One common framework to rule them all: On linguistic status of select descriptors of the CEFR companion volume

Abstract

Metalinguistic competence is an elusive and pervasive in CEFR, and we argue that it ought not be. Similarly, we are shocked to see echoes of Lado's CA framework in CEFR CV's "contrasting grammatical structures". This papers offers an account of what interaction between language testing and GenSLA could hopefully look like.

Full text

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
One common framework
to rule them all
On linguistic status of select descriptors
of the CEFR companion volume
Daniil M. Ozernyi
Department of Linguistics
Northwestern University
University of Chicago
2022 Language Assessment Research Conference
(MwALT & ECOLT)
September 15, 2022
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 1 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
1Clarifying the focus
2Denitions
3Generative TL;DR
Dening the pursuit
How does acquisition proceed?
Wb “metalinguistic” and “declarative”?
4CEFR-2000
Metalinguistic competence in CEFR 2000
It gets worse: “declarative knowledge”
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
5CEFR-CV-2020
Metalinguistic competence
More prospective issues
6Conclusive remarks
7&c.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 2 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Focus and prism
We are going to focus on a particular aspects of CEFR:
metalinguistic competence. Our purpose will be to look at them
through the prism of acquisition studies. Perhaps more
importantly, we want to give an example of interaction of Ln
acquisition and language assessment (broadly conceived).
Trigger warning
The discussion will be conned to generative approach to
language acquisition, which means that discussion is guided
broadly by Chomsky (1955); Chomsky (1965) and more
immediately by Chomsky (1986); Epstein, Flynn, and
Martohardjono (1996); Flynn, Foley, and Vinnitskaya (2004);
Flynn (2021); Umejima, Flynn, and Sakai (2021);
Ozernyi (2022c).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 4 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Focus and prism
We are going to focus on a particular aspects of CEFR:
metalinguistic competence. Our purpose will be to look at them
through the prism of acquisition studies. Perhaps more
importantly, we want to give an example of interaction of Ln
acquisition and language assessment (broadly conceived).
Trigger warning
The discussion will be conned to generative approach to
language acquisition, which means that discussion is guided
broadly by Chomsky (1955); Chomsky (1965) and more
immediately by Chomsky (1986); Epstein, Flynn, and
Martohardjono (1996); Flynn, Foley, and Vinnitskaya (2004);
Flynn (2021); Umejima, Flynn, and Sakai (2021);
Ozernyi (2022c).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 5 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Focus and prism
We are going to focus on a particular aspects of CEFR:
metalinguistic competence. Our purpose will be to look at them
through the prism of acquisition studies. Perhaps more
importantly, we want to give an example of interaction of Ln
acquisition and language assessment (broadly conceived).
Trigger warning
The discussion will be conned to generative approach to
language acquisition, which means that discussion is guided
broadly by Chomsky (1955); Chomsky (1965) and more
immediately by Chomsky (1986); Epstein, Flynn, and
Martohardjono (1996); Flynn, Foley, and Vinnitskaya (2004);
Flynn (2021); Umejima, Flynn, and Sakai (2021);
Ozernyi (2022c).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 6 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Focus and prism
We are going to focus on a particular aspects of CEFR:
metalinguistic competence. Our purpose will be to look at them
through the prism of acquisition studies. Perhaps more
importantly, we want to give an example of interaction of Ln
acquisition and language assessment (broadly conceived).
Trigger warning
The discussion will be conned to generative approach to
language acquisition, which means that discussion is guided
broadly by Chomsky (1955); Chomsky (1965) and more
immediately by Chomsky (1986); Epstein, Flynn, and
Martohardjono (1996); Flynn, Foley, and Vinnitskaya (2004);
Flynn (2021); Umejima, Flynn, and Sakai (2021);
Ozernyi (2022c).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 7 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Focus and prism
We are going to focus on a particular aspects of CEFR:
metalinguistic competence. Our purpose will be to look at them
through the prism of acquisition studies. Perhaps more
importantly, we want to give an example of interaction of Ln
acquisition and language assessment (broadly conceived).
Trigger warning
The discussion will be conned to generative approach to
language acquisition, which means that discussion is guided
broadly by Chomsky (1955); Chomsky (1965) and more
immediately by Chomsky (1986); Epstein, Flynn, and
Martohardjono (1996); Flynn, Foley, and Vinnitskaya (2004);
Flynn (2021); Umejima, Flynn, and Sakai (2021);
Ozernyi (2022c).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 8 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Another notice
What this talk is not about
This notice is to clarify that the presentation is theoretical,
aiming at investigating at how broad conceptual framework of
generativism (which, of course, has empirical support) interacts
with CEFR and potential issues which arise there.
The issues illuminated by this generative prism will hopefully
highlight new issues with CEFR which can be extrapolated to
assessment more broadly.
– since one of the reviewers of the abstract mentioned that I forgot to include
my new empirical data. New empirical data can be found in, e.g., Berkes and
Flynn (2012) wrt L3, Ozernyi (2021) wrt L4.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 10 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Another notice
What this talk is not about
This notice is to clarify that the presentation is theoretical,
aiming at investigating at how broad conceptual framework of
generativism (which, of course, has empirical support) interacts
with CEFR and potential issues which arise there.
The issues illuminated by this generative prism will hopefully
highlight new issues with CEFR which can be extrapolated to
assessment more broadly.
– since one of the reviewers of the abstract mentioned that I forgot to include
my new empirical data. New empirical data can be found in, e.g., Berkes and
Flynn (2012) wrt L3, Ozernyi (2021) wrt L4.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 11 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Another notice
What this talk is not about
This notice is to clarify that the presentation is theoretical,
aiming at investigating at how broad conceptual framework of
generativism (which, of course, has empirical support) interacts
with CEFR and potential issues which arise there.
The issues illuminated by this generative prism will hopefully
highlight new issues with CEFR which can be extrapolated to
assessment more broadly.
– since one of the reviewers of the abstract mentioned that I forgot to include
my new empirical data. New empirical data can be found in, e.g., Berkes and
Flynn (2012) wrt L3, Ozernyi (2021) wrt L4.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 12 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Another notice
What this talk is not about
This notice is to clarify that the presentation is theoretical,
aiming at investigating at how broad conceptual framework of
generativism (which, of course, has empirical support) interacts
with CEFR and potential issues which arise there.
The issues illuminated by this generative prism will hopefully
highlight new issues with CEFR which can be extrapolated to
assessment more broadly.
– since one of the reviewers of the abstract mentioned that I forgot to include
my new empirical data. New empirical data can be found in, e.g., Berkes and
Flynn (2012) wrt L3, Ozernyi (2021) wrt L4.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 13 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Foci
70
30
60
40
50
Foci The generative prism
GenLA/GenSLA/...
“Metalinguistic”
CEFR 2000
Existing views
ML/Mediation CEFR 2020
∆wrt ML/Mediation?
More generativism
Prospects for CEFR/CV
More insights from GenSLA?
Conclusion, &c.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 14 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
1Clarifying the focus
2Denitions
3Generative TL;DR
Dening the pursuit
How does acquisition proceed?
Wb “metalinguistic” and “declarative”?
4CEFR-2000
Metalinguistic competence in CEFR 2000
It gets worse: “declarative knowledge”
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
5CEFR-CV-2020
Metalinguistic competence
More prospective issues
6Conclusive remarks
7&c.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 15 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
ML in linguistics
Explicit MLK [metalinguistic knowledge] can be dened as the
conscious knowledge of the linguistic rules of a particular
language. This knowledge is normally developed through formal
learning of the language in question.
Falk, Lindqvist, and Bardel (2015), p.227a
aA long tradition of understanding MLK this way: Bot (1992); Bardel and Falk (2007);
Bardel and Sanchez (2017); Bardel and Falk (2021); Falk and Bardel (2011); Falk (2017), &c.
This is the denition we adopt here, clarifying that we limit MLK
to explicit knowledge of syntactic structures, i.e. excluding the
domains of phonology, pragmatics, and so on.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 17 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
ML in linguistics
Explicit MLK [metalinguistic knowledge] can be dened as the
conscious knowledge of the linguistic rules of a particular
language. This knowledge is normally developed through formal
learning of the language in question.
Falk, Lindqvist, and Bardel (2015), p.227a
aA long tradition of understanding MLK this way: Bot (1992); Bardel and Falk (2007);
Bardel and Sanchez (2017); Bardel and Falk (2021); Falk and Bardel (2011); Falk (2017), &c.
This is the denition we adopt here, clarifying that we limit MLK
to explicit knowledge of syntactic structures, i.e. excluding the
domains of phonology, pragmatics, and so on.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 18 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
ML in linguistics
Explicit MLK [metalinguistic knowledge] can be dened as the
conscious knowledge of the linguistic rules of a particular
language. This knowledge is normally developed through formal
learning of the language in question.
Falk, Lindqvist, and Bardel (2015), p.227a
aA long tradition of understanding MLK this way: Bot (1992); Bardel and Falk (2007);
Bardel and Sanchez (2017); Bardel and Falk (2021); Falk and Bardel (2011); Falk (2017), &c.
This is the denition we adopt here, clarifying that we limit MLK
to explicit knowledge of syntactic structures, i.e. excluding the
domains of phonology, pragmatics, and so on.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 19 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
1Clarifying the focus
2Denitions
3Generative TL;DR
Dening the pursuit
How does acquisition proceed?
Wb “metalinguistic” and “declarative”?
4CEFR-2000
Metalinguistic competence in CEFR 2000
It gets worse: “declarative knowledge”
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
5CEFR-CV-2020
Metalinguistic competence
More prospective issues
6Conclusive remarks
7&c.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 20 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Language
We study:
the human [linguistic] cognitive capacit[y] and [related] mental
structures
Chomsky (1980)
the mental structures that serve as vehicle for the exercise of
these capacities
ibid.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 22 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Language
We study:
the human [linguistic] cognitive capacit[y] and [related] mental
structures
Chomsky (1980)
the mental structures that serve as vehicle for the exercise of
these capacities
ibid.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 23 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Language
We study:
the human [linguistic] cognitive capacit[y] and [related] mental
structures
Chomsky (1980)
the mental structures that serve as vehicle for the exercise of
these capacities
ibid.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 24 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Aims?
In generative
(and here specically GB/P&P of Chomsky and Lasnik (1977)/Chomsky and Lasnik (1993))
In generative framework, one of the (intermediate) aims is to
create an algorithm such that it generates all and only
well-formed sentences.
S
NP
N
Matthew
VP
V
kissed
NP
N
John
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 26 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Aims?
In generative
(and here specically GB/P&P of Chomsky and Lasnik (1977)/Chomsky and Lasnik (1993))
In generative framework, one of the (intermediate) aims is to
create an algorithm such that it generates all and only
well-formed sentences.
S
NP
N
Matthew
VP
V
kissed
NP
N
John
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 27 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Aims?
In generative
(and here specically GB/P&P of Chomsky and Lasnik (1977)/Chomsky and Lasnik (1993))
In generative framework, one of the (intermediate) aims is to
create an algorithm such that it generates all and only
well-formed sentences.
S
NP
N
Matthew
VP
V
kissed
NP
N
John
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 28 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Aims?
In generative
(and here specically GB/P&P of Chomsky and Lasnik (1977)/Chomsky and Lasnik (1993))
In generative framework, one of the (intermediate) aims is to
create an algorithm such that it generates all and only
well-formed sentences.
S
NP
N
Matthew
VP
V
kissed
NP
N
John
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 29 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
E.g.
S
NP
N
Matthew
VP
V
kissed
NP
N
John
S - NP VP
NP - N
VP - V NP
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 31 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
E.g.
S
NP
N
Matthew
VP
V
kissed
NP
N
John
S - NP VP
NP - N
VP - V NP
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 32 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
It gets complex quickly
The point is in computation.
S
t
∃e.agent(e) = j∧Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧Slow(e)
⇑
hhv, ti, ti
λf∃e.agent(e) = j∧Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧Slow(e)∧f(e)
DP
hhhv, ti, ti,hhv, ti, tii
λV λf.V (λe.agent(e) = j∧f(e))
θ
he, hhhv, ti, ti,hhv, ti, tiii
λxλV λf.V (λe.agent(e) = x∧f(e))
agent
DP
e
j
Jones
VP
hhv, ti, ti
λf∃e.Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧Slow(e)∧f(e)
V
hhv, ti, ti
λf∃e.Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧f(e)
buttered the toast
AdvP
hhhv, ti, ti,hhv, ti, tii
λvλf.V (λe.Slow(e)∧f(e))
slowly
Lambda tree adapted from Coppock and Champollion (2022).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 34 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
It gets complex quickly
The point is in computation.
S
t
∃e.agent(e) = j∧Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧Slow(e)
⇑
hhv, ti, ti
λf∃e.agent(e) = j∧Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧Slow(e)∧f(e)
DP
hhhv, ti, ti,hhv, ti, tii
λV λf.V (λe.agent(e) = j∧f(e))
θ
he, hhhv, ti, ti,hhv, ti, tiii
λxλV λf.V (λe.agent(e) = x∧f(e))
agent
DP
e
j
Jones
VP
hhv, ti, ti
λf∃e.Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧Slow(e)∧f(e)
V
hhv, ti, ti
λf∃e.Butter(e)∧theme(e) = t∧f(e)
buttered the toast
AdvP
hhhv, ti, ti,hhv, ti, tii
λvλf.V (λe.Slow(e)∧f(e))
slowly
Lambda tree adapted from Coppock and Champollion (2022).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 35 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
What about acquisition?
Acquisition, then, is a process by which a child’s or an adult’s mental
grammar comes by those computations. In our case, some are innate
(Universal Grammar), and some are acquired (those relevant for this talk).
UG, then, can be taken to be the genetically determined initial state of
the language faculty, shared among humans to a very close
approximation. a
aFor more on the concept of initial state in multilingual acquisition, see Ozernyi (2022a).
Chomsky (1965)
Lnacquisition involves incremental property-by-property learning and
allows for both facilitative and non-facilitative inuence from [...]
previously acquired languages.
Westergaard et al. (2017), p. 670
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 37 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
What about acquisition?
Acquisition, then, is a process by which a child’s or an adult’s mental
grammar comes by those computations. In our case, some are innate
(Universal Grammar), and some are acquired (those relevant for this talk).
UG, then, can be taken to be the genetically determined initial state of
the language faculty, shared among humans to a very close
approximation. a
aFor more on the concept of initial state in multilingual acquisition, see Ozernyi (2022a).
Chomsky (1965)
Lnacquisition involves incremental property-by-property learning and
allows for both facilitative and non-facilitative inuence from [...]
previously acquired languages.
Westergaard et al. (2017), p. 670
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 38 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
What about acquisition?
Acquisition, then, is a process by which a child’s or an adult’s mental
grammar comes by those computations. In our case, some are innate
(Universal Grammar), and some are acquired (those relevant for this talk).
UG, then, can be taken to be the genetically determined initial state of
the language faculty, shared among humans to a very close
approximation. a
aFor more on the concept of initial state in multilingual acquisition, see Ozernyi (2022a).
Chomsky (1965)
Lnacquisition involves incremental property-by-property learning and
allows for both facilitative and non-facilitative inuence from [...]
previously acquired languages.
Westergaard et al. (2017), p. 670
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 39 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
What about acquisition?
Acquisition, then, is a process by which a child’s or an adult’s mental
grammar comes by those computations. In our case, some are innate
(Universal Grammar), and some are acquired (those relevant for this talk).
UG, then, can be taken to be the genetically determined initial state of
the language faculty, shared among humans to a very close
approximation. a
aFor more on the concept of initial state in multilingual acquisition, see Ozernyi (2022a).
Chomsky (1965)
Lnacquisition involves incremental property-by-property learning and
allows for both facilitative and non-facilitative inuence from [...]
previously acquired languages.
Westergaard et al. (2017), p. 670
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 40 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
What about acquisition?
Acquisition, then, is a process by which a child’s or an adult’s mental
grammar comes by those computations. In our case, some are innate
(Universal Grammar), and some are acquired (those relevant for this talk).
UG, then, can be taken to be the genetically determined initial state of
the language faculty, shared among humans to a very close
approximation. a
aFor more on the concept of initial state in multilingual acquisition, see Ozernyi (2022a).
Chomsky (1965)
Lnacquisition involves incremental property-by-property learning and
allows for both facilitative and non-facilitative inuence from [...]
previously acquired languages.
Westergaard et al. (2017), p. 670
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 41 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Metalinguistic
There are (both theoretically and empirically well-established)
reasons why declarative, explicit knowledge plays exactly 0 role in
Lnacquisition.
Consider the following sentences:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 43 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Metalinguistic
There are (both theoretically and empirically well-established)
reasons why declarative, explicit knowledge plays exactly 0 role in
Lnacquisition.
Consider the following sentences:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 43 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Metalinguistic
There are (both theoretically and empirically well-established)
reasons why declarative, explicit knowledge plays exactly 0 role in
Lnacquisition.
Consider the following sentences:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 43 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Parasitic gaps
[Sbj The book which Masaya gave me] was interesting.
Who was [Sbj the book which __ gave me] interesting?
[Sbj The plan to expand our school] ultimately overburdened it.
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden it?
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden __?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 45 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Parasitic gaps
[Sbj The book which Masaya gave me] was interesting.
Who was [Sbj the book which __ gave me] interesting?
[Sbj The plan to expand our school] ultimately overburdened it.
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden it?
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden __?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 46 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Parasitic gaps
[Sbj The book which Masaya gave me] was interesting.
Who was [Sbj the book which __ gave me] interesting?
[Sbj The plan to expand our school] ultimately overburdened it.
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden it?
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden __?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 47 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Parasitic gaps
[Sbj The book which Masaya gave me] was interesting.
Who was [Sbj the book which __ gave me] interesting?
[Sbj The plan to expand our school] ultimately overburdened it.
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden it?
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden __?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 48 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Parasitic gaps
[Sbj The book which Masaya gave me] was interesting.
Who was [Sbj the book which __ gave me] interesting?
[Sbj The plan to expand our school] ultimately overburdened it.
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden it?
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden __?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 49 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Parasitic gaps
[Sbj The book which Masaya gave me] was interesting.
Who was [Sbj the book which __ gave me] interesting?
[Sbj The plan to expand our school] ultimately overburdened it.
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden it?
Which school did [Sbj the plan to expand __ ] ultimately
overburden __?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 50 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
PG Cont’d
Parasitic gaps “rule” (rescuing a violation of an subject island
constraint) is never taught and rarely even known.
.. and there are hunderds of rules like these, and even more are
unknown to us still after more than 70 years of research.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 52 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
PG Cont’d
Parasitic gaps “rule” (rescuing a violation of an subject island
constraint) is never taught and rarely even known.
.. and there are hunderds of rules like these, and even more are
unknown to us still after more than 70 years of research.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 53 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
PG Cont’d
Parasitic gaps “rule” (rescuing a violation of an subject island
constraint) is never taught and rarely even known.
.. and there are hunderds of rules like these, and even more are
unknown to us still after more than 70 years of research.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 54 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4.The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 56 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4.The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 57 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4.The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 58 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4.The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 59 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4. The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 60 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4. The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 61 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4. The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 62 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
More metalinguistics
Thesis: Metalinguistic competence can in fact be
malicious/detrimental.
Argument: child language acquisition.
Trivially, there is order to language acquisition.
We do not know what it is, and it might be individualized to an
extent; say, p1≺p2≺p3≺p4. The order is dictated by dozens of
factors, central of which is the discourse/“evidence” otherwise
available to the child.
We do not know that order. When a teacher is imposing their
own, entirely uninformed, order onto the child – the process slows
down. It also slows down if less discourse is available to the child1;
that’s the account of why grammar-translation never worked out.
1For more considerata here, cf. Ozernyi (2022b).
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 63 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Summary to keep in mind
The vast majority of “rules” children acquire “with” a
language are never taught or known to teachers – or us.
Acquisition is an exclusively unconscious process.
Metalinguistic competence, declarative knowledge about
language can be detrimental for successful Lnacquisition.
Similarly, we should never strive to assess anything
“meta-linguistic”.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 65 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Summary to keep in mind
The vast majority of “rules” children acquire “with” a
language are never taught or known to teachers – or us.
Acquisition is an exclusively unconscious process.
Metalinguistic competence, declarative knowledge about
language can be detrimental for successful Lnacquisition.
Similarly, we should never strive to assess anything
“meta-linguistic”.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 66 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Summary to keep in mind
The vast majority of “rules” children acquire “with” a
language are never taught or known to teachers – or us.
Acquisition is an exclusively unconscious process.
Metalinguistic competence, declarative knowledge about
language can be detrimental for successful Lnacquisition.
Similarly, we should never strive to assess anything
“meta-linguistic”.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 67 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Summary to keep in mind
The vast majority of “rules” children acquire “with” a
language are never taught or known to teachers – or us.
Acquisition is an exclusively unconscious process.
Metalinguistic competence, declarative knowledge about
language can be detrimental for successful Lnacquisition.
Similarly, we should never strive to assess anything
“meta-linguistic”.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 68 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
1Clarifying the focus
2Denitions
3Generative TL;DR
Dening the pursuit
How does acquisition proceed?
Wb “metalinguistic” and “declarative”?
4CEFR-2000
Metalinguistic competence in CEFR 2000
It gets worse: “declarative knowledge”
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
5CEFR-CV-2020
Metalinguistic competence
More prospective issues
6Conclusive remarks
7&c.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 69 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
CEFR 2000
... a common basis for language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
examinations, textbooks...
... describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have
to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and
what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to
act eectively.
... the cultural context in which language is set ...
... denes levels of prociency which allow learners’ progress to be
measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis...
... now on to problems:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 71 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
CEFR 2000
... a common basis for language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
examinations, textbooks...
... describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have
to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and
what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to
act eectively.
... the cultural context in which language is set ...
... denes levels of prociency which allow learners’ progress to be
measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis...
... now on to problems:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 72 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
CEFR 2000
... a common basis for language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
examinations, textbooks...
... describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have
to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and
what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to
act eectively.
... the cultural context in which language is set ...
... denes levels of prociency which allow learners’ progress to be
measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis...
... now on to problems:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 73 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
CEFR 2000
... a common basis for language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
examinations, textbooks...
... describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have
to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and
what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to
act eectively.
... the cultural context in which language is set ...
... denes levels of prociency which allow learners’ progress to be
measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis...
... now on to problems:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 74 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
CEFR 2000
... a common basis for language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
examinations, textbooks...
... describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have
to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and
what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to
act eectively.
... the cultural context in which language is set ...
... denes levels of prociency which allow learners’ progress to be
measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis...
... now on to problems:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 75 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
6.1.3.3
In “Development of awareness and the process of use and
learning”:
... experience of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism [...] leads
to a better perception of what is general and what is specic
concerning the linguistic organisation of dierent languages
(form of metalinguistic, interlinguistic or so to speak
‘hyperlinguistic’ awareness).
CoE (2000)
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 76 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
6.1.3.3 on MLing
Crucially:
... experience of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism [...] leads
to a better perception of what is general and what is specic
concerning the linguistic organisation of dierent languages
(form of metalinguistic, interlinguistic or so to speak
‘hyperlinguistic’ awareness).
CoE (2000)
Also note how they in CEFR 2020 they do not (explicitly and
clearly) dene what “metalinguistic” is.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 78 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
6.1.4.1 on Mediation
In “6.1.4.1 Types of objectives in relation to the Framework”
It may be that the main stated objective of learning a foreign
language is to have eective results in receptive activities
(reading or listening) or mediation (translating or interpreting)
or face-to-face interaction.
CoE (2000)
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 79 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
6.1.4.1 on Mediation
In “6.1.4.1 Types of objectives in relation to the Framework”
It may be that the main stated objective of learning a foreign
language is to have eective results in receptive activities
(reading or listening) or mediation (translating or interpreting)
or face-to-face interaction.
CoE (2000)
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 80 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Teaching/learning objectives may in fact be conceived: [...] in
terms of the development of the learner’s general competences
[...] thus be a matter of declarative knowledge (savoir)...
6.1.4.1, CoE (2000)
In some cases, the learning of a foreign language aims above all
at imparting declarative knowledge to the learner (for example,
of the grammar [...]).
ibid.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 82 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Teaching/learning objectives may in fact be conceived: [...] in
terms of the development of the learner’s general competences
[...] thus be a matter of declarative knowledge (savoir)...
6.1.4.1, CoE (2000)
In some cases, the learning of a foreign language aims above all
at imparting declarative knowledge to the learner (for example,
of the grammar [...]).
ibid.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 83 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 85 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
No.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 86 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Some directions
policy-making; Alderson (2000)
content/lack of empirical basis; Alderson (2007)
CEFR has been vocally criticized by Deygers et al. (2018)
Deygers (2021) came after the Companion Volume (CV)
Nobody explicitly focused on “metalinguistics” yet, though.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 88 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Some directions
policy-making; Alderson (2000)
content/lack of empirical basis; Alderson (2007)
CEFR has been vocally criticized by Deygers et al. (2018)
Deygers (2021) came after the Companion Volume (CV)
Nobody explicitly focused on “metalinguistics” yet, though.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 89 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Some directions
policy-making; Alderson (2000)
content/lack of empirical basis; Alderson (2007)
CEFR has been vocally criticized by Deygers et al. (2018)
Deygers (2021) came after the Companion Volume (CV)
Nobody explicitly focused on “metalinguistics” yet, though.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 90 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Some directions
policy-making; Alderson (2000)
content/lack of empirical basis; Alderson (2007)
CEFR has been vocally criticized by Deygers et al. (2018)
Deygers (2021) came after the Companion Volume (CV)
Nobody explicitly focused on “metalinguistics” yet, though.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 91 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Some directions
policy-making; Alderson (2000)
content/lack of empirical basis; Alderson (2007)
CEFR has been vocally criticized by Deygers et al. (2018)
Deygers (2021) came after the Companion Volume (CV)
Nobody explicitly focused on “metalinguistics” yet, though.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 92 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
1Clarifying the focus
2Denitions
3Generative TL;DR
Dening the pursuit
How does acquisition proceed?
Wb “metalinguistic” and “declarative”?
4CEFR-2000
Metalinguistic competence in CEFR 2000
It gets worse: “declarative knowledge”
Did everyone like CEFR 2000?
5CEFR-CV-2020
Metalinguistic competence
More prospective issues
6Conclusive remarks
7&c.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 93 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Did it improve much at all?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 95 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Did it improve much at all?
TL;DR:
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 96 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
Did it improve much at all?
TL;DR: Not much.
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 97 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
An encore: §2.3
... experience of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism [...] leads
to a better perception of what is general and what is specic
concerning the linguistic organisation of dierent languages
(form of metalinguistic, interlinguistic or so to speak
‘hyperlinguistic’ awareness).
CoE (2020)
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 99 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
A denition?
Metalinguistic competences allow for evaluative attributions of
specic signs and expressions perceived, for example as an
aesthetic contribution or a rhetorical reply. They are applied in
the interpretation of a signer’s productions as, for example, in a
text making an appeal or request, or in a formal text, and they
are applied in reections on signing.
CoE (2020), 164
Sure, we see what they do, but do we know what they are? I.e.,
what kind of knowledge/data is required to allow for those
attributions?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 101 / 153

Clarifying the focus Denitions Generative TL;DR CEFR-2000 CEFR-CV-2020 Conclusive remarks &c. References
A denition?
Metalinguistic competences allow for evaluative attributions of
specic signs and expressions perceived, for example as an
aesthetic contribution or a rhetorical reply. They are applied in
the interpretation of a signer’s productions as, for example, in a
text making an appeal or request, or in a formal text, and they
are applied in reections on signing.
CoE (2020), 164
Sure, we see what they do, but do we know what they are? I.e.,
what kind of knowledge/data is required to allow for those
attributions?
Daniil M. Ozernyi LARC/UChicago September 15, 2022 102 / 153