
) )/ ! +))0: & ! !!C+)&/0
> $/!!- $-& ,+!$/ ,),:+4*.3!0
/, !)!&!"D"F
! ,*&), (), )$! / 0!+ $/
-$! ,:&)-) K0& $! -!$!0 -!)/)&
+!!+ $/-$! , !)!&$- )): )!+ $/,C1 !O3 J@P4
* &V / O :"D"F!))G!/ & - )!C& &- !)
=&)F- ), !)C'5 O -"D"D4'5 "DJF !)
$& ,!W/!0-))W/!+ -+&&$-& $ !!+
C' :O' )"DDAF&:)) : !!+ B:) !!/,
-:&) / !+K0: +!!+ $/-$! ,
! -0*&),": ( !)&!)$! 0!+ $/-$! ,
)0/!+ -!/ & -+&& -! &)!) -0&
H
!))!0)) !+ $/-$! ,- !0( !!+ !
$$ !!:!0- ++!:-)M )(0+!!
!!,NC"DHAAF :(!!+!,0- ++!
,(!!+0-0- ++!C - "D43! !$!"DDH4
' "D4 "DDFG!)!+-: &!!&$/ &M
(!0!- ++!)!! ,! )0 !NC!+
"DLJDF!),!0)C"DHAEFM' ++! )- !
(-,)/ 0+!& !)!&0/ &- ! $!+0- )/ ,0
!)/)& C*& "DDHFN*! :,-!)/)& :! +&:&)!!,
!0- !,!)0- ++!0-- !,)K!!- !,)K!
& $!: !)/)& :! -+&:&)!!,!!0)C"DHF
&++) -0:!!)K!!)+:
!!,(!!+- ++!-+( !),:!!)K!!
!+ $/-$! ,
&0: $$ :!*&),:)+!)*&),"),)
:+!!+ $/-$! ,!!,! -+&& -!
,+ , -0&1-) ! ,0 -! &)!) &X& !)
: ))+:!)/)& )!+ $/, -!1))
:&)0 -:!! !:!!!!,!!!$ ,
&X& -! !) !)/)& B/0!+ $/-$! ,:&)))+
:, !+ $/,:),/ ,!+ -!
2.0 STUDY 1
2.1 Method
2.1.1 Parcipants
@
% $ !!*&),:"H&)!0- +! &&!/,!'):!
.!)* C +IJ@"Y@J4AA-!ED:-!"&! )F1 ) -)0 -80
"PEC0@DZ:)- -)&-K0- !& $!F&))!
)) -8 -8: !)/))@DZ:)-)&- +
K0&!)!)!/ 1!&B-!G &/) -
-&!+ +&)!! /&! , - $/, &M !)!/ $!N
&),: /),!$&$! /: ) &!/, !) !) )&- !&=
:0:)1))! !,)-+ !0- $!,!)+!))!$, !)
+4 ;!-$!0&!/,0-: -: ) :!- ,
1:Z&)!0
2.1.2 Measures and Procedure
*&),: LC-F("C,0 -!F-()&=)+!:!+ $/
-$! , !$!&&-) / G!)!)!/ -!+!)$!:
:!&= !) )/7 $ !/)!-C!F -0
&!!!$! - -0!!$! -, !)- +!-! $ !:+/!!
0/!0?&$!! !!!)$!!)&,!! )
M &++ , !!+ +!-0-0!/ $!:/
!+:/"A ) ,&+&0- !,! $!: !+0!)
people say or ask about all kinds of di7erent things.N!
!)$!, ) “ &++ , !!+ +!-0-0
!/ $!:/!+:/"A ) ,&+&0- !,
! $!: !+0!) somemes people say or ask things that they don’t
even realize are harmful and can create a hosle environment for othersN! ,!
!)$!, )M &++ , !!+ +!-0-0
J
!/ $!:/!+:/"A ) ,&+&0- !,
! $!: !+0!) somemes people intenonally say or ask things
that are harmful and can create a hosle environment for othersN)0!: &)! &
?&$!! 1() $ !::-)/ -,!+()
) , -0&!+:&)/ - -0& !:&)
$ !!!!)$!::!-) & -0&:)& &
&- !/!!)) - : !)- -:, !&!!!)) -C+-
O"DL4"DAF !)/&0& -- !&!!!)) - !) $/0
- !!!C,- !O5- !JJ@F:()$!0 -!+!
--!)$! !! --!)$!
% $ !! !)$!:! )M:),&! 00:!+
-!;?&$![N,:+/!" G/0::!+!C!F !)/!0
:: -+&&C :! /)F)/ G/--0
-G!)!)!,+! )/ ( -0: ,0:
!)/ ( -0: ,0: &)
/) &+ !)!& !- -- !-! $! !)
+)&!G/!+! C:?&$! -!F !)/! -+&& C!
?&$!!?&$!; -! !)G/ -!F!+! :M: ,&) ,
![NM !B+&!+4 /: NM - ,+!+-:!)N
M1 ),&: !X([N !)M&B& +)0!)N -+&& :
0:7M/,!+ ,[&$)NM&&)&&!!!+NM& )K! !
)G(),&:&)NM/&!)?& G)&)!B+=/?& G)
NM,&0&0 C.!/,FNM,&0- - :![N !)M - ,
-)::,& !)!+ 2,&!!+ ,- &)! , \N
D
% $ ! ) ! /!! !+!+0-C) FCPF
CHF
9 $!+ $ !!))P@-0-%C3 O'3
JJAF - &(0 0&$-C !(, !+,$,)!-&/!
0!&! !)/&! ,F !)A-0-: %! ,]&$!! C%]4
!! ! "DDAF - &0 0+ $/-$! ,C $!
! $! !) ++!F-:! /)4 $ !!))&!+ G/!
!+!+0-CFCAF &--!+ ++!
!) ! $!0 0!+ $/-$! ,0-%]:)!! !!,C^/ &
_PAF:->)-0- ! ,4G! -- &!&))G/-0
$! !)P@-0!&$-C^IJLF1 )-/ M+ $/
-$! ,NC&):: -:!:->) ++! !)
! $!0--- &F
2.2 Results
1!)&):!$ !/ ),0) & $ !
-)! , -! 9 $!+ -! !0: ! ,8)
!)!B!+ $/-$! , 0&!$!0-!+!)$!:!!
- !& $!))! K $ !B!! ,- &C""PFIDDE
IJPE $ `"IDDF
*!):: !)& G/-:) !+!:!0 /)
!+!!/!! 0!+! ) -) !0C -F
!)!+$/:40& $ !!))- , :,:
) ?&$! -!C?&$!/ -! ) -C"LFID@AILJHF
&:-&) -0 !)!B $!G/!+! C^
IHP4IEAID@"JAZ3QAPHERF
5/!!! !!)&-!)!/&&)0- ++!C -
"D43! !$!"DH4' "D4 "DDF !)!! !!,:
)&-!)!!&!+! :!)&) ! ! , $ !B!!
!!,!! -+&& &+:!,/! -+&&
!) -- &,/ ):),!)- !C+, !!+!+
&!+!+!& - &,F ! ,/ )& !$ !! C:!!F!!,C^I
HDF& &+ $ !/): ! !) ?&$!C+M
/,!+ ,[&$)NF -0&/ !G/!) -!
C )C""FIAE@_DDF-/!+0 0-!! !!, ! ,
))!- !!+0&, !! ,CHDHF !)-/!+0-
!! !!,-/!+ !&)):) ?&$! ))!
&-0 ! ,)):&: ) -0 $ !B
$!+0/! -+&& CIPD@IDJEJAZ3QLJAP"RF1&!&
0!! !!,!)&!
G=$/0*&),: , -!+!)/)& /
B:) -0&:&) K -0&! $!+!+0 6/ )
- !& $! K)/) -0&!0 -+&& C""DFILJJID"D
$ `"IDPC-))! K $!+0!+! C""FIDAIEDP $
`"IDDA:&++!+! :&,!) !+!F:& ! ,
/ ) () $ !::-)/ - -!)0
$ !::-):) M , -0&!+N ) -+&&
- -0& !!+& $ !)))KIDL"JAZ3QDDADEDR
"
ID"IDLP! ))$! ) ,)!+& $ !() -
- ) -+&& - -0& !!+& $ !))CIDAF
:/&!( $! $ !() --))!)K0-
!+&CIP"JF!)),)K0- --+&CI"ALF
!)=$/: : $ !B/0!+ $/-$! ,:&)
-) K0- !& $!& K0M , -0&!+N-
:&)+!) -!+!)/)& : +!!+ $/-$! ,& ) ,)
! &+ $!:! $ !B!+ $/-$! , !) -0&!
$!+! -!+!)$!:!)))$! $!:: !)!
$$ ,+!G !
2.3 Discussion
*&),/))!$ &0&, -!+!)/)& &,
0 -!B:)! )0/!+B:) -0&*G ,
,&++$!+ , -0&!+-/) & $! !U&!!
$!0 -+&&--&! $! -0&!! !)K: -)C-!)
--/&!IDLPF! !)K: !/ !):
$$ ,+!G !) - !& $!0: : 7: 0!!!-
-)))!!)&,- 0G +0?&$!! !):& -
$ ! !)$!0 ) )!)&,!!,0
10&!) $ !:/)&!!!$! --/)- -!
-+&& !!+& $ !))&:/)!!$! -
-))!)K0-!+&&!!!$! -+&G!)!+!
: :))& -+/) !( ! $!%!)/:
!+ +!&0& - $& ,- !C,- !O5- !JJ@F !)!!$! -
L
$& ,) - +!+C-O"DLF4& ::-) &&0&
-:!! $!+ ($!+(,- !)+ ,--&! $! !)!
W:! , ):!(,- ! W/)- !
-0&
3! ,( $!!+ $/-$! ,: ! $$ ,+!G !-) 0
!)/)& B $/,-&+ $!:!!+ $/-$! , !)
/) -0&!0 -+&& -!:$/,:: !)! $$ ,
( ! $! : )-):)!:!!+ $/
-$! , !) -0&! $!+:! !)$! !)/! !)$!: )@DZ
:)!, $!0" /
!*&),:&0&,+! ) -+&& &))/), !,!
!)/), !,!+ )0+&)!$,4& -!:&)- ,! /
)!+0-$! $! -!$)-,+&0)K!$
/+:&):/ :!!+& +)K!!! -+&&
/&!+! -!CC"DFI"@E_DDIJHF)-! -+&&
-!$)$!0 -
) ,)!+&" $ !:)!+:!!!!&!=&)+-!0
!+! $/, -C*:I"DL#&IE""F ,, :!!
/ $!!=&)+-!0 -+&& C*:IDH#&IDD"F* &+
$ !:)& !$ !!!,! $! -+&&
C^IHDF,)K)0-! !! $! &+ !,
!)/)& $ !!)) -+&& - ,C:!!!!,F
$ !)K)0-! !! $!+0 -+&& C:!!
/ $!F)+0:!!!!,!! -+&& !$ ,
P
&!+ &:!,/! !),:)+!)?&)K!0-!
!( -! -+&& -! )!$ / !, G!),
:+CM&&)&&!!!+NF: ! )!$ / ! !+!+
CM&-&0&0 Q.!/,RNF !! ,CM& )K! ! )G
(),&:&)NF !)$ !!& - &,CM - ,-)a,&
!!+ ,- &)! , \NF3!!:!0)BC"DHF)&!0
M )(0+!! !!,N -0!! !!,:
/) -!0- & )-!0 -/&0- !-!:!
!)/)& - !0)!! $!0)K!
0:)+!)*&),"!/$+ :!!/&:!!!!,
! $! -+&& -! !):- $$ :, !)/)&
)K!!!+ $/-$! , :// ) -!:
,- $ , !):),/ ,!+ -! &)!) &X&*!):
))+: -!)/)& - , -! !))+
:)K!!)/)& - , -!1)) :&)0
-:!! !:!!!!,!! !) !)/)& B/0
!+ $/-$! ,:&)))+:, !+ $/,:),/ ,!+
-!
3.0 STUDY 2
3.1 Method
3.1.1 Nominaon of Statements
?& )0 -+&&!$ ,&X& -! ::&)&!*&),
":&$8) ! !-! $!)& !+! -!&/.!)+ )&
)&)!! ! ! -& !) )-:
A
=*&)!: +):+/!!0:/!0 ! !-! $!0-6!
CIL@F: )+!)!-! $!0!!$! ,&X& -!!!) )7
M /,&/ )-!+-), : &X&[!!:
!+,& / ) :!!$! ,&X&N! ) )7M -!
/ )-!+,& : &X&[!!: !+
/ ),& :!!$! ,&X&N6!"CIL"F: )+!)
!-! $!0&X& -!?&$!:M /,&/ )
-!+-), : ! &X&/!&+,&))!B!!)&X&[N
!)M -!/ )-!+,& ,& &X&/!&+,))!B
!!)&X&[N)8!!:/))! +0&)!/)
!1))! !,)-+ !0- $!
*&)!+! ) !,:0-"L -!!0! !) )0
4-) !: P!-! $!/ ):),!)- ! !+!+0- -! &
!+! !)! ,,+! !), >& !)- $!+:
&)! !)G &!)!)!,-! ))&!) ! -! !)
+8)M!!$! ,&X&N!-! $! !)M&!!!$! ,&X&N!-! $!!
-- +! G! 0E + &/ -!:
!-! ) !!$! , !)&!!!$! ,&X&C+M,&&)[N;N*-$-!
,& &)NM& /! !&N;NB=& =NF:G)!$G)!
&X& -!0- 0E +G&G!! -!
: -+&, !)&, /!$ /) -0&C*& "DDHF4:!
+! ) -! !) !C!+!F -!0
+,G! 0P@ -!!&))E +0 -!1! +,
: $/ -! !&!!!$! ,&X& -! !) !!!$! ,&X&
E
-! ) ,)! "$/ -!/) 0! -!0
::():!!!!, !):!!!!,!!
3.1.2 Parcipants
*&)," $ !CIDJ"F:&)!0-:&&!/$!'):!
.*:-) !!!&/,0( )): )-$!0 &
?&-!*&)!:&)&+!!&= &!/, $!
+ ! +!!!+0- !): )::0 :0
&),: /),!$&$! /: ) &!/, !) !) )&- !&=
:0:)
'&)!! $ !&=:!)!+! )& $!& !)
&/ )!- , 0&),C"DZ* *!"Z & *!"ZO
&- !$AHZ%%0! Q)& $!&!+&!RF% $ !0-.!/,
)( +CIPA"4@Z:-!4 +IJDLYLPF% $ !0-.!/,"
) ++&0- 0$!CIEPD4HAZ:-!4JJHZ::!@"JF1
))!)-+ !0- $! & >!0&))!)K0:
-:-!))
3.1.3 Instruments and Procedure
9!) $!+!0-)!! !)!)!+)-+ ?&$! $ !:
!)P@ -!! !)-), !)- +!-!!+&0 $ !
C!ILEHF ):,: ! ,!+ -!:
$!+:&) - !& $! )-!:!!$! ,&X&
-!:!0 /) -!!$! ,&X& !&!!!$! ,&X&
-!:% $ !+ / $!+! DDD :!)!0"#
$" "#%&'
H
:+&0 $ !/))-$! $! -!!
+&CILE"F):(,:&)00-! ) -!-4
CILELF):,:&)0!! -!% $ !+ /
$!+! DDD :!)!0()'(()
9 $!+ -! $ !!))A-0-: %! ,
]&$!! C%]4!! ! "DDAF - &0 0+ $/-$! ,
C $! ! $! !) ++!F&+:00 ))-! )!!
!!,!*&),: !)&0A-0-%] &0/&,
)&-!)&$,C!! ! "DDAF !)$-8&/,-$! ,!+
&/, ! ,-:!)! !)-)4 $ !
!))&!+ G/! !+!+0-CFCAF-
0 ++!:)!! !!,C^IPLF:(&))0- ! ,4G!
-- &!&))0&-0 ! $! !)G/-0 $!C^IHPF1
)-/ M+ $/-$! ,N
3.2 Results
$!+!!!&/G) !!$! ,&X& -! !)
&!!!$! ,&X& -!: +8) ,- !/)!!&
0!!$! ,&X& -!CIHJHDIHJ4^I@F: 0 + !0
&!!!$! ,&X& -!CIAPIAPH4^I@EFCLALFIPHH@_DDI""A
()$/ -!: U!/)!!&X&CIEADI
HEL4^I@F
&G)$!: :&)-:!!!!, !:!
!!!,!-$! $! -! &)!) &X&:!
! L&&))$!+ )0:,:$!+:&
@
,:&)0!! -!: !(&,:&)0!!
-! $ !:)!+:!!!!,! $!$/
-!&!!!$! ,&X& -! !)!!$! ,&X& -!
-$- $ !!,:)!+!!!&! $!$/
C!F -!( -!0: !(&,:&)0!!$/
-!: & !$ $/:0"DJ:@LZ0 $ !!)!+!
:"AZ0 !! $!&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X& -!
:-!- ,)&)! -::/ &:!YD >!0!+
:!!!!&0$/C!F -!&!!!$! , !)
&!!!$! ,&X& -!: /!-!&!)0+&0 $ !:
):&,:&)0
!!$! ,&X& -!) +- !/0 !(&! !)& !
&!!!$! ,&X& -!))C!(&7EJD/A"P@4&7A@HA/P@JF:
&!!!$! ,&X& -!:)-/ , $ !!!
( -!0: !(&,:&)0!!&!!!$! ,&X&
-!Z0 $ ! )!:?& 0 PZ!&?&
!):!-)) 00! >!0/ ,!0)
&!!!$! ,&X& -! -+&& !)!! $!+&L/)
/& ) ,0+! >!0& -0 $ !:/))=&)+-!0:
&,:&)0!! -!:!!G+& $ !:)!+
!!&C:!!!!,F!:&,0! $!$/C!F
-! !) !!&!:&,0! $!&!!!$! ,&X&
-!
J
&!))$!: !)/)& B/0!+ $/-$! ,:&))
)+:, !+ $/,:) /!$ !) &X&
& :!! P:()!+ $/-$! ,))0!+&!!
:) ,0&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X& -! -: 0&!)00!+
!(&4!0 !)/)& +!!+ $/-$! ,)0!+- !(&/!!
!! -!" $!:!!+ $/-$! , !)0!+0
& !) !(&!!!&!!!$! ,&X& -! ) ,)!+&P
3.3 Discussion
!*&),":0&!) !)/)& B-$! !! -!: +,
)$/0-$! ! -! :!!!!,: +
! ))$!:!!!!,!!&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X&
-!: -&+ !:!!!!,: !) -8!*&),"
/)) $$ :/ !)/)& )K!!!+ $/-$! ,&)
&!0 !!/ $!C! / +AZF0:!!/ !!!
&+!: : !)/)& B)$! /0!+ $/-$! ,/!))
: !(&,0!!! -!G!)!+&++ !)/)& :
+!!+ $/-$! , !),!0!+/$-8)- ) !)!C* &
V / O :"D"F- ,!/ !))--!))!!&
!),- ,&-! !: !! & ,- !:! ! ,M&
,NC*FM& /&+ 0!)NC+
,-*%*F!:!!+ $/-$! , !)B $!
!$ ,&X& -! : $/ -!!0!0)BC"DHF!
- ++!! 0&88,&!) :!)G!)!,0)
!:!!+ $/-$! , !) $!/ --&! $!!+! -
"D
!)!/$+ )$! !) S&)! / - ,-) B
$!B:)( -::&)) !)/)& :)!+0
:) ! -C "D@F !):) )!0 -C'5 O -"D"D4
'5 "DJF 0-& !) !(&!! / ,0 -! !)
?&$!0-
G!)!+0*&)," -! , !)- ! ): -
+!& - !) -+!&0 -!1 -)- ,:,&!+
)&0-:.*&!/$ !):))!!&)$-&& -! !
!/ && +!)(& , ) !-0 !&$-
& -: -)0 , -!0!)/)& 4!+ $/-$! ,/) &!)
$ -)!0 !): !- ,)&)CI"@PIDEE*:ID@F
'/ :!! " :&$8)!&),C&)0-&!))
!-! ), -F))U / ,0)- ! /&!/ - !
&& !))!$,+&7 > $/!! ,!+!- $!+ !) !+!+C&
"DJ4#!O5/&"DLF,!+ -! !//) / ,0)- !:
- !$-8) +/!!)/)& :&) )K!,/ &
-!4! ):)&-!)!+:!!!!,
4.0 GENERAL DISCUSSION
!*&), 0: !!+ &!$ 0 , -0&!+)
+!)$!0 -0&!0 -+&& -!!*&),")$!
!&$-))0!+&!!!!$! , !)&!!!$! ,&X&C -+&&F
-! !))$! !&$-))0!+ !(&!! !)0
-!2/!$/ -!&/ -/ !?&
!B/ --&! $! -0&:!--&! $!:
"
- ! -0& !+&G!)!+0-:&)&++ - ++!
&,!,0)&)-+!U&!) -&,& $! !)
)$! 0 , & - ++!C/ !)+!,F:!/!+ -!
B:)G!)!+ :!+ ,:)! )!$/,
-C -"DE4 - "D"DF !)!$G) &&!)!+- ++!
!C!0)"DH4*&"DHF
!) /- ++!! ! ),)G!) M0/
!!/ / !)!/!-! !)+!$ --&! )+ , S&)!$!
: ) )K!TBNC%"D"F !)&0:)M- ++!N!:--!
!)& $! !)-,-!!(- ++! !!+ !) !+& ++&) 0
!&-&K0 0 !)-0 !/!-!0 !)/)& 1 !-,!+
K &!- ! , / &4!))$ :: )!&/
!/!-!!:)/,0 0- !/C'& "D"DF:/! :
- !!+&$! K$/ !)M-- ,!)&)!+- - !+)NC)!O
6 !"D"DP4 /!O"D""F!))!- $!0&G!)!+ :
!!$!)K : ! &&+ !)!&- , / !! )/!K0
! !+)+: /!+ $/( !!! $!:
C )"DH4& !KO )"D@4 5 "D"DF!&$!+ &!+ $/
- +!/,)! 0 !)?&$!- , )-- -W !)!$ ,
- -0&W &!)- !,:&):
!: ,- ++! ) !!+- ,)-! /,!$&$!
! !!$G&&0!:)+0( - 0-0!$&$! 8)/&$! ,
-+, !!)&W0(! !)0- $!+0-$!+)
C &JJL"D"FW !)!)&- ,&!), !!+ - !0 !
""
&!!:!- +! !,0:)C)!O6 !"D"DF(-! !))
(:(&$/ !!+!- ++! !)!&/ !+& + K
!)&( - !!,--,/B
:) -0& !)0 -0&!!& -,0 !0- ,!+
!+!+2/!!+ -+ , +)&! $/,!!&& &,
0 ):)&)!) ++/- !)'/0- ++!
!) !,0)!$ ):!)0$/!&/
!+& + !!+&)- !000/ ,!+)!$$
1 !:/&++$!+ )!$,/ !1+!8 !
:) !) - , ! )K!- !!+)!)!+!)/ !)! !)
)!C"D"F !)!+&:),! -/) !(0&!) !)!+:
--0- +! 8)+&/:)0: /-:/-!
( -0- !0)!$, 0) !) +&C"DPF )-!B !):-!B
$! / ,0M+!)- ++!N! & $!)/0 -+&&
--&! $!: - &/ !)/ 0- &)! 0) C"DPF
:) :-!!))/-!=&$ !)!!$/,!! !-!))
!),!)) &0(!0!$!&)&)-! $! + !
:-!!: :/ &))!/) !,- !) !$!
0!=&$:!:/)C:!&/ !)&)! :0
-(F1) 0! ::>!:)/ 0- &/ !)
- &)! ()K!!/)!=&$ !)!!$/,:&))-!4:/
: ) ()K!:&)!!+/!,0)-! $! + !
:-! !)- , $!+00- /$- !)- C,!) "D"DF
&& &)&)! 0) B)+!,- $ ,( -!0!$!
"L
)!$$!!)/)& B $! -+&&--&! $!+ )+/!G!)!+0-
&G&), !)/& C*-O%,"DJF::&)) 0 !(-!
- !& $!: )))& !+&0 $ !/)$/ !!+!
- ++!=&)+!+&& $! !)!+&))! !!+:&)!
B$!0!=&$ !)!!$/,!! + )0)!$$0
)/ !)/! & $!
!)- $!0& - ,)$!-, !
/B:) -0&&0*&),")-! ) !+ $/
-$! ,: !! 0)+:),:&)0&
0 !(&/- /!!!!! -+&& -!"G!)!+
!0)BC"DHF!! &&!: !) - &+ !)!& &,+
-&+:+!8 - ,- !!+:!!&C&O%,JJ"4
# ! "DH4# ! "D"D41 -"D"41 - "D"FG -
!!$! !)&!!!$! +,+ -C&- "D"43 "D""4
) "DP4B#0 "DA4 "DEF !&),(-!
&-& $! &) /)&-!) ! $!:!CF$!0
(!!+- ++! !)C"F!+ $/-! &-C3 "D""F&
&++ - ++!!+ $/&-! / )!0!0- $!
) - ,!0&!)!+ $/-$! ,7!)/)& : +!!+ $/-$! ,
,&++:-! !!C : "D"43 O'<>"D@F !)
(!!+ !)!+&,+ !)!&C' "DF!0&&&)
& &(-! )+!K0 -+&&--&! $!!!)/)& B
,+ :!+:)K:-!&!) -!+:+/
0!+ $/-$! ,
"P
0 & !(:!$!0,+ -,B
:) !)!+ $/-! &-!!$ !+ $/K0- ++!
-!+!!)/)& B-! !):!+&)! !+, !+
&0*&) !)"-, & $! 0 - ,( )$! /&! $
$!0 -!)/)& 0:-:) ),/) ) !+& - ,
$& ,!U&!),- + - 8 ! -!B:),
( $!+ ),($!+) $!,+ :!+ -!+0)K!+/0
-$! ! ,!:) !&/ !+& + !!+:-
0- ++!-+)- - !+)0: ),-$! ,
&! !))(,
4.1 Conclusion
& !) & $! C-!+F !))$! C!+ $/
-$! ,F0 !!U&!!)/)& B$!0 -!B:)'/:
0&!)+!! !!,:!&= )&!!!$! , !)!!$! ,&X&
-!&$!+ - - / )!0 - !)
C'5 "DJF&+&G!)!+ -! , !)!!)0 $!&&)
/) !- $/!&=$/! &0- ++!! !),
, :!!$!)K : !0!$ -!/,)!
B:)- , /! )/!K0( $!+$!0 - !)&X&!!!
- !) +&C"D"DF!)!)&!0 )!!+0 - )
!&! :!?&!0,:)! )!$/, -
- ,) - ,&!)
"A
Footnotes
1!!!!,: C^IEHF:!!+! !) -+&& -!:
! ,8) !0-
"-!+ $ !!$-&&/ ) $!+&: ) -!0)
--&! : &X&!+ $/-$! ,))+/0/)
!!&C!!$! ,&X& -!7IAJAZ3QDP"AR4&!!!$! ,&X&
-!7I@JAZ3QD@"@R4$/ -!7IHJAZ3QDE"HRF
"E
References
5 'C"D"D*EF/,- !/, ) !!+
>7;;-& + -;"D"D;DJ;E;)/,- ! ) !!+;
- !%,+ $!C"D"F!&/ !+& ++&)!
>7;;::: +; &; ;?&,)/,!&!; !+& ++&)!)0
-O*C"DLF!!$! - :/!:!,B!.
/0CJFHAAHE">7;;)+;DHH;DJAEHJHELP@DADH
-O*C"DAF%/)!!-$/ - +!0,/) -.%
11/C"FLAJJLEDA>7;;)+;DDHL;! ADAJ""
-#'! )!*-!bO1 #C"DF' &!+-&$-!,
75%03' ++!* 2!3'
.14ELHP
/'O# &1*C"DJF,- >7*(& ! $!- ++!!+
5678"91:CF@LDE>7;;)+;DD@D;JLEEAL"D@ALPEL"
:3&bO1) )*C"D"F&$- !)))0-$!7!:
,!2.;<CAFPDPH
>7;;)+;DHH;DJELH"P"DLD"AL
0)K- !!O!)*C"DPF,&: [%$!0+!)
- ++!!: .+=;>CLFLPDLPJ
>7;;)+;DHH;DLEE@PLLAP"D
1b!%b' ,bC"D@F++: !!+7- /)! )5
8!"'(.:1LPP
>7;;)+;DDE;=="D@DHDD"
"H
&-1/ 6,!O!!,C"D"F $!0- ++!:
& !) !(, -!+!-!,+&)!! ,1
!$&$!2!'.1>CFPA2AP
>7;;)+;DDLH; DD"APAH
&O%,'CJJ"F ++!?&$!! 5.
.:;PA"PAJ
&'C"DJF'!?"CE)F&)+
3 O'<>C"D@F0! !)!0 7'! ))!!)-!!"
%5.14@CJF@L@PP
>7;;)+;DHE; ="D@H"L@L
3!b!+''!#O>%C"D""F3 0M))!+N73+!$/
)$!) 0,-!)0 :) ! - !)++: !!+
!)-!!+&)!.-!A1>@"PL
>7;;)+;DDE;= )"D""PL
3! !$!'5C"DDHF - ++! + !0 !- !!!
&!!+ $!52.@0E
3 %'&<b1:!*6!* O'!#C"D""F
' ++!7'+ --&[- ! ,52
.1H>7;;)+;DDD";=""@@A
3 %O'3 CJJAF- ! !)0 7 ! , -!&!+
/)%! ,!/!,5.%:0CF"AD
>7;;)+;D"DH;"AL"HHA"= EPDc"
"@
/!%5OC"D""F/, !!++ - $! !)-7/:0
-&$)! , &%&!.B4;PDLP"J
>7;;)+;DPE; !!&/,DED"""""A
!! !'3!+O&8>5C"DDAF3! )/ ),0 +-!
!)!+&)! ! ,0: ! ,?&$!! 7 ! $/
'%]5&.;CPA@P@A>7;;)+;DDE;=="DDPDADDP
3'1)0)'5 !*8!+%O65C"DJF)/ !!+
!5]- ++!7,-!+/:0- &5
(::CDFLPALHJ>7;;)+;DD@D;DDJ@LEJ"D@ALJA@
)bC"DHF&!:) ! -&73--! ,!!0)C"DHF.!
.1/CFHEHH>7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJEEEEHDAD
-C"DEF3!7%,+,B( !)!+!0 - !) +,
.-D/4H>7;;)+;DD@D;DPH@PDd"DED@"P@
- !3 !'5 'bb6,-/ 1 /!+'O1'
C"D"DF -!U $!7' !+!0!'&!.
;1CF"AP"@E>7;;)+;DD@D;DPEL"@L"D"DHJED@D
,- !5O5- !*CJJ@F&!+)!&-$/!0- $!- !0!
!.;0C"FLDL">7;;)+;DDLH;DD"EPJLP"LD
)!5C"D"F%&!+ + !- ++!& ! )-,+,7
U$!! ! )(.!.1:CAFJL"JAA
>7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJE"JJ@EL
# !b11 -'#&8,!'' !# &('O!3C"DHF
-! ,! $!:!- ++! + ! !)
"J
- -!+:+&)!&.C"J"JJ
>7;;)+;DDDH;"AA"DHJ"PD
# !b11 -'#&8,!'3,'% +'3 ,3'' !#
1 3O!3C"D"DF- &-! !)&&0- ++/
--&! $!,: + ! &.1/L"LLPL
>7;;)+;DDDH;"AA"D"DDJ"J@:
#!O5/&6C"DLF"?!
E
#1!+3O1'C"DEF* !!)! !)! !0&! !,
-) :! - ++! !) !(, -!+ !)/)& 5
2.:;C"F"PD2"PE>7;;)+;DDL;&DDDD"L
!0)*C"DHF' ++!7*!+ -! )?& /)!.!
.1/CFL@EJ>7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJEEEAJLJ
& !K5O )bC"D@F"%?
F%!+&!%
' :O' )3C"DDAF3+!$//&! ,-$! ))%&!
2.1EHJA>7;;)+;DPE; !!&/!,D"@DLPLJE
'5 'bO -C"D"DF/-! !)/ ) $!0 -3! )* 7
!+!)/)& )K!! -!U $!.6$'1@C@FD"LHHL"
>7;;)+;DLH;=&! !D"LHHL"
'5 'b !) 8)8#1''&,*O -C"DJF3!7
!)/)& )K!! - )! !) .-!
A104HJ@P>7;;)+;DDE;= )"DJDPDA
LD
'%CJHHF*G$+, !)0-0!+!U&!7*-?& !$ $/- !!+
53./LLAL
'*V+61 'O ,'C"DF/-! !)!$ / ) $!0
!/!,0' ++!+ ! !)/)& 52.
@>PAHPEJ
'& *3 -'O &'C"D"DF(&B)/, S&)!
!&! !))& /-!+ 8!0CJF@@J@JH
>7;;)+;DDL@;PAE"D"DD@JJA
) #1!+5<!# /)KO*!bC"DPF )/- 0
- ++!!+&)!B0-52!B
@@CAFPEPHP>7;;)+;DLAL;)"DPDDA
*.3!0/, !)!&!C"D"F!&/ !+& ++&)
>7;;:::&)&;;)0 &;G;"D"DL;*.Z"D!&/Z"D !+& +
Z"D5&)cDLA")0
B#06'1!+ 3!+:1O&%C"DAF*-!+,
- --&! $! ! -7 - ++! )&)
) $!,: ,0)!,--6G"8!0@CAFAEH2AHE
!+&:&:b 'O*&1C"DLF - ++! !)
) ,:!+ -!+ !- !52.:<@@JJ
%!*C"DF"H?%!%!+&!
&bCJJLF-D?"H.!/,03 +%
&bC"D"F"?%!+!$&$!%
)!O6 !bC"D"FI?H
(0).!/,%
L
,!): )3*= )V&-5 &-?&!#O#-b
C"D"DF' !& !) 75!) !- , $!+$J8!
.1:1"DP>7;;)+;DDE;=)"D"DDADD"
* &V / *O :C"D"F?%
5&0)%
*-O%,bC"DJF/, !!+-)!!0$ ! !)
$!0- ++!.25.&/0C"FDE"
>7;;)+;D"P@LJ;"L"AHLP"b"P"DE
*&13 )&3'!53&b') ) #O?&!'C"DDHF
- ++!!/,) ,07- $!0! $%
.B:/CPF"H2"@E>7;;)+;DDLH;DDDLDEEdE"P"H
*&1C"DDF!?&BB(1,
*&1C"DHF' ++! !)M/)!N7- (!$ ,[.!
.1/CFHDH">7;;)+;DHH;HPAEJEEEEPPLH
'1O&:C"DDF - ++! !),+ 0&!$!!+
-!++, /!+0 !- !7-()-) 53
2./CCDFDHP2DJJ>7;;)+;DA";="DD"JDDHP
1 !O3 CJ@PF+ $/ K$/,7)$!(! //-$!
.8C:CLFPEAPJD>7;;)+;
1 -'C"D"F' ++! 0-0 ++!8!"@/HDJHJ
>7;;)+;DDE;="D"DDJDD
1 -'3!+1O5 bC"D"F.!) !)!+ ++! !)- ++!,
!) + !0&2!8!"10"A
>7;;)+;DDH;HAPPHD("DDD"LP
L"
LL
Table 1
1?!!'&B2
!'&B2
2K.L
M41
I
M41
-
M4@
CFCFCF
+ $/-$! , "HHCDAAF "HACDAAF "HPCDA@F
!+!C3!F% H"CD@JF A@CDE@F EECD@JF
-+&&% L@ECDJF PLCDLF PDECDJF
3 $!7+ $/-$! ,
!) -0&! $!+0!+!
% CJAZ3F
LQLER HQDELJR DQLL"R
3 $!7+ $/-$! ,
!) -0&! $!+0
-+&&% CJAZ3F
D"Q"""AR @QDAPDR "Q"LPR
LP
Table 2
I/
2 .! I
-
2 M,0,&
: N
e f)K!0-:
,&&& ,: e
M:&)!/: N
M&-+)N M&&):N M&-N
%H! M&B+)!+N M&B+S!++)
!+N
M&B&+,N
M/,&-N M&&),!/ +!N M& )N
M& ,N M& -!+
) ,N
M& :0&N
M& &+!+N M& !/!++
(!N
M& /!0N
. e& /,Ue e&!-& &
: !0
,&e
M,& &,&0N
- e5 =e e&G! ,))e e&:!/ )
e
- e!,,&&) /
!:) )?&$!
e
e&)!B!: [e e1, ,&)&-[e
e& /,e e&&) )e e&e
8 e& ! ,+) e e&&)(-e e& 0 e
e!,!:&): !)
,&e
e& /)
+ ) e
e))!f! !,!:&)
/: !) ,&e
e&B + 0!)e e' !+0!)-+
&++0,&e
e!: !,&
0!)e
e& /&+ 0!)e e)!B!::,,&
0!):-e
e&0!) -e
e&0!+ )G!,
/ )e
e: =& =e e*- !+ +) &0
e
. e& e e3 !,&=&!
$-[e
e3&)!B,&=&!- [e
LA
Table 3
!'&/B.&
6/@NB@<NBI/@N&O
P KL
N
/@N
N
@<N
N
/@N
%(CILE"F
%$/C3!F
* -!
JL "A@CADAF "DJ AHL @LP EL DL
.!!!$! ,
&X&
JL A"P@C"DHEF DL DP HPP P"
!!$! ,
&X&
JA EJDC"LDEF DAH DPL JA APE LAJ
CILELF
%$/C3!F
* -!
@J "HECEE@F ADL L"E JH@ "" DD
.!!!$! ,
&X&
JD P@JC@L@F D"" DAJ @H HJE H
!!$! ,
&X&
JP A@HAC""EPF DEH D"@ DA E "@P
EO &-/ ! !+)0-DDD
LE
Table 4
%8!''&$,+/
.!K8L
I
-
:!(& LQ"PDR PEQLHAPR PQL"PJR
:& DJQD"DR LPQ"APLR L"Q""PR
_D4_DD6 &:! !JAZ30
LH
Figure 1
1?&8%.B.2
!+!% -+&&%
3!C%-F
.!!!$! -
!!$! -
Harm less
&
-0&
E !Y"*'!) M -N: )) M& N P !)
M -0&N H
L@
Figure 2
1?&8.%.
Benign Phrases
Ambiguous Phrases
LJ
Figure 3
/?8G.&
Posive Statements
Unintenonally Hur>ul Statements
Intenonally Hur>ul Statements
PD
Figure 4
/?%8!'&I
How Anxious Would You Feel if Someone Said this to You?
How Hurt Would You Feel if Someone Said this to You?