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Differential effects of positive and negative meta-emotions on marital adjustment
Abstract
The study examined the impact of positive and negative meta-emotions on marital adjustment in married couples. The participants (300 husbands and 300 wives, N=600) were individually administered Meta-Emotion Scale-(Hindi) and Dyadic Adjustment Scale-(Hindi). Results revealed non-significant main effects of spouses and significant main effects of levels of positive and negative meta-emotions on all the facets of marital adjustments. High as compared to low scorer participants on positive meta-emotions and negative meta-emotions demonstrated significantly higher and lower marital adjustment respectively. 'Spouses X levels of positive meta-emotions' interaction had no significant effects on marital adjustment, however, 'spouses X levels of negative meta-emotions' interaction had significant effect on marital consensus facets of marital adjustment and high levels of negative meta-emotions in husbands and wives and, low levels of negative meta-emotions in husbands resulted in similar levels of marital adjustment whereas low level of negative meta-emotions in wives caused higher marital adjustment.
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This study was designed to establish the construct, convergent and predictive validity (gender and age differences) of Hindi version of Dyadic Adjustment Scale in Indian cultural milieu. For the purpose three hundred 21 to 75 years old married couples (300 husbands and 300 wives) with at least graduation qualification were sampled from Chowk and adjoining areas of Varanasi city of Uttar Pradesh following a multistage sampling procedure, and they completed the Hindi version of 32-items DAS (Spanier and Cole, 1976). Factor analysis (principal components) on Hindi version of DAS (DAS-H) with the loading equal to or more than 0.400, Eigen value equal to 1.00, by applying Promax rotation method following Scree plot revealed three factors, and finally, confirmatory factor analysis by AMOS - version 20 revealed an acceptable model fit on 17 items, content of 9 items of the first factor (# 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 14), 4 items of second factor (# 24, 26, 27 and 28) and 4 items of the third factor (# 16, 20, 21 and 22) showed similar behavioral components i.e., Dyadic Consensus (DC), Dyadic Cohesion (DCH) and Dyadic Satisfaction (DS). The psychometric properties of the DAS-H manifested good internal consistency with fairly high reliability and acceptable construct and convergent validity. The gender and age differences analyses also indicated that the instrument has good predictive validity, thus, the DAS-H produced a reliable and valid measurement of marital adjustment in Hindi speaking Indian cultural milieu.
We first present a selection of vignette examples from empirical psychological research to illustrate how the phenomenon of metaemotion (Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996; Mendonça, 2013) is studied within different domains of psychology. We then present a theoretical distinction which has been made between three facets of metacognition, namely metacognitive experiences, metacognitive knowledge, and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Efklides, 2008; Flavell, 1979). Referring back to the vignette examples from metaemotion research, we argue that a similar distinction can be drawn between three facets of metaemotion, namely metaemotional experiences, metaemotional knowledge, and metaemotional strategies. We argue that this distinction clarifies some of the unresolved issues in metaemotion research, and therefore has important implications for the study of metaemotion, both methodologically and theoretically.
During adolescence social relationships become increasingly important. Establishing and maintaining these relationships requires understanding of emotional stimuli, such as facial emotions. A failure to adequately interpret emotional facial expressions has previously been associated with various mental disorders that emerge during adolescence. The current study examined sex differences in emotional face processing during adolescence. Participants were adolescents (n = 1951) with a target age of 14, who completed a forced-choice emotion discrimination task. The stimuli used comprised morphed faces that contained a blend of two emotions in varying intensities (11 stimuli per set of emotions). Adolescent girls showed faster and more sensitive perception of facial emotions than boys. However, both adolescent boys and girls were most sensitive to variations in emotion intensity in faces combining happiness and sadness, and least sensitive to changes in faces comprising fear and anger. Furthermore, both sexes overidentified happiness and anger. However, the overidentification of happiness was stronger in boys. These findings were not influenced by individual differences in the level of pubertal maturation. These results indicate that male and female adolescents differ in their ability to identify emotions in morphed faces containing emotional blends. The findings provide information for clinical studies examining whether sex differences in emotional processing are related to sex differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders within this age group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
Emotion regulation is generally thought to be a critical ingredient for successful interpersonal relationships. Ironically, few studies have investigated the link between how well spouses regulate emotion and how satisfied they are with their marriages. We utilized data from a 13-year, 3-wave longitudinal study of middle-aged (40-50 years old) and older (60-70 years old) long-term married couples, focusing on the associations between downregulation of negative emotion (measured during discussions of an area of marital conflict at Wave 1) and marital satisfaction (measured at all 3 waves). Downregulation of negative emotion was assessed by determining how quickly spouses reduced signs of negative emotion (in emotional experience, emotional behavior, and physiological arousal) after negative emotion events. Data were analyzed using actor-partner interdependence modeling. Findings showed that (a) greater downregulation of wives' negative experience and behavior predicted greater marital satisfaction for wives and husbands concurrently and (b) greater downregulation of wives' negative behavior predicted increases in wives' marital satisfaction longitudinally. Wives' use of constructive communication (measured between Waves 1 and 2) mediated the longitudinal associations. These results show the benefits of wives' downregulation of negative emotion during conflict for marital satisfaction and point to wives' constructive communication as a mediating pathway. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
A meta-analysis that included 19 samples with a total of 3848 participants showed that scores on four of the Five-Factor Model personality factors correlated significantly with level of relationship satisfaction by intimate heterosexual partners. The four personality characteristics were low neuroticism, high agree-ableness, high conscientiousness, and high extraversion. The associations between an individual's per-sonality characteristics and the relationship satisfaction of the individual's intimate partner did not vary significantly from men to women or from married to unmarried individuals. The results of the meta-analysis provide support for the utility of the Five-Factor Model of personality in understanding an important realm of life, intimate relationships.
To assess whether emotional intelligence (EI) is related to self-assessed relationship quality, an ability test of EI and measures of relationship quality were administered to 86 heterosexual couples in a university setting. Results indicated that female partners were significantly higher in EI than male partners and that EI scores were uncorrelated within couples. Two 2 × 2 multiple analyses of variance (performed separately for positive and negative outcomes) assessed how relationship quality measures differed across four different types of couples (high-EI female/high-EI male, low-EI female/low-EI male, etc.). As predicted, couples with both partners low on EI tended to have the lowest scores on depth, support, and positive relationship quality and the highest scores on conflict and negative relationship quality. Counter to our hypotheses, couples with both partners high on EI did not consistently have higher scores on positive outcomes and lower scores on negative outcomes than couples with one high-EI partner.
Previous studies reported gender differences for facial emotion recognition in healthy people, with women performing better than men. Few studies that examined gender differences for facial emotion recognition in schizophrenia brought out inconsistent findings. The aim of this study is to investigate gender differences for facial emotion identification and discrimination abilities in patients with schizophrenia.
35 female and 35 male patients with schizophrenia, along with 35 female and 35 male healthy controls were included in the study. All the subjects were evaluated with Facial Emotion Identification Test (FEIT), Facial Emotion Discrimination Test (FEDT), and Benton Facial Recognition Test (BFRT). Patients' psychopathological symptoms were rated by means of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS).
Male patients performed significantly worse than female patients on FEIT total, and negative scores. Male controls performed significantly worse than female controls on FEIT total and negative scores. On all tasks, female patients performed comparable with controls. Male patients performed significantly worse than controls on FEIT, and FEDT.
Women with schizophrenia outperformed men for facial emotion recognition ability in a pattern that is similar with the healthy controls. It could be claimed that male patients with schizophrenia need special consideration for emotion perception deficits.
This study examined sex differences in categorization of facial emotions and activation of brain regions supportive of those
classifications. In Experiment 1, performance on the Facial Emotion Perception Test (FEPT) was examined among 75 healthy females
and 63 healthy males. Females were more accurate in the categorization of fearful expressions relative to males. In Experiment
2, 3T functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired for a separate sample of 21 healthy females and 17 healthy
males while performing the FEPT. Activation to neutral facial expressions was subtracted from activation to sad, angry, fearful
and happy facial expressions. Although females and males demonstrated activation in some overlapping regions for all emotions,
many regions were exclusive to females or males. For anger, sad and happy, males displayed a larger extent of activation than
did females, and greater height of activation was detected in diffuse cortical and subcortical regions. For fear, males displayed
greater activation than females only in right postcentral gyri. With one exception in females, performance was not associated
with activation. Results suggest that females and males process emotions using different neural pathways, and these differences
cannot be explained by performance variations.
The present study explores the role of (1) “experiential avoidance” (being non-accepting towards mental events) and (2) “mindful awareness” (being attentive in the present moment) in the prediction of well-being. These established constructs are newly complemented with (3) “meta-emotions” (emotional reactions about one’s own emotions) that allow for a meaningful differentiation of processes in experiential avoidance. Psychometric properties of the newly developed Meta-Emotion Scale (MES) are presented. Psychological well-being is strongly predicted by all three facets. Of the six MES subscales, substantial predictive power could be confirmed for “contempt/shame”, “suppression”, “tough control” and “interest”, whereas “anger” and “compassionate care”, unexpectedly, exerted little influence in our non-clinical sample. The role of meta-emotions in emotion regulation is discussed.
This article examines gender differences in psychological distress by assessing men's and women's experience of daily stressors and psychological distress in a sample of 166 married couples. Respondents completed a structured daily diary each day over the course of 42 days. Results showed that women reported a higher prevalence of high distress days and a lower prevalence of distress-free days than men. Gender differences in daily distress were attributable largely to women experiencing more onsets of distress episodes rather than being more likely to continue in a distress state from one day to subsequent days. Results from hierarchical linear models (HLM) indicated that the significant gender differences diminished after respondents' daily stressors were taken into account. Implications of these findings for gender role and rumination theories are discussed.
This study was carried out to establish the construct, convergent and predictive validity of Hindi translation of Meta-emotions Scale in Hindi speaking Indian cultural context. For the purpose 16 to 78 years old 1324 men and women participants with High School education from Chowk and adjoining areas of Varanasi city of Uttar Pradesh, India, completed the Hindi version of 28-items Meta-emotions Scale (MES). Factor analysis (principal components) on Hindi version of MES (MES-H) by applying Varimex rotation method with the loading equal to or more than 0.400, Eigen value equal to 1.00, and Scree plot suggested two to three factors, and finally, confirmatory factor analysis by AMO Sindicated a two factor model with an acceptable goodness of model fit on 19 items. The content of 10 items of the first factor and 9 items of second factor yielded two behavioral components, i.e., Positive Meta-emotions and Negative Meta-emotions. The psychometric properties of the MESH demonstrated good internal consistency with acceptable reliability, construct and convergent validity. The gender and age differences analyses also indicated that women manifested significantly higher positive meta-emotions and negative meta-emotions in comparison to men, and older as compared to younger participants demonstrated significantly high levels of positive meta-emotions indicating good predictive validity. These findings indicated that the MES-Hindi may be considered as a reliable and valid measurement of meta-emotions in Hindi speaking Indian cultural context. Keywords: positive meta-emotions, negative meta-emotions, meta-emotions, MES-Hindi Meta-emotions are considered secondary emotions that occur in reaction/response to other primary emotions (Jager & Banninger-Huber, 2015; Jager & Bartsch, 2006; Mendonca, 2013). The concept of meta-emotion was coined by Gottman, Katz, and Hooven (1997) to refer to "parents' emotions and beliefs regarding their own emotions and their children's emotions" while Beer and Moneta (2010) and Ferrari and Koyama (2002) define meta-emotions as "a set of beliefs about primary emotional processes". On the other hand, Jager and Bartsch (2006) said that "emotions can be directed at emotions, and such higher order emotions are meta-emotions". Bartsch (2008, 2010) conceptualizes meta-emotions as evaluative cognitions and emotions about one's primary emotions. According to Hofer and Wirth (2012), evaluative appraisal of one' primary emotions generate meta-emotions. Meta-emotions interplay between three different facets-meta-emotional experiences meta-emotional knowledge and meta-emotional strategies. Meta-emotional experiences are described as a meta-level experience in ongoing emotional experience (e.g., 'I like this feeling') (Bartsch et al., 2010). Meta-emotional knowledge refers to persons' declarative knowledge of emotions of own and others, and general knowledge about situational and behavioral factors that may have significant impact upon a person's emotions. Meta-emotional strategies deal with the control/regulatory function of meta-emotions, second, meta-emotional knowledge refers to people's declarative knowledge of one's own and others' emotions, general knowledge about situational and behavioral factors that may influence a person's emotions (e.g.,'I repeatedly get angry about my emotional reactions') (Mitmansgruber et al., 2009). Bartsch et al. (2008) hypothesized that meta-emotion may have a function in those types of emotional self-regulation that try to change the emotion itself. The sub-facets of Meta-Emotion Scale (Mitmansgruber et al., 2009) like'thought control' and 'suppression'are examples of this form of meta-emotions. These all three aspect of meta-emotions can be seen as analogousto the facets of metacognitions, i.e., metacognitive experiences, metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies.
The study aimed to examine the effect of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions on marital satisfaction. The study was conducted on purposively sampled 318married couples (159 husbands and 159 wives) from the Chowk area of Varanasi city of India. The subjects were individually administered Hindi versions of: (1) Positive Metacognitions and Meta-emotions Questionnaire (PMCEQ-H) and (2) Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale (KMSS). To elucidate the predictability of marital satisfaction by facets of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions and causative effects of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions on marital satisfaction. The data were analyzed by stepwise regression analysis with marital satisfaction as criterion and facets of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions as predictors variables, followed by 2 X 2 analysis of variance [2 gender (husband and wife) X 2 levels of facets of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions (high and low)] to delineate the main and interaction effects of "gender" and "levels of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions" on marital satisfaction. The results indicated PMCEQ-H1 and PMCEQ-H2 substantiality predicted marital satisfaction. The ANOVA revealed significant main effects of "levels" of PMCEQ-H1 and PMCEQ-H2 on marital satisfaction. High than low scorer participants on PMCEQ-H1 and PMCEQ-H2, displayed significantly higher indices on marital satisfaction. The findings indicated that positive metacognitions and meta-emotions assist marital satisfaction.
The positive metacognitions and meta-emotions measured by PMCEQ measures adaptive metacognitive beliefs people hold about their own cognitive and emotional processes. The study aimed to examine the independent and interaction effects of 'gender' (men & women) and 'levels (low & high) of facets of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions' on marital consensus, affectional expression, marital cohesion, marital satisfaction and overall marital adjustment. For this purpose, 318 spouses (159 husbands & 159 wives) were purposively sampled and were individually administered PMCEQ-H (the Hindi version of Positive Metacognitions & Meta-emotions Questionnaire; PMCEQ) and Marital Adjustment Scale (MAS). The participants falling below M 1SD and above M + 1SD on PMCEQ-H1, PMCEQ-H2 and PMCEQ-H3 factors of PMCEQ-H (respectively referred to as low & high scorers), besides the 'gender' (men & women) variables, were screened out. The 2 x 2 ANOVA (2 gender x 2 levels of facets of PMCEQ-H) performed on the scores of the facets of marital adjustment revealed non-significant main effect of'gender' and interaction effect of 'gender X levels of facets of PMCEQ-H' on all measures of marital adjustment, and significant main effect of (i)levels of PMCEQ-H' on marital satisfaction, affectional expression and overall marital adjustment, (ii) 'levels of PMCEQ-H2' on marital cohesion, marital satisfaction, and overall marital adjustment, and (iii)levels of PMCEQ-H3' for marital consensus and overall marital adjustment; and high as compared to the low scorers on PMCEQ-H1, PMCEQ-H2, and PMCEQ-H3 manifested significantly higher indices on overall adjustment. The findings demonstrated that high level of positive metacognitions and meta-emotions manifest significantly better marital adjustment in married couples.
Gender similarities and differences have long been a matter of debate in almost all human research, especially upon reaching the discussion about brain functions. This large scale meta-analysis was performed on functional MRI studies. It included more than 700 active brain foci from more than 70 different experiments to study gender related similarities and differences in brain activation strategies for three of the main brain functions: Visual-spatial cognition, memory, and emotion. Areas that are significantly activated by both genders (i.e. core areas) for the tested brain function are mentioned, whereas those areas significantly activated exclusively in one gender are the gender specific areas. During visual-spatial cognition task, and in addition to the core areas, males significantly activated their left superior frontal gyrus, compared with left superior parietal lobule in females. For memory tasks, several different brain areas activated by each gender, but females significantly activated two areas from the limbic system during memory retrieval tasks. For emotional task, males tend to recruit their bilateral prefrontal regions, whereas females tend to recruit their bilateral amygdalae. This meta-analysis provides an overview based on functional MRI studies on how males and females use their brain.
In this study, investigating the levels of married teachers' marital adjustment terms of psychological well-being and some of variables is proposed. The study is put into practice with 343 married teachers in elementary and secondary schools in the province of Mersin. The data on individuals' marriage satisfaction was examined through "Marital Adjustment Scale" and the data on levels of psychological well-being was examined by using the "Scales of Psychological Well Being". In addition, teachers' personal information was collected within "a personal information form" developed by the researcher. In the analysis of the data, Mann-Whitney U test, one-way ANOVA and multiple regression analysis were used. According to the findings of the research, in spite of the fact that there is not any meaningful difference between their martial satisfaction in terms of married teachers' age or gender, as to individuals' form of marriage, number of child, child care, and senority; there is a meaningful difference between their martial adjustments. Furthermore, according to the results of the applied analysis of multiple regression, it is found that psychological well being points of teachers', especially sub-dimensions of autonomy, self-acceptance and personal development are the significant predictors of the martial adjustment.
Although much has been learned from cross-sectional research on marriage, an understanding of how marriages develop, succeed, and fail is best achieved with longitudinal data. In view of growing interest in longitudinal research on marriage, the authors reviewed and evaluated the literature on how the quality and stability of marriages change over time. First, prevailing theoretical perspectives are examined for their ability to explain change in marital quality and stability. Second, the methods and findings of 115 longitudinal studies—representing over 45,000 marriages—are summarized and evaluated, yielding specific suggestions for improving this research. Finally, a model is outlined that integrates the strengths of previous theories of marriage, accounts for established findings, and indicates new directions for research on how marriages change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Marital researchers and information theorists have posited that expressed negativity by a family member affects the subsequent interaction. This study examined expressed negativity based on marital quality, stepfamily status, and child gender. Base-rate analyses indicated that negativity occurred once every 12 s. Whereas negativity more commonly arose in families containing distressed marriages, there were no differences in frequency by stepfamily status, child gender, or respective speaker. In contrast, the lag sequential analyses suggested that the presence of girls facilitated a more rapid recovery from effects of negativity. More enduring effects of negativity occurred for 3 of the groups containing boys, particularly with the presence of distressed marriages. Findings suggest deleterious effects to system-level processes when distressed marriages and male offspring are present. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article reviews the advances made in the decade of the 1990s in observing marital interaction. Many technological advances in data collection, including synchronization of physiology, behavior, and cognition, and advances in data analysis such as sequential analysis, have yielded new understanding and advances in prediction of marital outcomes. The advances have also included the study of developmental processes, including the transition to parenthood and the study of midlife and older marriages. Central advances have been made in the study of affect and the study of power and in their integration. This advance has included the mathematical modeling of interaction using nonlinear difference equations and the development of typologies. There has been an added focus on health outcomes and the bidirectional effects of marriages on children. There has been an expansion of the study of marital interaction to common comorbid psychopathologies. Most important has been emergent theorizing based on the interaction of behavior, perception, and physiology, as well as their predictive power.
This study examined the processes that underlie the association between trait expressiveness and marital satisfaction. A total of 168 newlywed couples participated in a four-wave, 13-year longitudinal study of marriage. Cross-sectional and longitudinal path analyses suggested that expressiveness promotes satisfaction by leading spouses to engage in affectionate behavior and by leading them to idealize their partner. Expressive people formed idealized images of their partner because they brought out the best in their partner's behavior and because they interpreted their partner's behavior in a favorable light. The study extends previous research by showing that the benefits of trait expressiveness extend into the second decade of marriage and by providing a plausible explanation of the connections between trait expressiveness and marital satisfaction.
Marital satisfaction is inversely associated with neuroticism in oneself (actor effects) and one's spouse (partner effects). However, different facets of neuroticism, particularly angry hostility in comparison to depression or anxiety, may have differential effects on relationship quality. The present study examined actor and partner effects of anxiety, angry hostility, and depression facets of neuroticism on marital satisfaction in 301 couples. All path analyses demonstrated that depression and angry hostility had equivalent, significantly negative actor effects on marital satisfaction, but only angry hostility had a significant negative partner effect. Hence, in examining marital adjustment, the distinction between the various facets of neuroticism may be important. Further, anger may be an important but understudied consideration in research on marital discord.
Seventy-three married couples were studied in 1983 and 1987. To identify marital processes associated with dissolution, a balance theory of marriage was used to generate 1 variable for dividing couples into regulated and nonregulated groups. For studying the precursors of divorce, a "cascade" model of marital dissolution, which forms a Guttman-like scale, received preliminary support. Compared with regulated couples, nonregulated couples had (a) marital problems rated as more severe (Time 1); (b) lower marital satisfaction (Time 1 and Time 2); (c) poorer health (Time 2); (d) smaller finger pulse amplitudes (wives); (e) more negative ratings for interactions; (f) more negative emotional expression; (g) less positive emotional expression; (h) more stubbornness and withdrawal from interaction; (i) greater defensiveness; and (j) greater risk for marital dissolution (lower marital satisfaction and higher incidence of consideration of dissolution and of actual separation).
Quantitative and qualitative reviews of the literature on sex differences in facial expression processing (FEP) have yielded conflicting findings regarding children. This study was designed to review quantitatively the literature on sex differences in FEP from infancy through adolescence and to evaluate consistency between the course of FEP development and predictions derived from preliminary theoretical models. Results, which indicate a female advantage at FEP, are consistent with predictions derived from an integrated neurobehavioral/social constructivist model. These findings suggest a need for research examining both neurological maturation and socialization as important factors in the development of sex differences in FEP and related skills. Possible directions for future study are discussed, with emphasis on the need to integrate the infant literature with research focused on older children and adults.
This review focuses on previous research with families of adults and children with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Three primary areas of research are covered: (i) characteristics of family members and the family environment; (ii) the prediction of treatment response based on family variables; and (iii) the inclusion of family members in treatment. Much of the research supports a hypothesized model of family response to symptoms of OCD that ranges on a continuum from overly accommodating to overly antagonistic. Further research indicates that responses at either extreme of this continuum are associated with poorer response to both exposure and response prevention (ERP) and pharmacotherapy. Finally, results of preliminary treatment outcome studies suggest that family-based interventions aimed at reducing such responses and/or including family members in ERP as coaches or co-therapists may enhance patients' response to treatment. Based on current theory and research, suggestions for future research and general recommendations for involving family members in treatment are made.
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