Effects of Needle Size and Sewing Thread on Seam Quality of Traditional Fabrics

Abstract

The role of fabric properties in sewing performance and seam quality is essential, therefore, it is crucial to understand the effect of diferent parameters on traditional fabrics’ sewability properties. This study aimed to evaluate the seam quality of traditional fabrics produced from silk, cotton and linen fibres and their blends in terms of seam strength, seam efficiency and fabric sewability. The samples were sewn using two different sewing needle size (75 Nm and 90 Nm) and sewing thread (100% mercerised cotton and 100% polyester corespun). Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that sewing thread and fabric type had significant effect on seam strength and seam efficiency. The samples sewn with polyester corespun sewing thread had higher seam strength than other. The sewing needle significantly affected the needle penetration force values and the silk fabric had lowest sewability values both in warp and weft direction.

Full text

TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022 277
TEKSTİL VE KONFEKSİYON
VOL: 32, NO. 3
DOI: 10.32710/tekstilvekonfeksiyon.1088043
Effects of Needle Size and Sewing Thread on Seam
Quality of Traditional Fabrics
Derya Tama Birkocak 0000-0002-2720-2484
*
Ege University / Textile Engineering Department / 35100, Bornova, Izmir, Türkiye
Corresponding Author: Derya Tama Birkocak, derya.tama@ege.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
The role of fabric properties in sewing performance and seam quality is essential, therefore, it is
crucial to understand the effect of different parameters on traditional fabrics’ sewability properties.
This study aimed to evaluate the seam quality of traditional fabrics produced from silk, cotton and
linen fibres and their blends in terms of seam strength, seam slippage, seam efficiency and fabric
sewability and determine the optimum sewing thread and sewing needle size for the sewing process
of these fabrics. The samples were sewn using two different sewing needle size (75 Nm and 90 Nm)
and sewing thread (100% mercerised cotton and 100% polyester corespun). Based on the obtained
results, it can be concluded that sewing thread and fabric type had significant effect on seam strength,
seam slippage and seam efficiency. The samples sewn with polyester corespun sewing thread had
higher seam strength than other. The sewing needle significantly affected the needle penetration force
values and the silk fabric had lowest sewability values both in warp and weft direction.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received: 18.03.2022
Accepted: 13.09.2022
KEYWORDS
Traditional fabrics, seam
strength, seam efficiency,
fabric sewability, needle
penetration force
1. INTRODUCTION
Textile and fashion industry has quite inconvenient features
from an ecological point of view, with parameters such as
the raw material, energy and water consumption, the
intense chemical process content in the production process,
mass production capacity, and the potential for waste after
production [1, 2]. For this reason, the effects of the concept
of sustainability in industrial production are also observed
in textile and fashion industry. The solutions such as
adopting the slow fashion trend, using cyclical production
methods, and turning to recycling raw materials are applied
to the textile industry [2, 3]. In addition, local fabrics
produced traditionally and ecologically attract the attention
of the fashion industry and their use creates a new
dimension in terms of sustainability in textile [4, 5].
The traditional shirts made of natural fibres, which are also
the subject of this study, are preferred also in daily life. The
materials used in these shirts generally depend on the
characteristics of the region such as the climate of the
region, the availability of raw materials, the production
techniques, etc. [6]. The traditional fabrics made of natural
fibres, namely silk, linen, cotton and their blends were
evaluated in this research. Especially silk is one of the most
important natural fibres due to its unique properties such as
specific gravity of 1.25-1.3 g/cm and diameter of 12 µm
[7]; whereas cotton has 1,54 g/cm specific gravity and10-27
µm diameter, flax has 1,4 g/cm specific gravity and15-20
µm diameter [8].
It is crucial to know the quality of the end product before
commercializing. Seam quality is one of the outstanding
parameter that effects the overall quality of a garment. The
seam quality could be characterized as functional (strength,
elasticity, durability, stability) and aesthetic (the proper
appearance) [9-11]. Many researchers were studied on seam
characterization both in functional and aesthetic aspect [9-
25]. Data et al. (2017) evaluated the effect of stitch density
and the linear density of sewing thread on seam efficiency
of a woven linen men shirt’s production. It was found out
that, the most suitable stitch density is 13-13,5 stitch per
inch and the sewing thread is 40 Tkt number spun polyester
[10]. Malek et al. (2018) developed a regression model to
predict the seam quality through studying sewing
performance by measuring the seam efficiency, slippage
and puckering of 18 denim fabrics [11]. Abou Nassif
(2013), investigated the effect of needle size, stitch density,
To cite this article: Tama Birkocak D. 2022. Effects of needle size and sewing thread on seam quality of traditional fabrics. Tekstil
ve Konfeksiyon, 32(3), 277-287.

278 TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022
sewing thread tension and sewing direction on the seam
tensile strength, seam elongation and seam efficiency of
cotton woven fabric. It was obtained that the sewing
machine parameters have a certain influence on the seam
quality [12]. Choudhary and Goel (2013) analysed the
effect of blend composition (3 varying in the blend
composition of polyester and cotton components), sewing
thread size, and sewing needle parameters on seam
strength, seam efficiency, seam puckering, seam stiffness,
and drape coefficient and stated that seam efficiency is
higher and the seam puckering is lower in the 100% cotton
structure of fabric. The low seam strength efficiency was
observed for the polyester fabric due to polyester’s high
extensibility and tenacity [13]. Gribaa et al. (2006)
investigated the influence of the sewing thread, the stitch
type, the stitch density, the needle size and the edge of the
seam on tensile behaviour of a plain weave cotton/polyester
fabric. It was demonstrated that the sewing thread, the stitch
density, the edge of the seam as well as the sewing
direction have a significant effect on seam strength [14].
Rogina-Car and Kovacevic (2021) analysed the damage
caused by the needle piercing the cotton fabric during
sewing. The specimens were prepared using three types of
needle point shapes and four needles. It was obtained that
the samples sewn with SUK-designated needles creates
larger holes, whereas SES-designated needles give the best
results [15]. In the research performed by Gurarda and
Meric (2005), the effect of elastane feeding ratio, pre-
setting temperature and finishing process on needle
penetration force was examined. 12 cotton/elastane woven
fabrics were produced and tested using L&M sewability
tester, same as used in the present research; the obtained
results showed that treating the elastic fabric with silicone
during the finishing process helps to prevent the fabric
damage [18]. In the study conducted by Carvalho et al.
(2020), the sewability of towels were determined by
quantifying the needle penetration force. Different sewing
needles were used with different sizes, points, and coatings.
The effect of needle size on needle penetration force was
significant, however the effect of needle point is not clearly
demonstrated [20]. Karypidis (2018) as well tested the
sewability properties of rigid structures in their natural,
washed and softened states, which are higher mass per
square metre fabrics known to be problematic in the sewing
stage. It was found out that washing and softening fabric
treatments decreases the needle penetration force [23].
Pamuk et al. (2011) investigated the sweability properties
of six lining fabrics using L&M sewability tester and found
out that yarn count and density have a significant effect on
the sewability values of lining fabrics [25].
In this study, the seam quality of traditional shirt fabrics
was evaluated in terms of seam strength, seam slippage,
seam efficiency and fabric sewability. Seam strength is the
strength of a sewn seam by applying a force perpendicular
when seam finally ruptures [26]. Seam efficiency is another
parameter that demonstrates seam performance defined as
the seam carrying capacity of a fabric itself [17] and is
measured by the ratio of sewn and unsewn fabric strengths
[27]. Furthermore, seam slippage (opening) is a mode of
failure evidenced by yarn movement at either side of the
seam creating a gap or opening [8]. Seam slippage is
affected by fabric characteristics such as weave, type of
weaving yarn, coefficient of friction between yarns, fabric
density, and so on [28, 29].
There are many factors affecting the seam strength, seam
slippage and seam efficiency; the properties and the
construction of fabric, sewing thread, sewing needle size,
sewing needle point type, stitch density, seam type and
sewing machine parameters. The seam strength and so the
seam efficiency increases with the sewing thread linear
density. Islam et al. (2018) evaluated the effect of sewing
thread’s effect of seam strength and seam efficiency using
14 tex, 18 tex and 60 tex polyester corespun sewing thread
and obtained better efficiency in 60 tex sewing thread
samples [26]. A similar observation was done by
Choudhary and Goel (2013); where the percentage
contribution of sewing thread on seam efficiency was found
out as 5% [13]. Unal and Baykal (2018) also investigated
the effect of PES/CO as well as PES/PES corespun sewing
threads on seam quality and come up with similar results as
the higher the yarn strength, the higher the seam strength
[21]. Another important factor affecting seam quality is the
sewing needle, which is one of the elements used in
forming the seam. To determine the proper sewing needle,
the needle size and the needle point type should be chosen
properly considering the fabric type. During a seam
formation, the sewing needle passes between the weft and
warp yarns though the fabric. The thicker needle has more
possibility to coincide the conjunctions of yarns, where it
has to pierce. As Rogina-Car and Kovačević (2021) stated,
the greater needle size creates higher contact with the
material, which creates holes with larger surface area and
lowers the seam quality [15]. Abou Nassif (2013) found out
a 5% decrease in seam strength when the samples prepared
using 80 Nm to 100 Nm needles [12]. The approach to
explain this situation is the possibility of breaking the fabric
yarn when using a needle with a greater diameter [31].
A good fabric sewability is related with a proper seam
forming without fabric damage and a desired seam
appearance. It is mainly evaluated by measuring needle
penetration force (NPF). NPF is the quantitative measure of
the friction between the fabric and the sewing needle and
the damage which appears in the garment due to sewing
process [18, 23]. Several authors studied the subject of
measuring the NPF since decades, in 1976, Hurt and Tyler
measured NPF in a lockstitch sewing machine by placing a
tensiometer [22]. In 1973, Leeming and Munden were
developed the L&M sewability tester and they obtained the
patent in 1976 [31]. In the recent studies conducted by
Carvalho (2004) and Carvalho et al. (2009), new technique
was developed including a piezoelectric force sensor
inserted into the needle bar of an industrial sewing machine
[32, 33]. Measuring the NPF is essential to evaluate the
fabric sewability; the lower NPF indicates the higher fabric
sewability [23].

TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022 279
The objective of the study was to identify the optimum
sewing thread and sewing needle size for the sewing process
of traditional shirting fabrics produced from silk, linen and
cotton, and their blends. Some existing researches in the
literature focused on evaluating the seam performance of silk
fabrics [34, 35], linen fabrics [10], cotton fabrics [18, 19, 22,
24, 36] and comparing silk and cotton fabrics’ seam quality
[37]; however, there was no systematic study focusing on
silk, linen and cotton fabrics and their blendes systematically.
Therefore, the focus of this research was to examine the
effects of determined parameters on the seam strength, seam
slippage, seam efficiency and fabric sewability. As the
literature review reveals, there are limited researches on
evaluating the seam quality of traditional shirting fabrics,
especially produced from silk, linen and cotton, and their
blends. Findings of this research contributes to fill this gap in
the literature. Moreover, this study could help apparel
manufacturers to understand the seam quality of traditionally
woven fabrics from silk, linen and cotton materials, to
determine the optimum sewing thread and sewing needle
size, and therefore to manufacture the products with higher
overall quality.
2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
2.1 Material
2.1.1. Fabric properties
The traditional fabrics produced from silk, linen and cotton
raw materials and their blends, to be used in shirt
manufacturing in the Izmir region were procured. The
construction of the all fabrics was plain weave structure and
they have not been subjected to any dyeing or softening
process. In Table 1, the yarn counts and fabric parameters
are given.
2.1.2. Sewing thread
To assess the effect of sewing thread on seam quality,
100% polyester corespun and 100% mercerised cotton
sewing threads were selected. The main reason for choosing
them was that the sewing threads used in the garment
industry are generally produced from cotton and polyester
fibres [30]. Especially polyester corespun sewing threads
dominate the market due to their very high yarn strength
property [21] and are suitable for the production of normal
clothing products thanks to their versatile structure [10].
Table 2 presents the properties of commercial sewing
threads (Coats Group plc, Uxbridge, UK) used in the study.
2.1.2. Sewing parameters
All samples were sewn using a Juki DDL-9000B high
speed single needle lockstitch machine. The sewing
conditions are presented in Table 3. The settings of the
sewing machine were done before the sewing process and
the other parameters such as lower and upper thread
tensions kept constant.
The sewing needle, one of the seam forming elements, is
essential to ensure good seam quality. Especially choosing
the right needle size and needle point is one of the most
important parameters in the production of garments’ joints
[11, 14, 30, 38]. As the existing literature proves the
significant effect of needle size on seam quality, the thicker
needles decrease the seam strength, seam efficiency and
seam elongation, whereas increase the force required to
pierce the needle through the fabric [12, 15]. Two needle
sizes were used in this study, namely 75 Nm and 90 Nm
considering the fabric characteristics as well as the
recommendations of the sewing thread company.
Table 1. Fabric properties
Fabric composition
Weft yarn count
(Ne)
Warp yarn
count
(Ne)
Weft yarn
density
(threads/cm)
Warp yarn
density
(threads/cm)
Fabric
weight
(g/m2)
Fabric
thickness
(mm)
100% Silk
100/2
100/1
38
34
58.4
0.13
100% Linen
12/1
12/1
20
18
165.9
0.47
100% Cotton
30/1
30/1
22
34
119.9
0.37
25% Silk /75% Linen
40/1 (linen)
100/1 (silk)
26
36
98.6
0.22
30% Silk / 70% Cotton
18/1 (cotton)
100/1 (silk)
38
36
66.5
0.21
25% Cotton / 75% Linen
22/1 (linen)
100/1 (cotton)
26
36
101.5
0.24
Table 2. Sewing thread specifications
Sewing thread
Linear density (tex)
Average strength (cN/tex)
Elongation % (min – max)
100% polyester corespun
24
1190
17-22
100% mercerised cotton
30
830
4-9
Table 3. The sewing specifications
Sewing type
Stitch length (mm)
Needle size (Nm)
Needle point type
Needle point shape [15]
Lockstitch
(Type 301)
3
75
SES
Light Ball Point
90

280 TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022
Moreover, the light ball point (SES) needle type, which is
most commonly used needle point type for sewing general
knit fabrics and lightweight woven fabrics [39], was
chosen. These needles easily penetrate through the weft and
warp yarns of the fabric, produce less yarn breakages then
medium ball point needle (SUK) [15]. The range of the
stitch length is between 0 and 5 mm on most sewing
machines [17]. In this study, the stitch length was
determined as 3 mm, which is an average stitch length in
apparel industry.
In a cut and sew garment, cut pieces of fabric can be sewn
in both the weft and warp directions. Therefore, the
examination of the sewing direction comes to the forefront
in the evaluation of the sewing quality. Many researchers
studied the effects of sewing direction on the seam quality
and found out it has a significant effect on the seam
strength [9, 12, 40, 41]. For this reason, the sewn samples
were prepared for both warp and weft directions in the
present study.
2.2. Experimental Design
To determine the seam quality, all seams were formed both
in warp and weft directions for all specimens. Before the
tests, all specimens were conditioned under standard
atmosphere conditions for 24 hours maintaining the
temperature at 20±2ºC and the relative humidity at 65±4 %.
2.2.1. Seam strength
Seam strength is the strength of a sewn seam by applying a
force perpendicular when seam finally ruptures. In this
paper, it is followed ISO 13935-1 (2014) standard for
sample preparation and testing to measure the seam
strength and to evaluate the seam efficiency [42]. The tests
were conducted using Zwick Z010 (Roell) tensile strength
testing machine. Five tests were conducted consecutively in
warp and weft direction for each specimen. The maximum
forces only resulting with seam break that occurs by
breaking seam thread were evaluated due to the fact that,
the brakeage may occur for different causes. Furthermore,
to determine the tear strength of fabrics, ISO 13937-2
standard was used to prepare the trouser-shaped test
specimens and to perfom the tear tests [43]. The warp tear
strength was measured on weft direction, whereas the weft
tear strength was measured on warp direction.
2.2.2. Seam efficiency
Seam efficiency is defined as the seam carrying capacity of
a fabric itself [17]. Seam efficiency is the ratio between the
original and the seamed fabric strength, which is calculated
as the ratio of seam strength by fabric tensile strength as
presented in Equation (1) [10, 11, 17, 27, 36]. The fabric
tensile strength was determined using the Strip Method
according to ISO 13934-1 standard [42].
(1)
2.2.3. Seam slippage
Seam slippage defines the ability of the warp yarns slip
over the weft yarns, or weft yarns slip over the warp yarns
near the seam. To measure the warp yarn slipping, the
specimen is subjected to a given load in weft direction and
the extension is observed in the warp direction. The reverse
is done to measure the weft yarn slippage [44, 45]. Seam
slippage values were tested using Zwick Z010 (Roell)
tensile strength testing machine and five tests were
performed in warp and weft direction for each specimen.
ISO 13936-1:2004 stardard was followed.
2.2.4. Fabric sewability
Sewability can be defined as the ability of the fabric
components to be seamed effectively without fabric damage
and to provide a desired quality for the end-use
performance [47-49]. Sewability is mainly related with
needle penetration force (NPF), which is the friction
between the fabric and the sewing needle. The NPF was
measured using L&M Sewability Tester (John Godrich)
(Figure 1) by monitoring the force required for a sewing
needle to penetrate the fabric [50]. A total of 100 needle
penetrations were performed for each test and the average
force applied to the fabric in grams was recorded. The
threshold value was determined as 50 gf for silk and silk
blended fabrics and as 100 gf for other fabrics according to
the recommended values of the L&M sewability tester
catalogue considering the fabric mass area.
Figure 1. L&M sewability tester [46]
2.2.5. Statistical analyses
Statistical analyses were carried out by using SPSS
software. The Univariate and Independent-samples t-tests
were applied to examine the interaction as well as
individual effects of each parameter on the seam strength,
seam efficiency and needle penetration force. Post-hoc
analysis were also performed by using Duncan test in order
to determine which means of groups differ significantly. All
test results were assessed at significant levels of 0.05.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Seam strength
The fabrics were seamed with two different sewing needles
using two different sewing threads in both warp and weft
directions. Table 4 presents the seam strength, fabric tensile
strength and fabric tear strength mean values.

TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022 281
In Figure 2, examples obtained during seam strength tests
were given. In the image on the left, a clear seam break can
be seen, however, fabric tear was occurred before the seam
break in the image on the right side. This situation was only
happened for silk/cotton fabric’s warp samples however;
the tensile strength of the silk fabric was similar with
silk/cotton fabric. The yarn count of the warp yarns of silk
fabric and silk/cotton fabric was the same, and the weft and
warp densities were very similar. However, although the
weft cotton yarns of the silk/cotton fabric were thicker, still
the slippery were occured between the warp and weft yarns.
Since the fabrics procured were produced traditionally, it
was thought that the desizing process was also done
traditionally. This may have affected the properties of the
cotton yarn and caused the slippery. Therefore, these results
were eliminated from the data used in statistical tests. The
relevant data was written in bold in Table 4.
Figure 2. Some examples of images obtained during testing
Table 4. Seam strength, fabric tensile strength and fabric tear strength values
Fabric
type
Sewing needle*
Sewing
thread*
Seam strength (N)
Fabric tensile
strength (N)
Fabric tear
strength (N)
Weft
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft**
Warp***
Silk
SN1
ST1
189.69
239.31
272.48
244.19
22
14.3
ST2
169.78
205.42
SN2
ST1
162.40
238.53
ST2
201.96
225.87
Linen
SN1
ST1
237.58
210.34
665.98
477.92
28.2
24
ST2
234.94
246.24
SN2
ST1
220.62
207.00
ST2
263.19
263.12
Cotton
SN1
ST1
255.45
246.59
278.86
445.91
5.27
7.9
ST2
271.07
300.87
SN2
ST1
232.00
215.57
ST2
246.97
250.79
Silk / Linen
SN1
ST1
180.97
208.37
707.97
245.96
35.6
16
ST2
243.98
200.31
SN2
ST1
198.10
197.32
ST2
251.76
163.11
Silk / Cotton
SN1
ST1
219.02
35.96
401.13
256.56
39.7
16.4
ST2
291.40
35.31
SN2
ST1
214.33
44.18
ST2
216.87
26.97
Cotton / Linen
SN1
ST1
183.82
148.61
810.19
248.23
40.1
17.1
ST2
212.47
208.45
SN2
ST1
148.89
141.18
ST2
262.69
149.56
*SN1 = 75 Nm sewing needle, SN2 = 90 Nm sewing needle, ST1 = 100% mercerised cotton sewing thread, ST2 = 100% polyester corespun sewing
thread
** Tear strength values of weft yarns on warp direction *** Tear strength values of warp yarns on weft direction
The Independent Samples t-Test was performed to define
the effect of individual factors on seam strength. Regarding
the results, the sewing thread had statistically significant
effect on seam strength values of all fabric types (p=0.00);
whereas, it was not statistically significant for the sewing
needle (p=0.17).
Afterwards, in order to have a better comprehending of the
effects of fabric type and sewing thread values and their
interactions on seam strength, the univariate analysis was
applied, which is used to understand the distribution of
values for a single variable. The statistical analysis of the
results (Table 5) showed that the fabric type and the sewing
thread had a statistically significant effect on the seam
strength for both warp and weft samples (p<0.05). When
the sewing threads used in the study were compared, the
general trend was the polyester corespun sewing thread
used samples had higher seam strength values than
mercerised cotton sewing thread used samples both in warp
and weft direction. Similar observations were reported in
the literature [10, 21, 26, 34, 51] due to polyester
corespun’s high yarn strength property. However, this was
the opposite for the silk (warp and weft direction) and

282 TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022
silk/linen (warp direction) fabrics. It is thought that, this
may be due to the multifilament structure of silk yarns and
also the fact that more silk yarns coincide within one stitch
length, considering the fabric density. The cotton fabric
samples sewn by polyester corespun sewing thread in warp
direction showed the highest seam strength. Moreover, the
interaction of parameters, namely fabric type and sewing
thread, did not have statistically significant effect on weft
samples (p=0.085) as it had a high observed power very
close to “1” (Table 5). However, the interaction effects
were statistically significant on warp samples (p=0.005).
The reason for this situation could be interpreted as the
interaction was moved to a significant level with fabric
type’s dominant effect (obs. power = 1).
Although the silk fabric was the thinnest among all fabrics
and had prominently lower fabric tensile strength than
cotton as well as linen fabrics (Table 4), the seam strength
values were close to each other especially in warp direction
(Figure 3). Furthermore, the general trend in seam strength
values was, the values of the weft samples were higher than
those the values of the warp samples.
In both warp and weft samples, the seam strengths among
fabric types were statistically significant, therefore four
subsets were formed for each direction (Table 6). As it was
mentioned before, silk/cotton fabric results in warp
direction were eliminated due to fabric tearing occurred
prior to the seam break. As seen from the mean values,
some results overlapped, still it was clear that cotton had
the highest seam strength in both directions. Unlike the
cotton and linen fabrics, cotton/linen fabric was in the first
subset group in both weft and warp direction, which were
the groups had the lowest seam strength values. The fabric
thickness nearly doubled that of cotton/linen fabric, with
cotton fabric also having the highest fabric weight.
Table 5. The univariate analysis results
Sewing direction
Source
F
Sig.
Observed power
Weft samples
Fabric type
9.029
0.00
1
Sewing thread
24.687
0.00
1
Fabric type * Sewing thread
2.048
0.085
0.998
Warp samples
Fabric type
17.597
0.00
1
Sewing thread
4.360
0.042
1
Fabric type * Sewing thread
4.19
0.005
0.535
Figure 3. The seam strength values of samples in warp and weft direction
Table 6. Multiple comparisons of seam strength values
Sewing direction
Fabric type
Seam strength
N
Subsets
1
2
3
4
Weft samples
Silk
12
180.96
-
-
-
Cotton / Linen
12
201.97
201.97
-
-
Silk / Linen
12
-
218.71
218.71
-
Silk / Cotton
12
-
-
235.41
-
Linen
12
-
-
239.08
239.08
Cotton
12
-
-
-
251.37
Sewing direction
Fabric type
Seam strength
N
Subsets
1
2
3
4
Warp samples
Cotton / Linen
12
161.95
-
-
-
Silk / Linen
12
-
192.28
-
-
Silk
12
-
-
227.28
-
Linen
12
-
-
231.68
231.68
Cotton
12
-
-
-
253.46

TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022 283
3.2. Seam efficiency
The seam efficiency was calculated using Equation (1),
which is used to measure the loss in fabric strength caused
by needle damage [27]. It is inversely proportional to fabric
tensile strength; the high fabric strength lowers the seam
efficiency. The highest seam efficiency both in weft
direction was observed at silk fabric (Figure 4), which had
lowest fabric weight (Table 1), as supporting the Cheng and
Poon’s (2002) [9] and Datta et al. (2017) research [10],
which were indicated that the high fabric weight increased
the fabric strength, which reduced the seam efficiency. In
order to determine the effects of sewing thread, sewing
needle and sewing direction parameters on seam efficiency,
the Independent Samples t-Tests were performed. The
sewing thread (p=0.451) and the sewing needle (p=0.495)
did not have statistically significant effect on seam
efficiency values.
In several researches, it was stated that, the high strength of
sewing thread as well as the high needle size increase the
seam efficiency [10, 12, 14, 19, 24]. This trend could be
seen in Figure 4 as well. The corespun polyester sewing
thread had higher sewing efficiency values, the exceptions
were observed for silk and silk/linen fabrics similar with
seam strength values. Moreover, seam efficiency values of
silk, silk/linen and cotton/linen fabrics in warp direction
were higher than those obtained in weft direction. It is
thought that this may be caused by the warp yarns of these
fabrics being thicker than the weft yarns. Vice versa, the
seam efficiency of silk/cotton fabric was higher in weft
direction where the yarn thickness of weft yarns was greater
than warp yarns.
3.3. Seam slippage
When a seam is stretched, separation of the interface line
between two sewn fabrics occurred, however if the slippage
is notable, it is considered as a sewing defect [8, 28]. Table
7 presents the seam slippage results of samples in both
warp and weft direction. According to the experimental
results, it can be said that the lightweight fabrics were tend
to cause seam slippage than others due to finer yarns used
in the fabric. The silk, silk/linen and silk/cotton fabrics had
similar seam slippage results on warp direction; the silk
yarns used were same 100/1 Ne in warp direction and also
the fabrics had similar warp yarn density.
Figure 4. Seam efficiency values for both warp and weft samples
Table 7. Seam slippage values
Fabric
type
Sewing needle*
Sewing thread*
Seam slippage
Weft
Warp
Silk
SN1
ST1
36
34.7
ST2
39
28
SN2
ST1
26
22
ST2
24.5
20.2
Linen
SN1
ST1
68
54.5
ST2
57
55
SN2
ST1
70.5
69
ST2
71
63
Cotton
SN1
ST1
47.5
57.8
ST2
52.7
59
SN2
ST1
51.5
64
ST2
63
69
Silk / Linen
SN1
ST1
46
32
ST2
53
36
SN2
ST1
52
46
ST2
45,5
36
Silk / Cotton
SN1
ST1
27
21
ST2
25
20,4
SN2
ST1
28.2
23
ST2
24.9
22
Cotton / Linen
SN1
ST1
45
39
ST2
39
30
SN2
ST1
51.3
38.5
ST2
34
31

284 TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022
Similar observations were obtained with Seif (2014) that
sewing needle size and sewing direction had significant
influence on seam slippage (Figure 5) [29]. Pasayev et al.
(2012) stated that the seam slippage values in the weft
direction were higher than the values in warp direction [52].
The general trend of the obtained results confirmed this
statement, however the cotton fabric had results in the
opposite way it is thought to be due to the warp and weft
density of the fabric.
3.4. Fabric sewability
The NPF was measured both in warp and weft direction to
determine the fabric sewability. The average values of NPF
and also the sewability values were presented at Table 8.
There is a defined range of sewability values as 0 to 10%
considered good, 10% to 20% considered fair (no great
difficulties arise during sewing) and more than 20%
considered poor [18, 48, 50, 53]. Regarding obtained data,
the sewability values of all fabrics were considered good,
only cotton fabric had highest values both warp and weft
directions as 3% (Table 8).
A good sewability requires low NPF values; a high NPF
may alert sewability problems [23]. As observed in the
Figure 6, the test results conducted with 90 Nm sewing
needle had higher NPF values than those conducted with 75
Nm sewing needle and regarding the statistical analysis,
sewing needle had statistically significant effects on NPF
values (p=0.002). This has been found in other studies as
well, carried out by Grancaric et al. (2005), Haghighat et al.
(2014) and Carvalho et al., (2020) [20, 48, 54].
Afterwards, the univariate analysis was applied to define
the effects of fabric type and sewing needle values and their
interactions on NPF. In Table 9, it can be seen that, the
fabric type (p=0.00) and sewing needle (p=0.00) had a
statistically significant effect for both warp and weft
samples. As stated by Bakıcı and Kadem (2015) and
Haghighat et al. (2014), the NPF of the fabrics increases
with the increase in fabric weight [48, 53]. In Table 8, the
lowest NPF values both in warp and weft direction were
observed for silk fabric, the lightest fabric (Table 1), which
means the needle passed though the silk yarns easily.
Additionally, the effect of the interaction of needle size and
fabric type also had a statistically significant effect for both
warp and weft samples (p=0.00). It is thought that, this
situation may be due to the fact that both fabric type and
sewing needle parameters were very dominant (obs. power
= 1).
Figure 5. The seam slippage values of weft and warp samples
Table 8. The NPF and the sewability values
Fabric type
Sewing needle
NPF
Sewability value (%)
Weft
Warp
Weft
Warp
Silk
75 Nm
4.67
5.00
0
0
90 Nm
15.00
12.33
0
0
Linen
75 Nm
15.67
12.67
0
0
90 Nm
27.00
20.67
1
0
Cotton
75 Nm
17.67
25.00
0
0
90 Nm
48.33
63.33
3
3
Silk / Linen
75 Nm
15.00
9.67
0
0
90 Nm
22.33
15.00
1
0
Silk / Cotton
75 Nm
17.33
15.33
1
0
90 Nm
15.00
6.67
0
0
Cotton / Linen
75 Nm
21.33
17.00
0
0
90 Nm
23.00
19.00
0
0
The threshold values:
Silk, Silk/Cotton and Silk/Linen = 50 gf
Linen, Cotton and Cotton/Linen=100gf

TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022 285
Figure 6. NPF values for both warp (left) and weft (right) samples
Table 9. The univariate analysis results
Sample direction
Source
F
Sig.
Observed power
Weft samples
Fabric type
12.485
0.00
1
Sewing needle
30.685
0.00
1
Fabric type * Sewing needle
6.955
0.00
0.992
Warp samples
Fabric type
71.722
0.00
1
Sewing needle
47.955
0.00
1
Fabric type * Sewing needle
26.019
0.00
1
Regarding the Duncan test results, three subsets were
formed for weft samples; whereas, four subsets were
formed for warp samples (Table 10). Similar with seam
strength values, some results overlapped here as well. Only
cotton fabric created a clear subset, the mean values of
cotton were obviously greater than the other fabrics. In both
warp and weft samples, the mean NPF values of fabrics
were in same order, from smallest to greatest silk,
silk/cotton, silk/linen, linen, cotton/linen and cotton.
4. CONCLUSION
Especially in last decades, the consumption cycle has
become very fast in the textile and fashion industry, which
is one of the oldest and largest industries in the world. The
increase in the awareness of consumers has led to an
increase in the importance given to sustainability. As a
result of this, the manufacturers has been directed to make
more sustainable production. In this context, the use of
traditionally produced fabrics from natural raw materials
attracts the attention of the textile and fashion industry.
Considering the increasing interest, the analysis of sewing
properties of Izmir region’s traditional fabrics produced
from natural fibres were carried out within the scope of this
study.
Based on this research the following conclusions can be
drawn out;
 The seam strength of 100% cotton and 100% linen
fabrics was higher than the others, it was relatively
lower in silk and silk-containing fabrics. Similar results
were obtained by Courtney LaPere (2006) and was
found out that the seam strength values of cotton fabric
were higher than silk fabric [37].
Table 10. Multiple comparisons of seam NPF values
Sample direction
Fabric type
NPF
N
Subsets
1
2
3
Weft samples
Silk
6
9.83
-
-
Silk / Cotton
6
16.17
16.17
-
Silk / Linen
6
-
18.67
-
Linen
6
-
21.33
-
Cotton / Linen
6
-
22.17
-
Cotton
6
-
-
33.00
Sample direction
Fabric type
NPF
N
Subsets
1
2
3
4
Warp samples
Silk
6
8.97
-
-
-
Silk / Cotton
6
11.00
-
-
-
Silk / Linen
6
12.33
12.33
-
-
Linen
6
-
16.67
16.67
-
Cotton / Linen
6
-
-
18.00
-
Cotton
6
-
-
-
44.17

286 TEKSTİL ve KONFEKSİYON 32(3), 2022
 As supporting the literature [10, 21, 26, 34, 51], the
polyester corespun sewing thread used samples mostly
had higher seam strength values than mercerised cotton
sewing thread, and it is thought this was due to polyester
corespun’s high yarn strength property.
 The yarn count, the fabric thickness and mass per unit
area properties of the fabrics were also found as
important parameters for sewing strength.
 The seam efficiency of silk fabric was higher than cotton
and linen fabrics and their blends in warp direction and
was similar with cotton in the weft direction. Beside
other parameters, this research proves the statement that,
the lower the fabric weight, the higher the seam
efficiency [9, 10].
 The higher seam efficiency results of the corespun
polyester sewing thread used samples support the
existing literature [10, 12, 14, 19, 24] that is, the high
strength of sewing thread as well as the high needle size
increase the seam efficiency.
 The use of different fabric types and sewing needles in
different sizes had significant effects on fabric
sewability. The NPF values of silk fabrics were the
lowest in both warp and weft directions, which also had
the lowest fabric weight; supporting the fact that the
increase in fabric weight increases the NPF [39, 44].
 Fabric properties, needle size and sewing direction had a
particular effect on seam slippage of a garment,
supporting the literature [29, 44].
 The results in the warp direction proved that there are
some differences with the weft direction, which can be
inferred as the fabric structure affects the behaviour of
the sewn fabrics.
In summary, in addition to the sewing needle size, sewing
thread and sewing direction parameters that important to
form a seam, it was obtained that the material and physical
properties of the fabrics are also effective on the sewing
properties, and this study contributed to the literature in this
direction. Based on the results given, the fabric properties
and the joining processes can be optimised for the products
to be produced from traditional fabrics. Future studies will
focus on conducting wide spectrum researches involving
other types of traditional fabrics and sewing parameters.
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