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Benefits of Table Tennis for Brain Health Maintenance and Prevention of Dementia

Authors:
  • Minkodo Minohara Hospital

Abstract and Figures

Table tennis is an extremely popular sport throughout the world as it requires no expensive equipment, specialized amenities, or physical contact among players, and the pace of play can be adapted to allow participation by players of all skill levels, ages, and abilities. It is an aerobic-dominant sport driven primarily by the phosphagen system because rallies are relatively brief (several seconds) and separated by longer rest periods. Several studies have shown that physical interventions including table tennis can help prevent cognitive decline and dementia. Accordingly, the present paper provides an overview of the basic physical and cognitive demands of table tennis, reviews previous studies reporting improvements in physical and brain health across different non-clinical and clinical populations, and critically evaluates the usefulness of table tennis intervention for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. This review suggests that table tennis intervention could be a powerful strategy to prevent cognitive decline and dementia in the elderly.
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Citation: Yamasaki, T. Benefits of
Table Tennis for Brain Health
Maintenance and Prevention of
Dementia. Encyclopedia 2022,2,
1577–1589. https://doi.org/
10.3390/encyclopedia2030107
Academic Editors: Sansar Sharma
and Raffaele Barretta
Received: 13 July 2022
Accepted: 9 September 2022
Published: 14 September 2022
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4.0/).
Review
Benefits of Table Tennis for Brain Health Maintenance and
Prevention of Dementia
Takao Yamasaki 1,2,3
1Department of Neurology, Minkodo Minohara Hospital, Fukuoka 811-2402, Japan;
yamasaki_dr@apost.plala.or.jp; Tel.: +81-92-947-0040
2Kumagai Institute of Health Policy, Fukuoka 816-0812, Japan
3School of Health Sciences at Fukuoka, International University of Health and Welfare,
Fukuoka 831-8501, Japan
Definition:
Table tennis is an extremely popular sport throughout the world as it requires no
expensive equipment, specialized amenities, or physical contact among players, and the pace of
play can be adapted to allow participation by players of all skill levels, ages, and abilities. It is an
aerobic-dominant sport driven primarily by the phosphagen system because rallies are relatively
brief (several seconds) and separated by longer rest periods. Several studies have shown that physical
interventions including table tennis can help prevent cognitive decline and dementia. Accordingly,
the present paper provides an overview of the basic physical and cognitive demands of table tennis,
reviews previous studies reporting improvements in physical and brain health across different non-
clinical and clinical populations, and critically evaluates the usefulness of table tennis intervention for
the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. This review suggests that table tennis intervention
could be a powerful strategy to prevent cognitive decline and dementia in the elderly.
Keywords:
table tennis; aerobic energy system; phosphagen energy system; cognitive decline; dementia
1. Introduction
Table tennis (also known as ping-pong) is a racket sport played regularly by more 300
million people across all regions of the world, of whom at least 40 million are federated
players [
1
3
]. The International Table Tennis Federation has the largest number of member
countries (227) of any international sports federation [
4
], and table tennis has been part of
the Olympic program since 1988 [5].
While the rules of table tennis are relatively simple and basic physical requirements
minimal (i.e., there is no heavy equipment to manipulate and no physical contact), it
requires a high level of concentration and hand-eye coordination to instantly predict and
react to various rotations and trajectories of the ball. Table tennis is also a sport that can
be enjoyed as entertainment because it can be played according to one’s physical strength,
age, skill, and purpose, and there are few injuries or accidents during play. Table tennis is
thus both highly competitive and entertaining, and can be enjoyed by almost anyone [6].
Documented benefits of table tennis include improvements in hand-eye coordination,
mental acuity, reflexes, balance, leg, arm, and core strength, and aerobic fitness; moreover,
it provides a social outlet that may benefit mental as well as physical health [
3
,
7
]. Even
recreational play has beneficial effects on body composition and lipid profiles in older
adults [
8
]. In addition, table tennis participants report significantly higher life satisfaction
and physical self-concept than non-exercisers [
7
]. In fact, it is reported that table tennis has
a greater positive influence on cognitive function than other types of exercise [
9
], possibly
due to the engagement of multiple muscle systems and brain networks. Several studies
have also reported that regular play can be of great therapeutic benefit for individuals with
chronic ischemic heart disease [
10
], Parkinson’s disease [
11
], autism spectrum disorder [
12
],
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [13], and mild mental disabilities [14].
Encyclopedia 2022,2, 1577–1589. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia2030107 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/encyclopedia
Encyclopedia 2022,21578
Currently, about 55 million people worldwide suffer from dementia, and this number
is expected to reach 78 million by 2030 and 139 million by 2050 due to population aging
in most industrialized countries and many developing nations. Dementia has deleterious
effects on the physical, psychological, social, and economic status of the patient and also
places a heavy burden on caregivers, families, and society [
15
]. Alzheimer’s disease is
the most common cause of dementia, accounting for an estimated 60–80% of all clini-
cal cases [
16
]. Furthermore, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is known as a pre-stage
of dementia. In particular, amnestic MCI is widely considered a precursor to clinical
Alzheimer’s disease [
17
] and the total global population with MCI is larger and growing
more rapidly than the Alzheimer’s disease population. Therefore, there is an urgent need
for interventions that prevent MCI and the progression of MCI to dementia.
Previous studies on physical activity interventions for patients with MCI and dementia
have reported that improvements in physical health, especially aerobic health and fitness,
are crucial for maintaining and enhancing brain health [
18
]. Notably, several such studies
have reported that regular table tennis training can help maintain mental capacity and
prevent or delay senile dementia [
9
,
19
]. Therefore, the present paper provides an overview
of previous studies on the benefits of table tennis for physical and brain health, and critically
examines the usefulness of table tennis for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia.
2. Literature Search Strategy
In this paper, electronic searches for studies and information related to table tennis
were conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar, CiNii, J-Stage, and Google Chrome (in-
cluding all years). The following keyword combinations were used for the searches: “table
tennis”, “physical activity”, “exercise”, “brain”, “cognitive function”, “dementia”, “demen-
tia prevention”, and “therapy”. Inclusion and exclusion were decided based on the title and
abstract of the paper as well as the contents of the website. Papers and websites not written
in English were excluded, except for a pioneering paper written in Japanese (abstract
written in English) [
19
] and the website of the Japan Table Tennis Therapy Association [
20
],
which was established based on the same paper.
3. Characteristics of Table Tennis
3.1. The Concept of Table Tennis
Table tennis is a sport in which two or four players face each other across a small
rectangular table (2.74
×
1.52 m) separated at the center by a net, and compete for points
by hitting a plastic ball over the net to land on the other side (court) using a small racket [
6
]
(Figure 1). Players repeatedly hit the light ball at high speeds at a close distance and so are
required to track the movement of the ball, anticipate the trajectory, react appropriately,
and hit the ball back toward the opponent’s court within seconds to fractions of seconds.
By controlling the spin, speed, and placement of the ball, players make it difficult for
their opponents to successfully return the ball. Therefore, the player needs to predict
their opponent’s intentions, recognize meaningful cues in the context of the game, quickly
decide on the best course of action, and generate an appropriate motor response [
21
]. Table
tennis thus requires agility, hand-eye coordination, focused attention, foresight, and the
ability to implement various techniques and tactics, thereby necessitating the simultaneous
activation of multiple brain networks.
3.2. Game Dynamics
Table tennis competition is characterized by its intermittent but intense bouts of action
(rallies) interspersed with brief periods of rest [
2
,
22
,
23
]. Participants receive one point
for striking the ball back onto the opposition court without a successful return, and the
winner is the first player to reach 11 points and win by at least 2 points. The total time
required for a match ranges from 8 to 38 min, and some of the world’s top players may
play for as long as 45 min [
1
]. Matches are characterized by short rallies (i.e., physical and
mental effort) lasting 3.4 s on average and longer pauses between rallies (i.e., rest periods)
Encyclopedia 2022,21579
lasting 11.6 s on average [
24
]. Each rally includes only 4.0 shots on average (or about
35.3 shots per minute). The length of the rally period is fairly consistent among players of
different performance levels (3.2–3.6 s), whereas the pause period between rallies varies
by performance level (i.e., 7.0 s for regional players, 9.3 s for national players, and 18.6 s
for international athletes) [
24
]. As a result, the effort to rest ratio of regional players (0.5) is
higher than that of national (0.34) and international athletes (0.18). These characteristics
make table tennis a very intense sport, with the ball traveling at high speed (>50 km/h),
forcing players to respond in milliseconds [
2
,
23
]. Consequently, agility, reaction time,
ballistic strength, and coordination are essential skills that can be developed by regular
table tennis practice [23].
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 3
Figure 1. Table tennis rackets and ball (left), adapted from photo AC (https://www.photo-ac.com/,
accessed on 13 July 2022), and two players engaged in a rally with the ball about to be struck in the
far court (right).
3.2. Game Dynamics
Table tennis competition is characterized by its intermittent but intense bouts of ac-
tion (rallies) interspersed with brief periods of rest [2,22,23]. Participants receive one point
for striking the ball back onto the opposition court without a successful return, and the
winner is the first player to reach 11 points and win by at least 2 points. The total time
required for a match ranges from 8 to 38 min, and some of the world’s top players may
play for as long as 45 min [1]. Matches are characterized by short rallies (i.e., physical and
mental effort) lasting 3.4 s on average and longer pauses between rallies (i.e., rest periods)
lasting 11.6 s on average [24]. Each rally includes only 4.0 shots on average (or about 35.3
shots per minute). The length of the rally period is fairly consistent among players of dif-
ferent performance levels (3.23.6 s), whereas the pause period between rallies varies by
performance level (i.e., 7.0 s for regional players, 9.3 s for national players, and 18.6 s for
international athletes) [24]. As a result, the effort to rest ratio of regional players (0.5) is
higher than that of national (0.34) and international athletes (0.18). These characteristics
make table tennis a very intense sport, with the ball traveling at high speed (>50 km/h),
forcing players to respond in milliseconds [2,23]. Consequently, agility, reaction time, bal-
listic strength, and coordination are essential skills that can be developed by regular table
tennis practice [23].
3.3. Three Basic Energy Systems in Humans
To understand the physiological demands and characteristics of table tennis (Section
3.5.), it is first necessary to describe the multiple metabolic systems in humans. Energy for
muscle activity in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is generated by three systems,
phosphagen (ATP-creatine phosphate [CP]), anaerobic (glycolytic), and aerobic (oxida-
tive) [25–27] (Figure 2). The phosphagen (ATP-CP) system uses CP and is characterized
by a very high rate of ATP production. Due to the small amount of CP and ATP stored in
muscle, however, the energy available for muscle contraction is limited. Nonetheless, it is
sufficient for short-term, high intensity activities that last approximately 130 s. The an-
aerobic (glycolytic) system serves as a bridge between the acute phosphagen system and
more sustained aerobic system. The anaerobic system does not require oxygen and uses
the energy obtained by converting glucose to lactic acid in order to form ATP. This inter-
mediate system can produce ATP quite rapidly for use during activities that require large
energy bursts over a longer period of time (30 s up to 3 min) but at the cost of lactic acid
accumulation. The aerobic (oxidative) system requires oxygen to produce ATP because
carbohydrates and fats can be fully metabolized to CO
2
only in the presence of oxygen.
These aerobic reactions occur in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of cells. The aerobic sys-
tem produces ATP slowly, however, and is primarily used during prolonged lower-inten-
sity activities after fatigue of the phosphagen and anaerobic systems. It is important that
all three systems contribute to the energy needs of the body during physical activity, but
Figure 1.
Table tennis rackets and ball (
left
), adapted from photo AC (https://www.photo-ac.com/,
accessed on 13 July 2022), and two players engaged in a rally with the ball about to be struck in the
far court (right).
3.3. Three Basic Energy Systems in Humans
To understand the physiological demands and characteristics of table tennis
(Section 3.5
.),
it is first necessary to describe the multiple metabolic systems in humans. Energy for mus-
cle activity in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is generated by three systems,
phosphagen (ATP-creatine phosphate [CP]), anaerobic (glycolytic), and aerobic (oxida-
tive) [
25
27
] (Figure 2). The phosphagen (ATP-CP) system uses CP and is characterized
by a very high rate of ATP production. Due to the small amount of CP and ATP stored
in muscle, however, the energy available for muscle contraction is limited. Nonetheless,
it is sufficient for short-term, high intensity activities that last approximately 1–30 s. The
anaerobic (glycolytic) system serves as a bridge between the acute phosphagen system
and more sustained aerobic system. The anaerobic system does not require oxygen and
uses the energy obtained by converting glucose to lactic acid in order to form ATP. This
intermediate system can produce ATP quite rapidly for use during activities that require
large energy bursts over a longer period of time (30 s up to 3 min) but at the cost of lactic
acid accumulation. The aerobic (oxidative) system requires oxygen to produce ATP because
carbohydrates and fats can be fully metabolized to CO
2
only in the presence of oxygen.
These aerobic reactions occur in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of cells. The aerobic
system produces ATP slowly, however, and is primarily used during prolonged lower-
intensity activities after fatigue of the phosphagen and anaerobic systems. It is important
that all three systems contribute to the energy needs of the body during physical activity,
but one system will dominate at a given time depending on the duration and intensity of
activity [2527].
3.4. Measurement of Exercise Intensity
There are several ways to evaluate the exercise intensity (or amount of energy con-
sumed) for a given sport, of which one of the simplest is by measuring parameters re-
lated to heart rate (HR), including mean HR (HRmean), maximum HR (HRmax), and
%HRmax [
28
,
29
]. Another indicator of exercise intensity is maximal oxygen uptake
(VO
2
max), the maximum amount of oxygen that can be taken into the body per unit
Encyclopedia 2022,21580
time. This value determines the peak exercise intensity that an individual can tolerate over
several minutes, so a higher VO
2
max indicates greater endurance [
29
]. For comparison,
exercise intensity is frequently expressed in metabolic equivalents (METs), where one MET
represents the resting energy expenditure during quiet sitting and is commonly defined as a
VO
2
of 3.5 mL/kg/min. The MET value for a given activity is the ratio of energy expended
during that activity to energy expended at rest [
30
]. Blood lactate concentration is a suitable
marker to establish the relative activities of the different energy systems during exercises
and sports [
1
], and any sport or exercise can be ranked as light-, moderate-, vigorous-, or
very hard effort according to %HRmax, %VO
2
max, METs, and lactate concentration [
31
]
(Table 1).
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 4
one system will dominate at a given time depending on the duration and intensity of ac-
tivity [25–27].
Figure 2. Three energy systems. Abbreviation: ATP-CP, adenosine triphosphate-creatine phosphate.
The figure is adapted from Swanwick et al. [25] (CC BY NC 4.0).
3.4. Measurement of Exercise Intensity
There are several ways to evaluate the exercise intensity (or amount of energy con-
sumed) for a given sport, of which one of the simplest is by measuring parameters related
to heart rate (HR), including mean HR (HRmean), maximum HR (HRmax), and %HRmax
[28,29]. Another indicator of exercise intensity is maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), the
maximum amount of oxygen that can be taken into the body per unit time. This value
determines the peak exercise intensity that an individual can tolerate over several
minutes, so a higher VO2max indicates greater endurance [29]. For comparison, exercise
intensity is frequently expressed in metabolic equivalents (METs), where one MET repre-
sents the resting energy expenditure during quiet sitting and is commonly defined as a
VO2 of 3.5 mL/kg/min. The MET value for a given activity is the ratio of energy expended
during that activity to energy expended at rest [30]. Blood lactate concentration is a suita-
ble marker to establish the relative activities of the different energy systems during exer-
cises and sports [1], and any sport or exercise can be ranked as light-, moderate-, vigorous-
, or very hard effort according to %HRmax, %VO2max, METs, and lactate concentration
[31] (Table 1).
Table 1. Measurement of exercise intensity. Adapted from Vanhees et al. [31].
Intensity %HRmax
(%)
%VO2max
(%) METs Lactate
(mmol/L)
Low intensity, light effort 45–54 28–39 2–4 2–3
Moderate intensity, moderate effort 55–69 40–59 4–6 4–5
High intensity, vigorous effect 70–89 60–79 6–8 6–8
Very hard effort >89 >80 8–10 8–10
Abbreviation: %HRmax, percent of maximum heart rate; %VO2max, percent of maximal oxygen
uptake; METs, metabolic equivalents.
3.5. Physiological Responses during Table Tennis
The physiological responses during table tennis matches were investigated in junior
and adult players [22,32,33]. In adult table tennis players, reported HRmean was 142 ± 11
beats per minute (bpm), HRmax was 166 ± 14 bpm, VO2max was 45.5 ± 5.3 mL/kg/min,
and VO2 mean was 29.5 ± 3.8 mL/kg/min, corresponding to 66% of VO2max. In addition,
Figure 2.
Three energy systems. Abbreviation: ATP-CP, adenosine triphosphate-creatine phosphate.
The figure is adapted from Swanwick et al. [25] (CC BY NC 4.0).
Table 1. Measurement of exercise intensity. Adapted from Vanhees et al. [31].
Intensity %HRmax (%) %VO2max (%) METs Lactate (mmol/L)
Low intensity, light effort 45–54 28–39 2–4 2–3
Moderate intensity, moderate effort 55–69 40–59 4–6 4–5
High intensity, vigorous effect 70–89 60–79 6–8 6–8
Very hard effort >89 >80 8–10 8–10
Abbreviation: %HRmax, percent of maximum heart rate; %VO
2
max, percent of maximal oxygen uptake; METs,
metabolic equivalents.
3.5. Physiological Responses during Table Tennis
The physiological responses during table tennis matches were investigated in junior and
adult players [
22
,
32
,
33
]. In adult table tennis players, reported HRmean was
142 ±11 beats
per minute (bpm), HRmax was 166
±
14 bpm, VO
2
max was
45.5 ±5.3 mL/kg/min
, and
VO
2
mean was 29.5
±
3.8 mL/kg/min, corresponding to 66% of VO
2
max. In addition,
mean lactate was 1.4
±
0.4 mmol/L and peak lactate was 1.8
±
0.6 mmol/L [
32
]. In a
study of young table tennis players, the HRmean was 164
±
14 bpm, corresponding to
81.2%
±
7.4% of the predicted HRmax, mean lactate was 1.8
±
0.8 mmol/L, and peak
lactate was
2.2 ±0.8 mmol/L
[
22
]. In junior table tennis players [
33
], the HRmean was
126
±
22 bpm, HRmax was 189 bpm, VO
2
mean was 25.6
±
10.1 mL/kg/min, VO
2
max
was 45.9 mL/kg/min, mean METs was 4.8
±
1.4, peak METs was 9.6, mean lactate was
1.1 ±0.2 mmol/L
, and peak lactate was 1.6 mmol/L [
33
]. The relatively low lactate ac-
cumulation during play suggests that the aerobic system is the principal energy source
during pauses between rallies (rest periods) due to the long duration of matches, while
the phosphagen system predominates during rallies (effort periods) [
22
]. Consistent with
Encyclopedia 2022,21581
these findings, a study analyzing the energetics of table tennis reported that 96.5%
±
1.7%
of the overall energy expended is generated by the aerobic energy system with a minor
contribution of 2.5%
±
1.4% from the phosphagen system and a negligible contribution
(1.0%
±
0.7%) from the anaerobic system [
34
]. Another study found similar contributions
of 96.6%
±
1.4% by the aerobic system, 2.3%
±
1.2% by the phosphagen system, and
1.1% ±0.6% by the anaerobic energy system [32].
Taken together, energy demands in junior to adult table tennis players rely on the
phosphagen system during the maximal short-duration effort of rallies (about 2% of the
total energy expended) and the aerobic system during rest (pause) times (about 96% of the
total energy expended) [3235].
4. Benefits of Table Tennis for Physical and Brain Health
4.1. Benefits of Table Tennis for Physical Health
Several studies demonstrated the benefits of table tennis for body composition and
physical fitness in children and adults [
2
,
8
,
36
38
]. For example, adult table tennis players
presented higher fat-free mass and bone mineral density, and lower fat mass and body
fat percentage [
36
], suggesting beneficial effects on a general health profile. Similarly,
children who played table tennis regularly presented disparities in anthropometry and
body composition compared to normally developed children who were not engaged in
a regular physical activity or sport [
2
], including a lower body mass index, greater calf
muscle perimeter, larger bone diameter, and greater bone mass. Children who played table
tennis also showed superior fitness levels compared to normally developed but sedentary
children, with greater aerobic capacity (i.e., VO
2
max) and handgrip strength [
2
]. Among
the elderly as well, recreational table tennis players exhibited higher total, regional (arm,
leg and lumbar spine), and site-specific (trochanter and Ward’s triangle) bone mineral
density, lower total and regional (arm, leg and truck) fats mass, and lower percentage
body fat compared to sedentary participants [
37
]. Furthermore, elderly table tennis players
scored higher on a short physical performance battery and performed the 400-m walk
in less time than age-matched sedentary participants [
37
]. These findings suggest that
regular table tennis play has beneficial effects on muscle strength, physical performance,
and body composition in older adults as well as younger adults and children. Regular
play is also associated with improved performance indicators of daily life activities in
the elderly [
37
]. Among older adults as well, serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
(“good cholesterol”) was higher and both lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (“bad
cholesterol”) and triglycerides were compared lower in regular recreational table tennis
participants than age-matched sedentary participants [
8
]. Thus, recreational table tennis
training can improve the serum lipid profile, an essential health index in older adults
strongly associated with cardiovascular and neurovascular diseases.
A study investigating anthropometric profiles in table tennis players of various ages
(i.e., senior, under-18, under-15, under-13, and under-11) found that both sexes exhibited
<20% fat mass, while males showed ~45% lean mass and females ~37% lean mass [
38
]. Fur-
ther, the healthy body composition status in children was maintained in older individuals
who kept playing. Therefore, table tennis could be an effective activity for maintaining
optimal health over the entire lifespan [38].
4.2. Benefits of Table Tennis for Brain Health
Regular physical activity not only improves cardiovascular health, but can also en-
hance cognitive function through neuroplastic changes [
38
40
]. Table tennis requires both
large and fine motor control and sensory integration, leading to the activation and im-
proved function of multiple neural regions and networks [
39
41
]. Functional near-infrared
spectroscopy studies in adults have demonstrated extensive activation of motor-related
areas such as primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, and inferior parietal cortex in experi-
enced table tennis players compared to novices during play [
39
,
40
]. In addition, hemody-
namic response magnitudes in these regions were positively correlated with the number of
Encyclopedia 2022,21582
strokes [
39
]. An electroencephalographic study of adults found greater spectral power of
neural oscillations within the theta band (4–7.5 Hz) in frontal brain areas during table tennis
compared to cycling and cognitive tasks [
41
], indicating that table tennis more effectively
engages brain regions related to motor control, attentional processing, decision-making,
and executive function.
Furthermore, long-term play can modify brain activity patterns even during other
tasks, suggesting improved general neurological function [
9
,
19
,
42
48
]. Among adults
over the age of 50, table tennis players obtained higher scores than non-players in the
Kana Pick-out Test, a test of frontal lobe function used for dementia screening requiring
subjects to simultaneously comprehend a written passage written in Kana characters while
picking out selected vowels. In addition, there was a positive correlation between Kana
Pick-out score and regularity of play [
42
], underscoring the benefits of table tennis for
frontal lobe function. Similar results were obtained in another study using the Kana
Pick-out Test on subjects from 10 to 70 years [
19
]. Moreover, another study found that
table tennis improved mean score on the short-form Mini-Mental State Examination of
general cognition among older adults compared to age-matched subjects that performed
other physical activities [
9
]. Additionally, young table tennis players were found to score
above average on all Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System tests, a battery measuring
higher-level cognitive function (i.e., metacognition and executive function), compared to
population norms [
21
]. In addition, a study examining the characteristics of attention
network functions found improved executive control (but no difference in alerting or
orienting network functions) in both young and adult table tennis players compared to
age-matched non-athlete groups [43].
Electroencephalographic recordings while watching table tennis videos revealed
stronger event-related desynchronization of the 8–10 Hz sensorimotor rhythm in the motor
cortex of adult elite table tennis players compared to amateurs [44]. This finding suggests
that greater motor skill increases the excitability of the motor cortex, possibly to facilitate
reaction, movement planning, and execution under high attentional demands [
44
]. Another
event-related potential study found that motor reaction time for visual motion was faster
in young table tennis players than in age-matched non-athletes [
45
]. Specifically, latency of
the N2 response (a negative component around 170 ms) originating from the visual motion
sensitive area was significantly shorter in the table tennis players, indicating faster visual
motion perception and processing speed [45].
A resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study of adults reported that
the brain networks involved in attention control, visuomotor processing, and motor output
were altered during table tennis skill progression from beginner to advanced [
46
]. Similarly,
another functional magnetic resonance imaging study of adults performing a visuospatial
task reported alterations in neural networks associated with the early processing of sensory
information, next information integration, information matching identification, and late
response selection induced by extensive table tennis training [
47
]. Collectively, these
findings suggest that training can induce brain plasticity to enhance specialization and
flexibility in the visuomotor systems of young or adult expert players [48].
In summary, table tennis can induce neuroplastic alterations in multiple brain networks
including motor-related areas, visual cortex (in particular, visual motion area), and frontal
regions, ultimately leading to improved sensorimotor and executive functions. Therefore,
table tennis is an excellent physical activity for maintaining brain health. There is also
accumulating evidence that these beneficial effects may prevent or delay cognitive decline
and dementia in the elderly.
5. Effectiveness of Table Tennis Intervention in the Prevention of Cognitive Decline
and Dementia
5.1. Physical Activity Interventions for the Prevention of Cognitive Decline and Dementia
World Health Organization guidelines recommend physical exercise, especially aer-
obic exercise, to prevent cognitive decline and dementia [
49
], a recommendation based
Encyclopedia 2022,21583
on numerous studies showing that physical activity interventions can prevent cognitive
decline in healthy elderly people [
18
,
50
54
]. For example, a meta-analysis of aerobic ex-
ercise intervention studies concluded that improved fitness enhances cognitive function,
especially in the domain of executive function [
50
], while a systematic review of ran-
domized controlled trials spanning the adult lifespan revealed modest improvements in
attention and processing speed, executive function, and memory following aerobic exercise
interventions [51].
Aerobic exercise interventions may also improve memory among MCI
patients [18,55,56]
.
A systematic review of randomized controlled trials specifically examining cognitively
impaired individuals found improved global cognition, executive function, attention,
and memory with increased physical activity [
55
]. This effect may be specific to the
amnestic subtype of MCI as another study found that physical activity interventions
failed to maintain cognitive function across all MCI subtypes, but significantly improved
immediate memory from the baseline to the end of the 6-month interval in amnestic patients
compared to controls [56].
In contrast, however, evidence for improved cognition by physical activity among
dementia patients is mixed [
18
]. A meta-analysis found greater improvements in cogni-
tion relative to controls [
57
] and a recent umbrella review also concluded that physical
activity/exercise has a positive effect on several cognitive and noncognitive outcomes in
people with MCI and dementia [
58
]. However, other meta-analyses have found lesser or no
benefits [
59
,
60
]. Therefore, as neurodegeneration progresses in dementia, it may be difficult
to improve cognitive function through physical activity interventions alone, highlighting
the importance of early physical activity intervention to delay cognitive decline in healthy
elderly people, MCI patients, and possibly early-stage dementia patients.
5.2. Mechanisms Underlying the Benefits of Physical Activity Interventions for Cognitive Decline
and Dementia Prevention
The benefits of physical activity on cognition are thought to be mediated by a variety
of brain mechanisms, including improvement of cardiovascular risk factors, increased
neurotrophic factor expression, amyloid-
β
turnover, and cerebral blood flow, and decreased
inflammatory responses [18,61,62].
Cardiovascular risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and obe-
sity have been shown to cause hardening of cerebral blood vessels, small vessel damage,
stroke, and reduced cerebral blood flow [
18
], cerebrovascular changes that may ultimately
cause cognitive decline. Therefore, reducing cardiovascular risk factors through physical
activity may be among the most effective strategies to prevent age-related cognitive decline.
Physical activity, especially aerobic exercise, also increases the expression of neu-
rotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth
factor 1, and vascular endothelial growth factor [
18
,
61
65
]. BDNF is a neurotrophin in-
volved in most important aspects of neuroplasticity, from neurogenesis to neuronal survival,
from synaptogenesis to cognition, as well as in the regulation of energy homeostasis [
63
].
The increase in BDNF seems to correlate with the exercise volume [
63
] and is considered
as a biomarker of exercise-induced cognitive benefits [
64
]. Open-skill exercise (e.g., table
tennis, tennis, squash, basketball, or boxing) increases BDNF levels more than closed-skill
exercise (e.g., running, swimming, cycling, golf, or archery), possibly because open-skill
activities require additional attention to face over-changing situations, and are more en-
joyable [
63
65
]. Insulin-like growth factor 1 and vascular endothelial growth factor play
important roles in neurogenesis and angiogenesis and promote the expression of BDNF
in the hippocampus [
18
]. Aerobic exercise training was found to increase the size of the
anterior hippocampus in older adults, leading to improvements in spatial memory, and
this increased hippocampal volume was associated with greater serum levels of BDNF [
66
].
Thus, increased expression of neurotrophic factors may be an important mechanism for the
prevention of cognitive decline.
Encyclopedia 2022,21584
Amyloid-
β
plaques are a hallmark pathological feature of Alzheimer’s disease [
16
].
In a longitudinal study of older adults, greater physical activity at baseline predicted
lower plasma amyloid-
β
levels 9–13 years later. Furthermore, higher amyloid-
β
levels
at year 9 predicted a greater risk of cognitive impairment at year 13, suggesting that
amyloid-
β
levels also mediate the relationship between physical activity and cognitive
impairment [
67
]. Similarly, a study using amyloid positron emission tomography found
an inverse correlation between physical activity levels and brain amyloid-
β
load in older
adults [
68
]. Thus, physical activity appears to promote amyloid-
β
turnover, which may
contribute to the prevention of cognitive decline.
Cerebral blood flow decreases with age, which accelerates the decline in cognitive
function and increases dementia risk in the general population [
61
]. Physical activity
increases cerebral blood flow, which is thought to help maintain cerebral perfusion and
prevent atrophy [
62
]. Several studies have also reported that regular physical activity can
increase regional gray and white matter volumes, including in areas critical for memory,
executive function, emotional regulation, and internally directed cognition such as the
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and cingulate cortex [62].
Regular physical activity in elderly people has also been shown to reduce neuroin-
flammation as evidenced by lower serum concentrations of inflammatory markers such
as C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-
α
[
61
]. Furthermore, these
decreases were associated with better performance in cognitive tests. Aerobic exercise
lasting more than 2 weeks was found to improve immune system function in the healthy
elderly by increasing the activity of natural killer cells as well as the proliferation of T
lymphocytes, hematopoietic stem cells, and endothelial progenitor cells [61].
Taken together, physical activity and exercise (particularly aerobic exercise) contribute
to the prevention and delay of cognitive decline and dementia through changes in the brain
at the anatomical, cellular, and molecular levels [61].
5.3. Table Tennis Intervention for Prevention of Cognitive Decline and Dementia
Table tennis primarily involves moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity with a
minor contribution by phosphagen energy generation (Section 3.5). Regular table tennis
play can induce neuroplastic alterations in multiple brain networks, thereby sustaining or
improving cognitive functions (Section 4.2) and potentially preventing age-related cognitive
decline and dementia (Figure 3). A single-photon computed tomography study by Mori
and Sato [
19
] also revealed that table tennis increased blood flow in motor-related areas,
cerebellum, brain stem, and frontal lobe, and improved Revised Hasegawa Dementia
Scale and Venton Visual Retention Test scores among brain disorder patients [
19
]. Based
on this pioneering research, the Japan Table Tennis Therapy Association was established
in 2014 [
20
]. Table tennis therapy for patients with dementia is also available in the
United Kingdom [
69
] where the Bounce Alzheimer’s Therapy Foundation founded in
2013 provides resources and training for table tennis-based therapy [69].
Despite multiple demonstrations of clinical efficacy [
19
,
20
,
69
], no studies have directly
investigated the effects of table tennis interventions on brain functions linked to cognition,
such as neurotrophic factor signaling and amyloid-
β
metabolism. To strengthen evidence
for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia, it is necessary to examine the effects
of table tennis on the brain at the anatomical, cellular, and molecular levels. The promise of
table tennis therapy for prevention of cognitive impairment and dementia is based on both
the documented sensorimotor and cognitive engagement provided by this sport and the
numerous randomized controlled trials demonstrating the benefits of combining exercise
and cognitive training for cognitive improvement and reduction of brain atrophy in older
adults with MCI [56,7072].
Encyclopedia 2022,21585
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 9
Based on this pioneering research, the Japan Table Tennis Therapy Association was estab-
lished in 2014 [20]. Table tennis therapy for patients with dementia is also available in the
United Kingdom [69] where the Bounce Alzheimers Therapy Foundation founded in
2013 provides resources and training for table tennis-based therapy [69].
Figure 3. Possible mechanism of prevention of cognitive decline and dementia by table tennis.
Despite multiple demonstrations of clinical efficacy [19,20,69], no studies have di-
rectly investigated the effects of table tennis interventions on brain functions linked to
cognition, such as neurotrophic factor signaling and amyloid-β metabolism. To strengthen
evidence for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia, it is necessary to examine
the effects of table tennis on the brain at the anatomical, cellular, and molecular levels. The
promise of table tennis therapy for prevention of cognitive impairment and dementia is
based on both the documented sensorimotor and cognitive engagement provided by this
sport and the numerous randomized controlled trials demonstrating the benefits of com-
bining exercise and cognitive training for cognitive improvement and reduction of brain
atrophy in older adults with MCI [56,70–72].
A recent systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that low- to moderate-
intensity exercise interventions without progression are most beneficial for female partic-
ipants for improving cognitive function. In contrast, a progressive, very high-intensity ex-
ercise program can be expected to improve cognitive function in male participants [73].
To the best of my knowledge, no studies have examined gender differences in the effects
of table tennis on cognitive function. However, given that table tennis is moderate-inten-
sity physical activity, this intervention may be more effective in preventing cognitive de-
cline and dementia in women than in men. Further studies are warranted to confirm this
hypothesis.
Former president of the International Table Tennis Federation Mr. Ogimura has
stated that “table tennis is like running the 100 m while playing chess at the same time
[74]. During table tennis practice or matches, players must not only perform aerobic exer-
cise, but also judge the rotation, direction, and speed of the ball in milliseconds and in-
stantly decide on how to react, cognitive tasks that require the simultaneous activation of
multiple neural networks. In other words, table tennis is similar to an interventional
Figure 3. Possible mechanism of prevention of cognitive decline and dementia by table tennis.
A recent systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that low- to moderate-
intensity exercise interventions without progression are most beneficial for female partic-
ipants for improving cognitive function. In contrast, a progressive, very high-intensity
exercise program can be expected to improve cognitive function in male participants [
73
].
To the best of my knowledge, no studies have examined gender differences in the effects of
table tennis on cognitive function. However, given that table tennis is moderate-intensity
physical activity, this intervention may be more effective in preventing cognitive decline and
dementia in women than in men. Further studies are warranted to confirm this hypothesis.
Former president of the International Table Tennis Federation Mr. Ogimura has stated
that “table tennis is like running the 100 m while playing chess at the same time” [
74
].
During table tennis practice or matches, players must not only perform aerobic exercise, but
also judge the rotation, direction, and speed of the ball in milliseconds and instantly decide
on how to react, cognitive tasks that require the simultaneous activation of multiple neural
networks. In other words, table tennis is similar to an interventional method combining
exercise and cognitive training and so may be more effective for preventing dementia than
other aerobic exercises. In fact, one study found that table tennis exerted a greater influence
on cognitive function than other types of exercise such as dancing, walking, gymnastics, and
resistance training according to mean short-form Mini-Mental State Examination scores [
9
].
Thus, table tennis may be a more effective intervention for the prevention of cognitive
decline and dementia than other aerobic exercises. However, further evidence is needed to
confirm the efficacy of table tennis intervention programs.
6. Conclusions and Prospects
Table tennis is popular throughout the world because it can be played for recreation
or competition by the majority of the population regardless of age, gender, or skill level.
Regular play not only provides safe moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, but also induces
neuroplastic changes in multiple brain networks underlying cognition. Therefore, table
tennis is beneficial for both physical and brain health. For example, table tennis increases
fat-free mass and bone mineral density, lowers fat mass and body fat percentage, and im-
proves sensory processing, motor control, and executive functions. Furthermore, physical
activity interventions using table tennis are clinically proven to prevent cognitive decline
Encyclopedia 2022,21586
and dementia in the elderly, and it has even been suggested that the preventive effect
of table tennis is superior to other aerobic exercises. Accordingly, table tennis is among
the best sports for maintaining physical and brain health into old age. However, several
outstanding issues must be clarified to strengthen the evidence for cognitive decline and
dementia prevention. First, no studies have directly investigated the effects of table ten-
nis interventions on brain processes essential for the prevention of age-related cognitive
impairments such as neurotrophic factor signaling and amyloid-
β
clearance, although
clinical evidence is accumulating for such effects using various combined exercise and
cognitive task interventions. Thus, it is necessary to examine the effects of table tennis on
the brain at the anatomical, cellular, and molecular levels using neuroimaging and other
modern methods. Second, it is also critical to verify that table tennis is superior to other
aerobic interventions for cognitive decline and dementia prevention. For this purpose, a
multicenter longitudinal study is desired. Finally, after addressing the first and second
issues, it is necessary to create an optimal table tennis exercise program that is standardized
across the globe.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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... [9] It also has therapeutic benefits for individuals with chronic ischemic heart disease, Parkinson's disease, dementia, and mild intellectual disabilities. [10] One of the leading causes of disability worldwide is dementia, resulting from various diseases and injuries affecting the brain. Over time, the progression of the disease leads to nerve cell destruction and brain damage, causing cognitive impairment. ...
... The game is played on a table measuring 2.74 m x 1.52 m, divided by a net 15.25 cm high. The ball is made of plastic, with a diameter of 40 mm and a weight of 2.7 g. [10] Table tennis demands high precision, reflexes, and motor coordination from players. Due to the speed of ball exchanges and the variety of shot techniques, the game is highly intense and engaging. ...
... The combination of rapid decision-making and strategic thinking makes table tennis exceptionally beneficial for mental health. According to research conducted by Yamasaki (2022), regular engagement in the game can help maintain brain health and serve as a preventive measure against cognitive decline and the development of dementia. [10] The complexity of table tennis lies in the player's need to rapidly process information, such as predicting the opponent's movements, the ball's trajectory, and reacting with precision. ...
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Introduction:In the context of an aging society, the importance of physical activity as a key element in supporting health and improving quality of life is growing. Table tennis, a sport played by millions worldwide, combines aerobic, coordination, and strategic exercises, making it unique in terms of its impact on physical and mental health. Aim of the study: Analyze the impact of regular table tennis play on life expectancy and physical, cognitive, and mental well-being. Materials and Methods: This analysis is based on a detailed review of studies and information related to table tennis, sourced from PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Conclusions: The literature review indicates that table tennis offers numerous health benefits, including improved body composition, enhanced coordination, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, and better motor functions. The sport stimulates cognitive functions such as reflexes, anticipation, and memory, with studies confirming its positive effects on individuals with Parkinson's disease, dementia, or mild cognitive impairment. Table tennis also enhances mental well-being by reducing stress levels and improving quality of life through social integration and satisfaction from the game. The collected data suggest that table tennis should be included in rehabilitation programs and health promotion activities for all age groups. Its universal accessibility and health benefits—physical, cognitive, and social—highlight its potential as a vital form of physical activity to address contemporary health challenges.
... Another recent review reported that aerobic physical activities prevent cognitive decline and dementia and that OSE, including badminton, protects cognitive function more effectively compared to CSE [15]. Additionally, the cognitive benefits of table tennis, an OSE involving aerobic physical activity, were suggested to elicit changes in neuroplasticity in multiple brain networks underlying cognitive aspects, potentially preventing cognitive decline and dementia [7]. ...
... The older population is estimated to reach approximately 1.6 billion from 2025 to 2050 [6]. Currently, approximately 55 million individuals experience dementia, and this number is predicted to increase to 78 million by 2030 and 139 million by 2050 [7]. suospatial integration in badminton players [5,27]. ...
... In contrast, other previous studies reported that the maximum lactate values of elite players were between 2 and 5 mmol/L on average [34,35]. These relatively low lactic values indicate that the aerobic system is active during a match [4,7]. The intermittent actions during a badminton match are demanding on both the aerobic (60-70%) and anaerobic (approximately 30%) systems, where the anaerobic alactic system known as adenosine triphosphate creatinine phosphate system contributes more than the anaerobic lactic (glycolytic) system [4,34,35]. ...
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Badminton is one of the most popular racket sports played by all age groups worldwide. Anyone can practice and play badminton as a leisure or competitive sport, regardless of age, experience, or skill level. It does not require physical contact among players or expensive equipment. Compared with closed-skill exercises (e.g., running and swimming), open-skill exercises (e.g., badminton and table tennis) have been reported to significantly improve cognitive function and prevent cognitive decline. This mini review aimed to investigate the findings related to badminton intervention for cognitive function, with attention to the modifiable risk factors of dementia in adults. Additionally, we outlined the characteristics of badminton’s physical demands. This narrative review encompassed studies reported from 2013 to 2023 from multiple databases, including PubMed and Google Scholar. Keywords such as “badminton”, “dementia”, “cognitive function”, “physical activity”, and “depression” were used to identify relevant articles. Various studies, including randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and case–control studies, were selected to provide a comprehensive overview of badminton intervention. Quantitative data analysis suggests that at a cognitive level, high-intensity badminton can enhance cognitive function with at least 10 min of play once weekly or 20 min of play once weekly on average, whereas moderate-intensity badminton can be effective when played for at least 30 min once weekly or 35 min twice weekly on average. For modifiable risk factors, recreational badminton for about 3 h weekly could effectively manage blood pressure. For body fat percentage and fasting serum glucose levels, recreational badminton for about 10 h weekly exerted positive effects. For depressive states, a moderate-intensity badminton program for 100 min weekly was effective. For lipid profiles associated with dementia occurrence, prolonged badminton intervention for more than 3 months may be beneficial. The characteristics presented here indicate that intervention with regular badminton exercise could effectively improve cognitive function and prevent cognitive decline in older adults.
... The older population is estimated to reach approximately 1.6 billion from 2025 to 2050 [6]. Currently, approximately 55 million individuals experience dementia, and this number is predicted to increase to 78 million by 2030 and 139 million by 2050 [7]. ...
... Furthermore, the maximum serum lactate concentration during the male and female matches was 5.87 and 5.4 mmol/L, respectively [4], whereas other previous studies reported that the maximum lactate values of elite players were between 2 and 5 mmol/L on average [22,23]. These relatively low lactic values indicate that the aerobic system is active during a match [4,7]. The intermittent actions during a badminton match are demanding on both the aerobic (60%-70%) and anaerobic (approximately 30%) systems, where the anaerobic alactic system known as adenosine triphosphate creatinine phosphate (ATP-CP) system contributes more than the anaerobic lactic (glycolytic) system [4, 22,23]. ...
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Badminton is one of the most popular racket sports played by children up to the elderly worldwide. Everyone can practice and play badminton as a leisure or competitive sport, regardless of age, experience, or skill level. It does not require physical contact among players and expensive equipment. Compared with closed-skill exercise (e.g., running, swimming), open-skill exercise (e.g., badminton, table tennis) has been reported to intervene more with cognitive function and prevent cognitive decline. In this review, we outline the characteristics of badminton’s beneficial effects on physical and cognitive aspects. The characteristics presented here indicate that intervention with regular badminton exercise could effectively improve cognitive function and prevent cognitive decline in the elderly.
... Although aging is an inevitable natural physiological change in human beings, we may not have a way to prevent aging, but we can have corresponding strategies to inhibit or reduce the impact of aging on cognitive function, such as through certain exercise. [58], this is a requirement participants must be highly focused, and with faster response decisions, at the same time need to have the corresponding physical foundation to support the related action of open movement, it can not only exercise reaction speed and coordination, also can enhance social interaction in a relaxed and pleasant atmosphere. Insist on doing table tennis 2-3 times a week, 30~60 minutes each time, can effectively delay the decline of cognitive function, improve the quality of life [59]. ...
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Objective: The extension of life span and the decrease of fertility rate in the elderly population lead to the increasing aging proportion, and the natural growth of age is accompanied by aging. Cognitive diseases will emerge in large numbers at this stage, affecting the cognitive function of the elderly. Methods: The purpose of this review is to comprehensively explore the effects of open movement and locked exercise on cognitive function in the elderly. It discuss the specific effects and related neurobiological mechanisms of different types of exercise on cognitive function (including attention, memory, executive ability, etc.) in the elderly. Results: Open sports can effectively improve attention, executive function and cognitive flexibility in the elderly, and closed sports can have positive effects on memory and concentration by enhancing brain neuroplasticity and regulating neurotransmitters. Conclusion: although two types of movement on the cognitive function of the elderly has its emphasis, but overall, compared with closed movement, open movement in the elderly specific cognitive function (such as executive function, inhibitory control, task conversion, etc.) show more prominent effect, and help to reduce the brain caused by the age of atrophy and the risk of neurodegenerative changes.
... Şekil 8. Üç enerji sistemi. Kısaltma: ATP-CP, adenosin trifosfat-kreatin fosfat (Yamasaki, 2022). ...
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... On the contrary, the cognitive tests generally showed that the group with low cognitive load also experienced an improvement in inhibitory control. This nding is in line with studies that show the perceptual-motor training model used in this study, the forehand hit, could improve inhibition, regardless of the cognitive load level 30,31 . Furthermore, the current ndings could be considered in line with the studies in which physical exercises could improve inhibitory control [32][33][34] . ...
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This study aimed to investigate the effect of combining cognitive challenges with table tennis training on executive functions and forehand skill acquisition. To do so, 36 beginners were randomly divided into three groups of high cognitive load, low cognitive load, and a control group. Participants were asked to perform the forehand task according to a certain practice designed for each group. Then, variables of inhibition, working memory, mental representation, and forehand accuracy were measured. The results showed that both experimental groups performed better than the control group in terms of inhibition; however, only the high cognitive load group had a significant improvement in terms of working memory and the low cognitive load group had a more structured mental representation than the other two groups. Moreover, the two experimental groups with high and low cognitive load performed more accurate forehand test than the control group. Our results show that practice with different cognitive loads can have different effects on improving cognitive functions and skill acquisition. Hence, the improvement of skill acquisition in both groups and the improvement of mental representation only in the group with low cognitive load could indicate that in the group with high cognitive load, attention has moved away from the skill performance procedure due to the working memory involvement during the practice; also, the participants had improved skill performance although no structured knowledge of the skill has been formed in their memory, which can be considered as a characteristic of the implicit learning style.
... Singles and doubles versions of table tennis are played by striking a light ball (Akramjonovich, Abdumalikovich, & ..., 2022;Udomvirojsin & Vongsrangsap, 2023;Yamasaki, 2022). The ball game table tennis is compact (Sembiring, Agung Parwata, & Wijaya, 2023;Yu & Gao, 2022). ...
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The objective of this study is to assess the impact of return board-based forehand drive instruction on Central Java junior high school students in Class VIII. Experimental research employing a two-group pretest-posttest design, this study consists of a pre-treatment pretest and a post-treatment posttest. Sixteen return drill training sessions were administered to the experimental group, while the control group received no intervention. Hypothesis tests, normality tests, and homogeneity tests are all components of data analysis techniques. The findings of this study indicate that the experimental group's forehand drive ability improved significantly as a result of return board training (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05; mean difference = 4.100). In contrast, there was no discernible impact of enhancing forehand drive ability on the control group (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05). As a result, it can be concluded that instruction utilizing the return board can significantly improve the forehand driving ability of Central Java eighth-graders. To improve one's ability to execute a forehand drive, researchers propose employing a training method that utilizes the return board. The aforementioned research findings suggest that instruction utilizing the return board may significantly enhance the forehand driving proficiency of Central Java Junior High School students in grade VIII. At a significance level of 0.000, the mean difference is 4.100. To improve one's forehand driving abilities, researchers recommend selecting a training method that incorporates the return stroke as an alternative. It is crucial that the training programs are well-organized, structured, and adhere to established procedures. Scholars desiring to undertake additional investigations pertaining to the utilization of return boards are encouraged to select alternative training modalities and juxtapose them.
... Table tennis players must develop a specific physical profile that includes speed, strength, endurance, and advanced perceptual and decision-making skills (Chen et al., 2016). Research has shown that playing table tennis improves hand-eye coordination, balance, cognitive function, and overall physical fitness, including cardiovascular health and flexibility (Yamasaki, 2022). These attributes are critical for maintaining peak performance and overall health across different age groups (Shahidi et al., 2020;. ...
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Table tennis requires a combination of anaerobic and aerobic energy systems, agility, short reaction times, and precise motor skills. The aim of this study is to investigate gender-specific physiological profiles and performance measures in young elite table tennis players. The objectives are to identify key physical and anthropometric attributes contributing to table tennis performance, compare these attributes between male and female athletes, and develop targeted training recommendations. The study involved sixteen players (8 males and 8 females) within the age range of 10 to 18 years who train regularly at Istanbul Pendik Sports Hall. Inclusion criteria required training at least three times per week and participating at championship levels. Anthropometric measurements were taken using a Seca 220R stadiometer and a Seca 710R weighing scale, with body fat percentage estimated via a Tanita scale. Performance tests included vertical jump height (Witty Microgate device), reaction times (custom device), and heart rates (Activio Sport System). Assessments were carried out between 4:00 PM and 6:00 PM. Male athletes had higher mean values in height (159.00 ± 13.29 cm), weight (50.00 ± 12.06 kg), and vertical jump height, whereas female athletes had better reaction times (1.17 ± 0.14 seconds). No statistically significant differences were found in body fat percentage and mean heart rate. t-Tests revealed that gender differences in most performance metrics were not statistically significant, but correlation analysis showed statistically significant relationships between various physical characteristics and performance outcomes (p<0.05). As a result, physical fitness and reaction time are crucial for table tennis performance. Tailored training programs should focus on these attributes to enhance performance in young elite players. Future studies should follow these metrics longitudinally to understand their impact on competitive success.
... This study used a new approach with a multi-part exercise program to potentially delay the progression of MCI to dementia. The program included exercises that challenge reaction time and handeye coordination, like fast foot tapping (Shigematsu et al., 2008) and table tennis (Yamasaki et al., 2022). These exercises may improve attention and visual-spatial thinking skills by potentially increasing connections between brain cells. ...
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Age-related declines in health-related physical fitness and cognitive function can be mitigated by a multi-movement exercise program. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the efficiency of Ram Thai with nine square dances on physical performance and cognitive functions in the elderly. Participants were randomly assigned into an experimental or control group. The Montreal cognitive assessment-basic (MoCA-B, Thai version) were chosen from screened volunteers and randomly assigned into 2 groups; Ram Thai with nine square dances (RTND:33) and brisk walking exercise (BWE:34) aged 65.3±2.4 years old, body mass index (BMI) 25.5±11.9 kg/m2. The physical performance parameters assessed were as follows: Back-scratch test (BST), Chair sit and reach test (CSRT), Chair stand test (CST), 30-second arm curl test (ACT), 6-minute walk test (6-WT) and timed up and go test (TUG) were conducted respectively. Our results showed the physiological revealed a reduction in body fat percentage, while significant increase in VO2max test scores observed in both groups (p≤.05). Additionally, there was an improved lower limb strength, as evidenced by statistically significant increases in scores for the CST, 6-WT, and TUG compared to pretest values (p≤.05). In terms of BST performance, the RTND group showed significantly better results compared to the BWE group (p≤.001). Moreover, we discovered that significantly superior results indicate increased variability in MoCA-B scores (24.11≈26.37) among elderly participants in the RTND group (p≤.001). The data indicates that RTND effectively enhances physiological aspects, physical performance control, and overall cognitive function in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Keywords: physical performance, cognitive function, mild cognitive impairment, elderly
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The Portuguese Language Sports Philosophy Association (AFDLP) is pleased to announce the launch of the book Filosofia do Desporto, the first publication resulting from the 1st Congress of Sports Philosophy, held in 2023 in Coimbra. Coordinated by Constantino Pereira Martins and Luísa Ávila da Costa, this work brings together contributions from leading thinkers, academics and professionals in the field, addressing issues such as ethics, aesthetics, anthropology and the complexity of sport as a human and cultural practice. This book inaugurates an editorial sequence that includes, for the first quarter of 2025, the launch of the first two editions of the new Athletica - Journal of Sports Philosophy. These publications aim to consolidate philosophical reflection on sport and promote interdisciplinary dialog between academia and sports practice. We invite anyone interested to explore this book, which is a milestone in the construction of a community of thought in Portuguese dedicated to the Philosophy of Sport. The PDF of the book is available for free reading and sharing on the official AFDLP website: www.afdlp.org. For more information, interviews or copies, please contact: info@afdlp.org A Associação de Filosofia do Desporto em Língua Portuguesa (AFDLP) tem o prazer de anunciar o lançamento do livro Filosofia do Desporto, a primeira publicação resultante do I Congresso de Filosofia do Desporto, realizado em 2023, em Coimbra. Coordenado por Constantino Pereira Martins e Luísa Ávila da Costa, esta obra reúne contribuições de destacados pensadores, académicos e profissionais da área, abordando temas como ética, estética, antropologia e a complexidade do desporto enquanto prática humana e cultural. Este livro inaugura uma sequência editorial que inclui, para o primeiro trimestre de 2025, o lançamento das duas primeiras edições da nova Athletica – Revista de Filosofia do Desporto. Estas publicações visam consolidar a reflexão filosófica sobre o desporto e promover o diálogo interdisciplinar entre a academia e a prática desportiva. Convidamos todos os interessados a explorar esta obra, que se apresenta como um marco na construção de uma comunidade de pensamento em língua portuguesa dedicada à Filosofia do Desporto. O PDF do livro encontra-se disponível gratuitamente para leitura e partilha no site oficial da AFDLP: www.afdlp.org. Para mais informações, entrevistas ou exemplares, por favor, contacte: info@afdlp.org 978-989-35970-0-2
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Coordinative challenging exercises in changing environments referred to as open-skill exercises seem to be beneficial on cog- nitive function. Although electroencephalographic research allows to investigate changes in cortical processing during move- ment, information about cortical dynamics during open-skill exercise is lacking. Therefore, the present study examines frontal brain activation during table tennis as an open-skill exercise compared to cycling exercise and a cognitive task. 21 healthy young adults conducted three blocks of table tennis, cycling and n-back task. Throughout the experiment, cortical activity was measured using 64-channel EEG system connected to a wireless amplifier. Cortical activity was analyzed calculating theta power (4–7.5 Hz) in frontocentral clusters revealed from independent component analysis. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to identify within subject differences between conditions (table tennis, cycling, n-back; p < .05). ANOVA revealed main-effects of condition on theta power in frontal (p < .01, ηp 2 = 0.35) and frontocentral (p < .01, ηp 2 = 0.39) brain areas. Post-hoc tests revealed increased theta power in table tennis compared to cycling in frontal brain areas (p < .05, d = 1.42). In frontocentral brain areas, theta power was significant higher in table tennis compared to cycling (p < .01, d = 1.03) and table tennis compared to the cognitive task (p < .01, d = 1.06). Increases in theta power during continuous table tennis may reflect the increased demands in perception and processing of environmental stimuli during open-skill exercise. This study provides important insights that support the beneficial effect of open-skill exercise on brain function and suggest that using open-skill exercise may serve as an intervention to induce activation of the frontal cortex.
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No research that has analyzed the structural characteristics, physiological profile, and energy demands in the game of table tennis as played by women is available. The present study aimed to evaluate the physiological, metabolic, and temporal variables of table tennis players and to observe gender differences. Forty-eight elite table tennis players participated in this study: 24 men (25.3 ± 4.07 years) and 24 women (22.3 ± 3.8 years). During simulated competition, temporal structure , heart rate (HR), and lactate (LA) were evaluated. The maximum ergospirometric evaluations were performed in a laboratory. The total table tennis (TT) time and the total resting time (TRT) were longer for men (p < 0.05), but game density was higher for women (p < 0.05). During rallies, the real playing time (RPT) was longer for women, while the TRT was longer for men (p < 0.05). The maximum HR, minimum HR, and maximum LA concentrations were higher for men (p < 0.05). The obtained data reveal gender differences in the physiological, metabolic, structural, and temporal variables in table tennis players. The analysis of the studied variables could allow training sessions to be planned and organized according to table tennis players' gender.
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This review is extensively focused on the enhancement of cognitive functions while performing physical exercises categorized into cardiovascular exercises, resistance training, martial arts, racquet sports, dancing and mind-body exercises. Imaging modalities, viz. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electroencephalography (EEG), have been included in this review. This review indicates that differences are present in cognitive functioning while changing the type of physical activity performed. This study concludes that employing fNIRS helps overcome certain limitations of fMRI. Further, the effects of physical activity on a diverse variety of the population, from active children to the old people, are discussed.
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The aims of this study were to analyze table tennis players’ physical profiles considering and comparing players age categories [i.e., under (U) 12, U14, U16, U20, Senior and Older], and to quantify the correlations among the variables measured by each test. Seventy-one table tennis players (61 men and 10 women, 19.7 ± 11.23 years, 1.65 ± 0.13 m, 59.71 ± 17.72 kg and 21.60 ± 4.22 kg.m2) divided into 6 age groups, performed a sprint test, forearm isometric strength test, coun-termovement vertical test, countermovement horizontal test, change of direction ability (CODA) test and flexibility test. U14 players performed better than U12 in all tests (ES = -0.70 to 1.98, moderate to large) except in Sit and Reach (SAR) test (ES = 0.19, trivial). The U16 group also ob-tained better results than U14 in all tests (ES = 0.77 to -2.31, moderate to large) except for the SAR test (ES = 0.19, trivial). The U20 group performed better than U16 in all the tests (ES = 0.73 to -1.53, moderate to large) except for the 5 m sprint test (ES = -0.02, trivial), 10 m sprint test (ES = -0.51, moderate) and SAR (ES = 0.11, trivial). Differences between Senior and U20 were only found in the arm swing counter movement jump (CMJAS) (ES = -0.82, large) and Modified Agility Test (MAT) (ES = 1.19, large), with the U20 group being better in both variables. The senior group performed better in the MAT test than the older group (ES = 0.94, large). The relation found between forearm isometric strength, vertical jump, horizontal jump, sprint and CODA ability (r = -0.53; ±0.14, 0/0/100, most likely to r = 0.83; ±0.06, 100/0/0, most likely) indicates that these capacities are related in table tennis players. Nevertheless, the lack of association between the sit and reach test with the other capacities may indicate that flexibility is an independent capacity.
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Specialization and flexibility are two basic attributes of functional brain organization, enabling efficient cognition and behavior. However, it is largely unknown what plastic changes in specialization and flexibility in visual-motor areas occur in support of extraordinary motor skills in expert athletes and how the selective adaptability of the visual-motor system affects general perceptual or cognitive domains. Here, we used a dynamic network framework to investigate intrinsic functional specialization and flexibility of visual-motor system in expert table tennis players (TTP). Our results showed that sensorimotor areas increased intrinsic functional flexibility, whereas visual areas increased intrinsic functional specialization in expert TTP compared to nonathletes. Moreover, the flexibility of the left putamen was positively correlated with skill level, and that of the left lingual gyrus was positively correlated with behavioral accuracy of a sport-unrelated attention task. This study has uncovered dissociable plasticity of the visual-motor system and their predictions of individual differences in skill level and general attention processing. Furthermore, our time-resolved analytic approach is applicable across other professional athletes for understanding their brain plasticity and superior behavior.
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Table tennis was first played as an Olympic sport at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Yet its official body, the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), had not always sought Olympic recognition. Founded in 1926, the ITTF was in conflict with the Olympic movement in its early years. While the democratised and apolitical vision of table tennis did not appear to be fundamentally at odds with Olympic values, amateurism was an obstacle for the federation. As a result, only after 50 years, in 1977, did the ITTF finally bow to the principles of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Thereafter, Olympic recognition became a major symbolic and economic pillar of the ITTF’s development strategy. The aims of the two institutions became aligned as the popularity of table tennis internationally, particularly in Asia, contributed to the goal of globalising the Olympics. This rapprochement with Asian markets accelerated under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch from 1981, leading to the inclusion of the discipline in the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games.
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The aim of this study was to identify the differences in body composition and physical fitness between children who played table tennis regularly during a two-year period compared to physically active children who were not engaged in a regular activity. Three hundred seventy-four children aged 10 to 11 years were divided into two groups: table tennis players (n = 109 boys and 73 girls) and physically active group (n = 88 boys and 104 girls). Anthropometric analysis included body mass index, skinfolds, perimeters and bone diameters. Somatotype and body composition were determined according to age-specific equations. Physical fitness assessment included hand grip dynamometry (strength), sit-and-reach test (range of movement) and maximal multistage 20 m shuttle run test (cardiovascular fitness). The result show that children who regularly played table tennis had greater bone development and superior physical fitness compared to those who were physically active but not engaged in a regular physical activity. This is the largest study to date presenting data about the potential of table tennis to benefit health in children. These results constitute an important first step in clarifying the effectiveness of table tennis as a health-promotion strategy
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Table tennis has recently evolved towards a more spectacular sport increasing match-play demands and the intensity and speed of actions by regulations and equipment modification. Since these changes can alter the body composition and performance, this study aimed to analyze the differences in anthropometric attributes of 495 table tennis players (288 men, 207 women) according to sex, age, and ranking. Players were classified according to sex, age categories (Senior, Under-18, Under-15, Under 13, and Under 11), and ranking position. Anthropometry measurements included eight skinfolds’ thicknesses (biceps brachii, triceps, subscapular, iliac crest, supraspinal, abdominal, thigh, and medial calf), four girths (biceps brachii relaxed and contracted, thigh, and calf), and three breadths (biepicondylar femur, biepicondylar humerus, and bistiloyd wrist) to determine fat mass, lean mass, bone, cross sectional area (CSA) for arm, leg, and thigh, and somatotype. Results revealed that table tennis players presented differences in body mass composition, anthropometry, and somatotype according to sex and age category and ranking. It seems confirmed that regular table tennis practice during the childhood is associated with a healthy body composition status, that appears to be maintained across older ages if keeping the practice. Senior table tennis players showed a fat mass <20% and lean mass ~45% in men and ~37% in women. A new contribution is that higher lean mass in the upper limbs was associated with higher ranking position (i.e., better performance), endomorphic somatotypes were negative related to performance, and ectomorphic profiles seems more effective, which suggest the potential influence of morphologic changes in table tennis competition performance.
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Introduction Table tennis is a popular sport worldwide. However, no study has examined whether it is an effective exercise for patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD). The efficacy and safety of table tennis exercise for PD patients was examined. Methods This 6-month prospective study investigated if our table tennis exercise program could improve parkinsonian motor symptoms, cognition and psychiatric symptoms. Twelve PD patients with Hoehn & Yahr stage ≤4 were recruited. Patients participated in a 6-hour exercise session once weekly. All patients were assessed with the Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS) parts I-IV, Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB), Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS), and Starkstein Apathy Scale (SAS) at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Results Nine of 12 PD patients were analyzed, except for three patients for which data was missing. MDS-UPDRS parts II and III were improved at 3 months (median -4.0, p=0.012 and median -7.0, p=0.015) and 6 months (median -10.0, p=0.012 and median -12.0, p=0.008), whereas MDS-UPDRS total parts I scores and total IV scores, MoCA, FAB, SDS, and SAS were unchanged. Adverse events included fall and backache in one patient each. Conclusion A table tennis exercise program is relatively safe and may improve activities of daily living and motor symptoms in patients with PD.
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Among the many factors that determine top athletic performance, little is known about the contribution of the brain. With the present study, we aimed to uncover aspects of this role by examining modulatory differences in brain processing as a function of expertise and task complexity in table tennis. For this purpose, 28 right-handed volunteers (14 experts and 14 novices) performed two table tennis strokes in a standardized manner. Hemodynamic response alterations reflecting neuronal activation were recorded during task execution using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and analyzed within and between groups. Our results showed localized activation patterns in motor areas (primary motor cortex (M1), premotor cortex (PMC), and inferior parietal cortex (IPC)) for experts and novices. Compared to novices, experts completed more table tennis strokes and showed a significant increase in hemodynamic response alterations in channels corresponding to motor areas. Furthermore, we found significant correlations between the number of strokes and hemodynamic response magnitudes in individual channels of M1, PMC, and IPC. Taken together, our findings show that table tennis performance is accompanied by extensive activation of M1, PMC, and IPC. Further, the observed difference in behavioral performance between experts and novices was associated with increased activation in M1, PMC, and IPC. We postulate that these differences in brain processing between experts and novices potentially imply modulatory distinctions related to increased movement speed or frequency but may also reflect an increased task familiarity of the experts.