Comparing Executive Functioning in the School Readiness of Hungarian and Kenyan Preschoolers

Abstract

Cross-national comparisons represent an avenue for investigating milestones achieved by one region that can help improve standards in another country. This study compares the development of executive functioning in Hungarian and Kenyan preschoolers as they prepare for school readiness. The study's cross-sectional design entailed sampling preschoolers from Hungary (n = 187) and Kenya (n = 420) aged between 4 and 8 years nested in 35 classrooms. Preschool class teachers rated the children's executive functioning using the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI). The two-factor structure of the CHEXI demonstrated a strong measurement invariance for the two countries, Hungary and Kenya. Significant gender differences were noted on both subscales in the Hungarian sample but not in the Kenyan preschoolers. Additionally, no differences were found in the executive functioning of boys from both countries. However, the girls exhibited variances in the inhibition subscale. Contrary to expectations, no linear mixed effects were observed for country or the interactions between age and country apropos difficulties related to inhibition and total executive functioning except for working memory. Better working memory skills noted in the Hungarian sample were attributed to a superior preschool education system.

Full text

Vol.:(0123456789)
International Journal of Early Childhood (2023) 55:205–222
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-022-00331-0
1 3
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Comparing Executive Functioning intheSchool Readiness
ofHungarian andKenyan Preschoolers
StephenAmukune1,3 · GabriellaJózsa2· KrisztiánJózsa1,4
Accepted: 10 June 2022 / Published online: 16 September 2022
© The Author(s) 2022
Abstract
Cross-national comparisons represent an avenue for investigating milestones
achieved by one region that can help improve standards in another country. This
study compares the development of executive functioning in Hungarian and Kenyan
preschoolers as they prepare for school readiness. The study’s cross-sectional design
entailed sampling preschoolers from Hungary (n = 187) and Kenya (n = 420) aged
between 4 and 8years nested in 35 classrooms. Preschool class teachers rated the
children’s executive functioning using the Childhood Executive Functioning Inven-
tory (CHEXI). The two-factor structure of the CHEXI demonstrated a strong meas-
urement invariance for the two countries, Hungary and Kenya. Significant gender
differences were noted on both subscales in the Hungarian sample but not in the
Kenyan preschoolers. Additionally, no differences were found in the executive func-
tioning of boys from both countries. However, the girls exhibited variances in the
inhibition subscale. Contrary to expectations, no linear mixed effects were observed
for country or the interactions between age and country apropos difficulties related
to inhibition and total executive functioning except for working memory. Better
working memory skills noted in the Hungarian sample were attributed to a superior
preschool education system.
Keywords Executive Function· CHEXI· School Readiness· Hungary· Kenya
Résumé
Las comparaciones entre países representan una vía para investigar hitos logrados
por una región que pueden ayudar a mejorar los estándares en otro país. Este estudio
* Stephen Amukune
amukune.stephen@edu.u-szeged.hu
1 Institute ofEducation, University ofSzeged, 30–34 Petőfi Avenue, Szeged6722, Hungary
2 MTA-MATE Early Childhood Research Group, Kaposvár, Hungary
3 School ofEducation, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya
4 Institute ofEducation, Hungarian University ofAgriculture andLife Sciences, Kaposvár,
Hungary
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compara el desarrollo del funcionamiento ejecutivo en preescolares húngaros y keni-
anos mientras se preparan para la preparación escolar. El diseño transversal del estu-
dio implicó el muestreo de niños en edad preescolar de Hungría ( n = 187) y Kenia ( n
= 420) con edades entre 4 y 8 años anidados en 35 aulas. Los maestros de la clase de
preescolar calificaron el funcionamiento ejecutivo de los niños usando la Prueba de
funcionamiento ejecutivo infantil. Inventario (CHEXI). La estructura de dos factores
del CHEXI demostró una fuerte invariancia de medición para los dos países, Hungría
y Kenia. Se observaron diferencias de género significativas en ambas subescalas en la
muestra húngara, pero no en los preescolares de Kenia . Además, no se encontraron
diferencias en el funcionamiento ejecutivo de los niños de ambos países. Sin em-
bargo, las niñas exhibieron variaciones en la subescala de inhibición. Contrariamente
a lo esperado, no se observaron efectos mixtos lineales para el país o las interacciones
entre la edad y el país a propósito de las dificultades relacionadas con la inhibición y
el funcionamiento ejecutivo total, excepto para la memoria de trabajo. Las mejores
habilidades de memoria de trabajo observadas en la muestra húngara se atribuyeron
a un sistema de educación preescolar superior.
Resumen
Les comparaisons transnationales représentent un moyen d’étudier les jalons atteints
par une région qui peuvent aider à améliorer les normes dans un autre pays. Cette
étude compare le développement du fonctionnement exécutif chez les enfants d’ âge
préscolaire hongrois et kenyans alors qu’ils se préparent à la préparation à l’école.
La conception transversale de l’étude impliquait un échantillonnage d’enfants d’ âge
préscolaire de Hongrie ( n = 187) et du Kenya ( n = 420) âgés de 4 à 8 ans répartis dans
35 salles de classe. Les enseignants de la classe préscolaire ont évalué le fonctionne-
ment exécutif des enfants à l’aide du Childhood Executive Functioning Inventaire
(CHEXI). La structure à deux facteurs du CHEXI a démontré une forte invariance
de mesure pour les deux pays, la Hongrie et le Kenya. Des différences significatives
entre les sexes ont été notées sur les deux sous-échelles dans l’échantillon hongrois,
mais pas chez les enfants d’âge préscolaire kenyans . De plus, aucune différence n’a
été trouvée dans le fonctionnement exécutif des garçons des deux pays. Cependant,
les filles présentaient des variances dans la souséchelle d’inhibition. Contrairement
aux attentes, aucun effet mixte linéaire n’a été observé pour le pays ou les interactions
entre l’âge et le pays à propos des difficultés liées à l’inhibition et au fonctionnement
exécutif total à l’exception de la mémoire de travail. Les meilleures compétences en
mémoire de travail notées dans l’ échantillon hongrois ont été attribuées à un système
d’éducation préscolaire supérieur.
Introduction
UNESCO (2015) reports that over 550 million children live in low- and middle-
income countries (LMIC) in conditions that threaten their health as well as their
cognitive and behavioural development (Black et al., 2017; Willoughby et al.,
2019). Executive function (EF) appears critical for evaluating the readiness of
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Comparing Executive Functioning intheSchool Readiness of…
children to transition from preschool to regular schooling. Some comparative
studies have attended to cultural influences on EFs (Sabbagh etal., 2006; Schirm-
beck etal., 2020; Tran etal., 2019). However, scant studies have compared coun-
tries in sub-Saharan Africa to European nations. Additionally, most cross-national
comparisons have utilised performance-based measures of EF, such as the Stroop
task, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, and the test of verbal fluency (Toplak
et al., 2013). Unlike performance-based measures that assess EF abilities, the
ratings used in the present study measure the utilisation of EF skills in schools
or at home. Consequently, some authors have reported low correlations between
behavioural ratings of EF and performance-based measures (e.g., Camerota,
2018; Catale et al., 2015; Giménez de la Peña et al., 2022Thorell etal.,2010).
These reports signify that the two methods tap different cognitive levels, the algo-
rithmic and the reflective. The algorithmic level focuses on numerous studies
and concerns how the brain processes information or the degree of efficiency of
individual cognitive abilities. The reflective level addresses the achievement of
goals because of activities undertaken within a particular system and its associ-
ated beliefs (Toplak etal., 2013). The present study is motivated by the paucity of
comparative studies attending to the application of EF ratings among preschool-
ers in different countries.
Executive Functions inPreschool Children
Executive function, also known as executive control, resource-demanding cog-
nition or controlled cognition, is a "higher level" or "meta-" cognitive function
that manages other more basic cognitive functions (Alvarez & Emory, 2006;
Salthouse, 2007) and the regulation of emotions and attention (Bell & Deater-
Deckard, 2007; Bell & Deater-Deckard, 2007; Blair & Diamond, 2008) neces-
sary for purposeful and goal-directed behaviours. Researchers agree that EF has
three components cognitive flexibility, working memory and Inhibition (Diamond
& Ling, 2019). However, working memory and inhibition are the most common
(Miyake etal., 2000).
EF can potentially bolster school readiness in children during their preschool
years because EF skills: (1) Develops rapidly during this period; (2) are malle-
able; and (3) are linked with improved academic and socio-emotional outcomes
(Mattera et al., 2021). Further, enhanced EF leads to the improved ability of
learners to self-regulate and is associated with adaptive approaches to learning
and social-emotional competencies (Blair, 2002; McClelland etal., 2006; Raver
& Knitzer,2002). Researchers also agree that EF is essential for children for their
successful transition to school (Blair & Razza, 2007; Barrett etal.,2017) and pre-
dicts academic achievement and successful adjustment in school (Cragg et al.,
2017). Therefore, poor EF will undermine school readiness and success across
higher grades (Sung & Wickrama2018).
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EF emerges during the first years of life but continues to increase from childhood
to adolescence. Children aged three to four years can successfully undertake inhibi-
tion tasks such as the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS; Zelazo,2006), where
the child is required to sort cards based on colour, size and shape depending on the
changing rules. However, they cannot accomplish the day-night task (Carlson, 2005)
because of the different response modalities of motor and verbal reactions (Diamond
& Taylor, 1996). Inhibition improves between five and eight years (Romine & Reyn-
olds, 2005). By age six, children are ready to use working memory sub-components
to solve complex tasks even though their abilities to accomplish simple tasks such
as remembering a route and challenging tasks such as complex span tasks develop
linearly from age four to 14 (Gathercole etal., 2004). Both inhibition and working
memory are prerequisites for accomplishing shifting tasks, which need the informa-
tion to be mentally retained while the previous practised response is inhibited (Dia-
mond, 2013; Miyake, 2000).
EF has been assessed in LMICs utilising laboratory-based measures despite
the demands for behavioural ratings (Isquith et al., 2013; Camerota et al., 2018),
which can ascertain EF over an extended period, encompass many participants,
and are ecologically valid. The Behavioural Rating Inventory of Executive Func-
tions (BRIEF-P; Gioia etal., 2000) are a widely used tool that includes items for
assessing EF and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). It is also long,
comprising 68 items, and costs USD 2 per administration. Apart from its deploy-
ment for research purposes, it is widely used to diagnose children at risk of develop-
ing ADHD in the future (Camerota etal., 2018; Thorell & Nyberg, 2008). Unlike
the BRIEF-P, the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI; Thorell
& Nyberg, 2008) is free to download in several languages and comprises 24 items
directed only at EF assessment. Overall, the CHEXI represents a valuable screening
tool for predicting academic difficulties in the classroom (Thorell etal., 2013) due
to EF impairment, which is critical during the school readiness preparations that
form the focus of this study. Moreover, the CHEXI has been validated in Hungary
(Józsa & Józsa, 2020) and Kenya (Amukune & Józsa, 2021) to evaluate EF deficits.
The factor structure of this instrument has also been replicated in other studies, for
example, in the USA (Camerota etal., 2018), France (Catale etal., 2015) and Spain
(Giménez de la Peña etal., 2022).
Cross‑Regional Variations intheEF development ofPreschoolers
Multiple factors explain the differences in EF development in cross-national com-
parisons of disparate cultures (Nesbitt etal., 2013). Tran etal. (2019) compared EF
development among monolingual or bilingual children aged 3–4years from different
cultures in the USA, Argentina and Vietnam. Bilingualism had an effect on inhibi-
tion, selective attention, and switching, while culture was pronounced in behavioural
response/regulation. In another study, Cook etal. (2019) compared children from
a low socioeconomic status (SES) in South Africa to their peers from middle- and
high-income strata in Australia and reported that the low SES sample performed bet-
ter in two of the three assessed EF tasks. Cook and colleagues linked this difference
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209
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to routines and rituals in South African culture. Sabbagh etal. (2006) also reported
that children from China outperformed their colleagues from the USA on several EF
tasks. This result was associated with the Confucian philosophy prevalent in East
Asian countries. Further, Chasiotis etal. (2006) observed that Costa Rican and Ger-
man children performed better on EF tasks assessing conflict inhibition than their
peers from Cameroon. This study cited maturation, parental expectations, and SES
as some reasons for the notable differences.
Other scholars have found distinctions between countries based on CHEXI rat-
ings. For example, Catale et al. (2015) reported that Belgian children exhibited
more inhibitory problems than Swedish children aged between eight and 11years.
Similarly, Thorell etal. (2013) compared the EF of preschoolers in Sweden, Spain,
China, and Iran. Swedish children emerged the best in this comparison, followed by
the Spanish, Iranian, and Chinese. Chinese high EF deficits were associated with
cultural biases. In Thorell and colleagues’ study, boys presented with more impaired
EF than girls. Camerota etal. (2018) also compared the EF of children from high
and low-income households in the USA. Children from high-income households
had lower working memory impairments than their low-income peers. This study
observed that coming from a low-income household and being a male was a risk
factor for behavioural difficulties. Moriguchi etal. (2012) observed in another study
that Canadian preschoolers performed better in the social version of DCCS than
their Japanese peers. These different results suggest that different underlying contex-
tual factors influence EF development.
Preschools inHungary andKenya
According to OECD (2004), the quality of Hungarian preschool education is high due
to a superior curriculum comparable to Germany, Norway and Finland. The curriculum
provides classroom management of 25 children per class per teacher, usually a gradu-
ate and an attendant. The children are exposed to enriched teaching and learning envi-
ronments offered in Hungarian as the language of instruction, which is also spoken at
home (Józsa etal., 2018). The curriculum also emphasises the ability to think flexibly
and imagine through a creative curriculum balanced in science and art. It also advo-
cates for social connectedness in child upbringing (Brayfield & Korintus, 2011), which
significantly enhances EF skills (Bierman etal., 2008). Preschool teachers in Hungary
also enjoy high social prestige, have low job turnover, and their salaries are comparable
to their colleagues in elementary school (Koles etal., 2013). Such prestige likely lead
to job satisfaction which correlates with positive affection for children during class-
room teaching (Mill & Romano-White, 1999). Besides, the government offers an intro-
ductory program that reinforces the successful education of children within families
and native language education to enhance child-to-child interaction. Special training
is also provided to teachers to ensure that disadvantaged children receive professional
attention (KSH, 2015). Such training is based on multifunctional programs that engage
children and parents, and enrich nutrition and health, aspects that are significant to the
development of EF skills (Józsa etal., 2018; Imada etal., 2013).
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Conversely, Kenya currently implements a Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC)
to develop the potential of individual learners in a holistic and integrated manner to
produce intellectually, emotionally, and physically balanced citizens (Republic of
Kenya, 2017). The curriculum emphasises applying creative and critical thinking skills
in problem-solving, numeracy and literacy, interpersonal relationships, emotional
and physical development (KICD, 2017). However, the ratio of teachers to children
is 1:53, and the teacher turnover is high (Republic of Kenya,2019), complicating the
teacher–child relationship and instructional approaches. Most preschool teachers hold
a two-year diploma or a one-year teacher certificate. Moreover, children use their dif-
ferent native languages at home and English or Swahili as a medium of instruction at
school. This lingual difference creates barriers for children during classroom instruc-
tion and playtime (Wadende etal., 2016), impacting EF development. In addition, 3
out of 10 preschoolers are over age (Uwezo, 2021), some even over ten years who often
bully the young, creating unnecessary anxiety. Families residing in cities have adopted
western culture, while in rural areas and small urban towns, children are socialised in
extended families with little support from the government for preschoolers. A sharp
contrast is observed between the school and home environments in some nomadic and
pastoralist areas (Ng’asike, 2014).
Cross-national comparisons investigate the effects of educational curricula, govern-
ment organisations, family structures, social values, and civic norms on the develop-
ment of children in two or more regions (Schirmbeck etal., 2021). For example, organ-
ising a society may influence how teachers plan and implement the curriculum. This is
significant in guiding the transportability of programmes across borders. In addition, an
effective program in one culture may be used to enhance the development of a strug-
gling program in another early childhood programme.
Goals ofthePresent Study
The current study adopts a threefold objective. First, to determine the measurement
invariance of the CHEXI in the two countries to form the basis of this comparative
study. Second, it aims to assess EF in Hungarian and Kenyan preschool samples nested
in classrooms. Third, compare and contrast the similarities and differences of EF skills
observed in the two countries.
Methods
Participants andProcedure
We recruited 187 preschoolers from a large central county in Hungary aged 4 to
8 years (M = 6.29 years, SD = 1.18), and 78 were girls (46.7%). All eight pre-
schools were public since few schools are privately managed in Hungary. The sam-
ple consisted of 8 preschool classes, one class per preschool. A total of 8 teachers,
one teacher per class, rated the children. The participating children were not diag-
nosed with any disabilities and attended ordinary schools in Hungary. In Kenya, we
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Comparing Executive Functioning intheSchool Readiness of…
recruited 420 children from 27 schools in a large coastal county aged 4 to 8years
(M = 7.33years, SD = 0.69); 224 of the sample were girls (53.3%). Of the 27 schools,
12 were private preschools, and 15 were public institutions. Due to large classes in
the participating county, 15 children were randomly selected from 27 classrooms
while counterbalancing gender. A total of 33 teachers rated the children during the
first term of the year.
In Hungary, permission to collect data was granted by the Institutional Review
Board of the University of Szeged, Doctoral School of Education and the parents of
the children through their respective schools. Selected children were given a letter
of consent to take to their parents and guardians. The children whose parents pro-
vided written consent were involved in the study. In Kenya, we first obtained Ethical
approval from Pwani University and the Kenya National Commission for Science,
Technology and Innovation Ethical Review Boards. We further requested permis-
sion from Ministry of Education officials and school management to involve teach-
ers in data collection. Selected children were given a note to their parents inviting
them to the school. Parents who visited the centre were asked to provide written
consent to involve their children in this study.
Measures
Demographics
During recruitment, teachers consulted parents and compared data in the school
admission documents concerning age, language, race, and nationality. Medical
records available in the school were also checked to confirm that all children dur-
ing the study period were typically developing. The Kenyan sample also obtained
centre registration information to ascertain class enrollment and whether the school
was registered as private or public. All children in Hungary spoke Hungarian both at
home and in school. In addition, in Kenya, children speak native languages at home,
such as Giriama, Chonyi, Kauma, Kikuyu, Luo or Swahili at home and Swahili or
English at school. All children had Hungarian or Kenyan nationalities.
The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI)
CHEXI (Thorell & Nyberg, 2008) is a 24 item questionnaire that encompasses the
subscales of inhibition (6 items), working memory (9 items), regulation (5 items),
and planning (4 items). Individuals with higher CHEXI scores evince more signifi-
cant EF difficulties (Camerota etal., 2018). Nevertheless, the factor analysis for this
study reduced the four factors to two: inhibition (11 items) and working memory (13
items), which denote the most basic EFs (Catale etal., 2015). CHEXI has been vali-
dated and was found suitably reliable in Hungary (Józsa & Józsa, 2020) and Kenya
for inhibition (α = 0.94 and 0.86, respectively) and working memory (α = 0.97 and
0.95, respectively) (Amukune & Józsa, 2021).
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Analytic Plan
Descriptive analyses were computed using IBM SPSS 24. The factor analytic approach
was used to test the group measurement invariance of the CHEXI across the Hungarian
and Kenyan cultural groups. A successful group measurement invariance forms the basis
of the comparison (Milfont & Fischer, 2010). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
computed using AMOS version 24, and the following model fit indices, and their cut-
off was adopted to assess the model fit: Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) ≥ 0.90, Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) < 0.08, and CFI ≥ 0.90) (Schreiber et al.,
2006; Schumacker & Lomax, 2016). Multi-level analyses were employed to calculate
linear mixed-effects models based on maximum likelihood estimations (Twisk, 2006) to
examine the differences in the performance of EF skills between the participating Hun-
garian and Kenyan children. To appropriately model child-level and class-level covari-
ates, we developed a two-level multi-level linear model specification as follows:
Yij = β0j + βij (Xij – Ẋ..) + εij (1)
where
Yij is the Child’s Executive Function difficulties measured on the ith child
nested within the jth classroom. Y is not a dichotomous dependent or outcome
variable
β0j is the intercept for the jth classroom,
Xij is the level 1 predictor or covariate (child age and gender),
Ẋ . . is the grand mean of Xij (the mean age of all children in the sample),
Βij is the regression coefficient associated with level 1 predictor X for the jth
level 2 unit (classroom) and
εij is the random error associated with the ith level 1 unit nested within the jth
level 2 unit
(Sullivan etal., 1999)
Level 1 and level 2 variables were established as follows:
Level 1 variables: CHEXI tests four latent factors: working memory, planning,
regulation, and inhibition. However, the validation of CHEXI in Kenya (Amukune
& Józsa, 2021) and Hungary (Józsa & Józsa, 2020) yielded an excellent fit for two
latent factors, working memory (13 items/variables) and inhibition (11 items/vari-
ables). Therefore, EF was assessed based on these two latent factors at the individual
level. In addition, inhibition, working memory, and total EF were group mean-cen-
tred and treated as the study’s dependent variables.
Level 2 variables: Classrooms were treated as level two variables because stu-
dents were nested in classes. In Kenya, 27 classes were nested from 27 different
schools, and eight classes were derived from eight schools in Hungary (one class
per school). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was also used to deter-
mine the existence of evidence for substantial clustering within the classrooms
that formed the study’s level 2 variables. A value above 0.05 was stipulated as
the cut-off (Heck etal., 2013). An ICC of 0.142 was obtained for this sample,
significantly evidencing that 14.2% of the variation in EF development occurred
between the classes.
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In the second step, a t-test was performed to examine significant differences
based on EF difficulties between Hungarian and Kenyan children. Significant age-
related differences between Hungary and Kenya were identified at t (604) = − 14.92,
Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations and Bivariate Correlations for CHEXI Ratings by Teachers for
Hungarian and Kenyan Preschoolers
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Hungary 1 2 3 4 5
1Age
2Sex − 0.046
3 Working memory − 0.191** − 0.166*
4 Inhibition − 0.073 − 0.255** 0.686**
5 Total EF − 0.153* − 0.222** 0.941** 0.892**
M6.29 - 37.70 32.14 69.84
SD 1.18 15.44 11.60 24.87
Range 4–8 1–2 1–5 1–5 1–5
Reliability of the CHEXI 0.899
Kenya
1Age
2Sex 0.026
3 Working memory − 0.126* − 0.062
4 Inhibition − 0.097* − 0.101*0.761**
5 Total EF − 0.121* − 0.083 0.960** 0.912**
M7.33 - 38.22 32.44 70.66
SD 0.69 11.22 7.65 17.76
Range 4–8 1–2 1–5 1–5 1–5
Reliability of the CHEXI 0.912
Table 2 Measurement invariance of the CHEXI across groups
Model X2
(df)
CFI RMSEA
(90% CI)
TLI Model comp ΔX2
(Δdf) ΔCFI ΔRMSEA ΔTLI
M1
Configural
invariance
790.83
(241)
0.949 0.061
(0.057–
0.066)
0.946 - - - - -
M2
Metric
Invariance
1507.53
(502)
0.954 0.041
(0.038–
0.043)
0.949 M1 716.6
(271)
0.005 0.020 0.003
M3
scalar
1507.5
(524)
0.955 0.039
(0.037–
0.042)
0.952 M2 22.15
(22)
0.001 − 0.002 0.003
M4 Residual
invariance
1507.53
(548)
0.956 0.060
(0.057–
0.064)
0.956 M3 0.03
(24)
0.011 0.006 0.004
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214
S.Amukune et al.
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p < 0.001. Age and gender were treated as control variables in all the multi-level
analyses because of these differences. The two countries (Hungary and Kenya) and
the interaction terms (region and age) were independent variables. The sample size
of 164 was enough to yield a medium effect size at a power of 80%, according to
calculations performed on G*Power 3.1.9.4.
Results
Descriptive Statistics andBivariate Correlations
Table1 displays the descriptives of the study variables across gender and country of
origin. Individuals with high CHEXI values exhibit more significant EF impairment
(Camerota etal.,2018). On average Kenyan preschoolers were much older than the
Hungarian sample and had greater EF difficulties. The reliability of the CHEXI was
also good, above the threshold of 0.7. Bivariate correlations indicated a negative
association between EF difficulties and age, indicating that EF deficits declined as
children advanced with age. However, the inhibition subscale was not significant in
the Hungarian sample. In general, significant correlations existed across variables,
except for gender. In addition, the correlations were more robust in the Hungarian
sample than in the Kenyan sample.
Measurement Invariance oftheCHEXI Across theTwo Countries
Since there were no missing values and normally distributed data, we used Maximum
Likelihood Estimates to test the measurement model of the CHEXI in the Hungarian
and Kenyan samples. The two factor models fitted well with the data, for the Hun-
garian sample, CMIN/DF of 3.08, CFI = 0.93, SRMR = 0.048, and RMSEA = 0.073,
and Kenyan sample RMSEA = 0.055, CMIN/DF = 2.97, SRMR = 0.0438 and
CFI = 0.95. Based on the factor analysis, we merged the data from samples of the
two countries and conducted further analysis to test the measurement invariance of
the CHEXI across groups; Hungarian and Kenyan. Initially before developing the
configural model the model fit was CMIN/DF = 4.835, CFI = 0.912, TLI = 0.903 and
RMSEA 0.08. We later used modification indices to correlate the errors to a bet-
ter configural model. We, therefore, developed models from configural to residual
invariance and compared them. Following Cheung and Rensvold (2002), a model
demonstrates measurement invariance if the ΔCFI ≤ 0.01(Table2). Since the meas-
urement invariance was successful, this formed the basis for comparing the two
countries.
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Comparison ofEF Difficulties Among Hungarian andKenyan Preschoolers
The EF difficulties of the Hungarian and Kenyan samples were compared using the
t-test. The results revealed gender differences in the Hungarian and Kenyan samples.
A significant difference was noted in boys and girls in the Hungarian sample. In the
working memory scale, Hungarian boys (M = 39.80, SD = 15.75) and girls (M = 34.76,
SD = 14.58); t (185) = 2.220, p = 0.028; d = 0.33. On the Inhibition subscale, boys
(M = 34.59, SD = 11.75) and girls (M = 28.71, SD = 10.53; t (185) = 3.528, p < 0.001;
d = 0.53 and total EF difficulties, boys (M = 74.38, SD = 7.92), and girls (M = 63.47;
SD = 23.40) t (185) = 3.022, p < 0.001, Cohen d = 0.62. However, no significant differ-
ence was observed between boys and girls in the Kenyan sample. Additionally, boys
Table 3 Multi-level Models for Working Memory, Inhibition, and Total Executive functioning
LBC lower bound 95% confidence interval, SE standard error, LBC; UBC upper bound 95% confidence
interval, AIC Akaike Information Criterion
*p < 0.05
**p < 0.01
Category ‘Null’ Model
(n = 605)
OR (95% CI)
‘Final’ model (n = 605)
OR (95% CI)
BSE B LBC UBC
Working memory
Intercept 56.80** 6.67 43.70 69.90
Gender − 2.54* 1.02 − 4.54 − 0.54
Age − 2.00 0.88 − 3.74 − 0.26
Country 1.21 8.29 − 15.09 17.50
Country*Age − 0.68 1.20 − 3.03 1.68
AIC 4799.120 4776.019
ICC 0.142 0.137
Inhibition
Intercept 44.34** 4.78 34.97 53.73
Gender − 2.86** 0.72 − 4.29 − 1.43
Age − 1.02 0.63 − 2.27 0.22
Country*Age 0.22 0.86 − 1.47 1.90
AIC 4392.834 4373.824
ICC 0.138 0.122
Total EF
Intercept 101.15** 10.64 80.26 122.40
Gender 5.40** 1.62 − 8.59 − 2.22
Age − 3.03* 1.14 5.79 0.25
Country − 1.90 13.23 27.89 24.08
Country*Age − 0.46 1.91 − 4.22 3.29
AIC 5355.560 5342.784
ICC 0.430 0.130
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S.Amukune et al.
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from Hungary and Kenya evinced no significant differences but distinctions existed in
inhibition between girls from the two countries: Hungary (28.72 SD = 10.54), Kenya
(M = 31.71, SD = 7.56); t (299) = − 2.718, p = 0.007.
Multi-level analysis was employed to calculate linear mixed-effect models and
examine the differences in EF deficits between Hungarian and Kenyan children
nested in the 35 classrooms. During the development of the models, we chose Fixed
Effects to avoid bias created by random effects (Clark & Linzer, 2015). The results
of the fixed effects are displayed in Table3. In addition, we used the Akaike Infor-
mation Criterion model selection to identify among a set of possible models that
best describes the relationship between executive function deficits, gender, age,
country and age interaction.
Working memory: The multilevel analysis of working memory difficulties evi-
denced the significant main effect of age at F (1,605) = 169.53, p < 0.001 and gender
at F (1605) = 6.229, p < 0.013. These outcomes indicated that EF deficits diminished
with age. A significant effect was also noted for the children’s country of origin cal-
culated at F (1605) = 169.53, p = 0.021 after controlling for age and gender. How-
ever, the Country x Age interaction was not significant and was computed as F
(1605) = 0.322 p = 0.571 after controlling for gender.
Inhibition: The multilevel analysis of inhibition demonstrated the signifi-
cant main effect of age at F (1605) = 169.53, p < 0.001 and gender computed at F
(1605) = 4.554, p = 0.033. No significant effect was found for the children’s country
of origin: F (1605) = 0.275, p = 0.600). The Country x Age interaction was also not
significant: F (1605) = 0.063 p = 0.802.
Total executive functioning: The multilevel analysis of total EF difficulties dis-
played a significant main effect of age at F (1605) = 11.60, p < 0.001 and gender at F
(1605) = 11.09, p < 0.001. No significant effect was observed for the children’s coun-
try of origin: F (1605) = 0.021, p = 0.886. The Country x Age interaction was also
not significant: F (1605) = 0.322, p = 0.808.
Discussion
The present study compared the development of EF skills in Hungarian and Ken-
yan preschoolers based on CHEXI ratings. It was envisioned that such a compari-
son would ground the identification of strengths and weaknesses in EF development
between the two countries and yield possible suggestions for enhancing EFs. Studies
have evidenced that CHEXI is helpful for the assessment of EF difficulties in chil-
dren. Similar to the present study, such studies have consistently reported a suitable
fit to two of the four CHEXI subscales (planning, working memory, regulation, and
inhibition): working memory and inhibition difficulties (e.g., Camerota etal., 2018;
Catale etal.,2013; Catale etal., 2015; Thorell etal., 2010). To form the basis for
the comparison, we conducted a successful measurement invariance of the CHEXI
(Milfont & Fischer, 2010), similar to Camerota etal. (2018). The group measure-
ment invariance indicated that the Hungarian and Kenyan samples could be com-
pared based on the CHEXI results. The present study found significant gender dif-
ferences in EF favouring girls in the Hungarian sample, but no significant difference
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Comparing Executive Functioning intheSchool Readiness of…
was noted between boys and girls in the Kenyan sample. The reasons for the signifi-
cant gender differences in the Hungarian sample remain unclear. Similar studies in
America reported that teachers’ EF and academic achievement skill ratings favored
girls over boys (Garcia etal., 2019). A similar trend was observed in the Kenyan
sample, even though the differences were insignificant. Additionally, no country-
related significant difference was noted in EF between the boys, but Hungarian girls
were rated better in inhibition than Kenyan girls. Generally, boys were seen as more
EF impaired than girls, and this result is aligned with Thorell etal.’s (2013) study
comparing Swedish, Spanish, Chinese, and Iranian children and Giménez de la Peña
et al. (2022) study in Spain. Besides, Camerota et al. (2018) compared children
from low and high-income households in the US and found that boys were more EF
impaired than girls. Despite these gender differences, comparison based on EF tasks
has shown no significant differences between boys and girls (Giménez de la Peña
etal., 2022; Yamamoto & Imai-Matsumura, 2019). A comparison between Hungar-
ian and Kenyan children in the current study revealed that Hungarian preschoolers
were better at working memory, but no significant difference was found in inhibi-
tion. Preschool children from Hungary evidenced lesser working memory difficul-
ties than children from Kenya; thus, they exhibited improved EF.
Several reasons could explain why the Kenyan sample had higher EF deficits
than Hungarian preschoolers. Studies have reported that a superior curriculum,
friendly learning environment devoid of stress and anxiety, and family support that
guarantees good parenting prevalent in the Hungarian preschool education system
enhances EF development (Blair etal.,2011; Casey etal.,2018; Mousavi etal., 2022;
Plessow et al., 2011). Moreover, the Kenyan sample was selected from both pri-
vate and public schools. Therefore, the private school enrollees in the sample could
belong to a higher SES. Some authors (e.g., Camerota etal., 2018; Hartanto etal.,
2019) have indicated that SES influences EF development. However, Schmitt etal.
(2019) reported that SES does not affect cross-cultural EF growth in preschoolers.
This aspect requires further exploration by classifying samples from Hungary and
Kenya by SES.
The lack of significant differences in the inhibition between Hungarian and
Kenyan samples due to their country of origin was notsurprising because the
two groups were selected from children who were not diagnosed with any cogni-
tive disability. Other studies reported differences in inhibition (e.g., Catale etal.,
2015) between Belgium and Sweden but their sample comprised children devel-
oping typically for their age and clinical samples diagnosed with ADHD. How-
ever, it was the control group that had significant differences. Inhibition is the
primary deficit for children with ADHD (Barkley 1997; Thorell etal. 2010). This
study by Catale etal.(2015) indicated that the difference between children with
ADHD and typically developing ranged between 88 to 94 on the total EF scale,
and Thorell etal. (2010) reported 93.3. EF interventions in Kenya have yielded
mixed results. For example, the Children’s Investment Fund conducted the Tayari
(readiness) program in Kenya between 2014 and 2018 (Piper etal., 2018), after
which school readiness improved by 5.1 index points. However, EF scores were
not associated with the Tayari program (Willoughby etal., 2019). Another study
by Willoughby et al. (2021) conducted a cluster randomised controlled trial
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218
S.Amukune et al.
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employing a RedLight/PurpleLight intervention program as a follow-up to the
school readiness enhancement program. Their findings demonstrated null results
between the outcomes of the pre-and post-tests of the experimental and control
groups. Willoughby and colleagues associated their null results with the measure-
ment of EF and contextual issues.
The findings of the present study have implications for policy and practice. It is
critical to determine the EF skills of pupils during school readiness assessments
since studies have reported that EF predicts academic achievement (Amukune &
Józsa, 2021; Blair, 2017). This finding is helpful for the provision of individu-
alised interventions for the pupils. Such school readiness assessments are more
prevalent in Hungary than in Kenya. Taken together, the Hungarian preschool
system, child-rearing during preschool years, and preschool organisation are
superior to the Kenyan equivalents.
The present study had some limitations. First, the study applied a cross-sec-
tional design based on teachers’ ratings alone. Parents accumulate much infor-
mation about their children at home. Hence, the collection of additional assess-
ments from parents could have evidenced support for the evaluations rendered by
teachers. However, Thorell and Nyburg’s (2008) study indicated that the ratings
of both parents and teachers discharged similar functions. Second, the CHEXI
does not incorporate established normative data for comparison by examiners to
determine whether their samples exceed clinical standards. This could have aided
in identifying children at risk due to EF deficits. Third, the study’s sample size in
Hungary was smaller than the Kenyan aggregate of participants. Future research
initiatives can incorporate the ratings of both parents and teachers using a longi-
tudinal design with a parallel performance-based assessment. In addition, a close
focus on the interactions of parents and teachers with children would offer a more
comprehensive understanding of cultural influences on the development of EF in
Hungary and Kenya.
Conclusion
This cross-cultural study evaluates EF development in preschoolers in Hungary
and Kenya based on the CHEXI ratings. CHEXI demonstrated a strong measure-
ment invariance confirming it is a suitable instrument for comparing EF assessments
between countries. In both countries, boys were more EF impaired compared to
girls. In addition, the Hungarian preschoolers were better at EF development than
the Kenyan. This difference can be attributed to the advanced preschool education
system, government support for the universal child care system, and Hungary’s pre-
school curriculum. Such deliberate efforts are lacking in Kenya.
Funding This study was funded by the National Research, Development and Innovation Office, Hungary,
NKFI K124839, and by the Research Programme for Public Education Development of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences.
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