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The Effect of Functional Foods on Mood, Cognitive Function and Well-Being
Abstract
The concept of food as medicine is not new. The use of foods to prevent and/or treat certain diseases can be found in ancient drawings and writings. The most famous statement came from Hippocrates, who said “Let food be thy medicine.” It is the position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics to recognize that although all foods provide some level of physiological function, the term, “functional foods” is defined as whole foods along with fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods that have a potentially beneficial effect on health when consumed as part of a varied diet regularly at effective levels based on significant standards of evidence. The most prominent results indicated that high total intake of fruits and vegetables, and some of their specific subgroups including berries, citrus, and green leafy vegetables, may promote higher levels of optimism and self-efficacy, as well as reduce the level of psychological distress, ambiguity, and cancer fatalism, and protect against depressive symptoms. Flavonoids are a class of organic polyphenolic compounds found in varying concentrations in plant-based whole foods such as berries, tea, cocoa, soybeans, and grains. Recent studies suggest that flavonoids can be beneficial to both cognitive and physiological health. As such, long term chronic supplementation with flavonoids has been investigated extensively, particularly concerning cognitive ageing and related neurodegenerative disorders. Less attention has been given to the acute effect of flavonoids on cognitive outcomes, within the immediate 0–6 h post ingestion. Therefore, the general recommendation to consume at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables a day may be beneficial also for mental health. Immediate cognitive enhancement is often desirable in academic and work environments, such as during an exam or assessment. Besides, support a positive role for the nutrients EPA, DHA, magnesium, alpha-tocopherol, and folic acid, either alone or in combination with drugs, in the preservation of normal brain function and mental well-being. In this study, the effects of consumption of some functions on mood, cognitive function and mental health were investigated. Scientific findings support the combination of micro and macronutrients in a balanced and varied diet along with a healthy lifestyle for the maintenance of normal brain function, improvement of mental abilities, concentration, memory and alertness. Food components actively participate in the generation of nerve impulses by influencing neurotransmitters that activate different parts of the brain, thereby regulating our mental abilities, emotions and mood.
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A good nutritional status is important for maintaining normal body function and preventing or mitigating the dysfunction induced by internal or external factors. Nutritional deficiencies often result in impaired function, and, conversely, intakes at recommended levels can resume or further enhance body functions. An increasing number of studies are revealing that diet and nutrition are critical not only for physiology and body composition, but also have significant effects on mood and mental well-being. In particular, Western dietary habits have been the object of several research studies focusing on the relationship between nutrition and mental health. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge about the relationship between the intake of specific micro- and macronutrients, including eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, alpha-tocopherol, magnesium and folic acid, and mental health, with particular reference to their beneficial effect on stress, sleep disorders, anxiety, mild cognitive impairment, as well as on neuropsychiatric disorders, all significantly affecting the quality of life of an increasing number of people. Overall data support a positive role for the nutrients mentioned above in the preservation of normal brain function and mental well-being, also through the control of neuroinflammation, and encourage their integration in a well-balanced and varied diet, accompanied by a healthy lifestyle. This strategy is of particular importance when considering the global human aging and that the brain suffers significantly from the life-long impact of stress factors.
BACKGROUND
Consumption of flavonoids, natural compounds found in foods such as berries and cocoa, have been shown to be beneficial for cognitive function. However, less is known about potential mechanisms and acute benefits for the older population.
OBJECTIVE
To determine whether acute intake of flavonoid-rich blueberry could have beneficial effects on cognitive function in a sample of healthy older adults and identify possible mechanisms.
METHODS
A cross-over randomised controlled trial (RCT) was conducted (N = 18) with volunteers receiving a flavonoid-rich blueberry beverage (579mg of antho- and pro-cyanidins) on one visit and a sugar-matched control on another. Cognitive function was measured at baseline, 2 and 5 hours post consumption of the intervention and blood pressure (BP), arterial stiffness and plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) concentration at baseline and an hour post-intervention.
RESULTS
Whilst there was no significant effect of the intervention on global cognitive function, performance was significantly different at 2 compared to 5 hours following the control beverage ( p < 0.05), with a decline in performance relative to baseline at 2 hours, whereas cognitive function improved following the blueberry beverage at both post intervention time points. There was also a trend towards the blueberry beverage attenuating the increase in systolic BP evident following the control drink ( p = 0.08). Finally, there was a decrease in plasma concentration of BDNF post consumption of the control drink which was attenuated following the blueberry beverage, although not significantly ( p > 0.05).
CONCLUSIONS
A single dose of flavonoid-rich blueberry could have a potentially protective effect on cognitive function in healthy older adults, possibly due to improved cerebrovascular function and positive interactions with cell signalling pathways involved in cognitive processes.
Suboptimal nutrition has been implicated in the underlying pathology of behavioral health disorders and may impede treatment and recovery. Thus, optimizing nutritional status should be a treatment for these disorders and is likely important for prevention. The purpose of this narrative review is to describe the global burden and features of depression and anxiety, and summarize recent evidence regarding the role of diet and nutrition in the prevention and management of depression and anxiety. Current evidence suggests that healthy eating patterns that meet food-based dietary recommendations and nutrient requirements may assist in the prevention and treatment of depression and anxiety. Randomized controlled trials are needed to better understand how diet and nutrition-related biological mechanisms affect behavioral health disorders, to assist with the development of effective evidence-based nutrition interventions, to reduce the impact of these disorders, and promote well-being for affected individuals.
The role of a properly balanced diet in the prevention and treatment of mental disorders has been suggested, while vegetables and fruits have a high content of nutrients that may be of importance in the case of depressive disorders. The aim of the study was to conduct a systematic review of the observational studies analyzing association between fruit and vegetable intake and mental health in adults. The search adhered to the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), and the review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (CRD42019138148). A search for peer-reviewed observational studies published until June 2019 was performed in PubMed and Web of Science databases, followed by an additional manual search for publications conducted via analyzing the references of the found studies. With respect to the intake of fruit and/or vegetable, studies that assessed the intake of fruits and/or vegetables, or their processed products (e.g., juices), as a measure expressed in grams or as the number of portions were included. Those studies that assessed the general dietary patterns were not included in the present analysis. With respect to mental health, studies that assessed all the aspects of mental health in both healthy participants and subjects with physical health problems were included, but those conducted in groups of patients with intellectual disabilities, dementia, and eating disorders were excluded. To assess bias, the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was applied. A total of 5911 studies were independently extracted by 2 researchers and verified if they met the inclusion criteria using a 2-stage procedure (based on the title, based on the abstract). After reviewing the full text, a total of 61 studies were selected. A narrative synthesis of the findings from the included studies was performed, which was structured around the type of outcome. The studies included mainly focused on depression and depressive symptoms, but also other characteristics ranging from general and mental well-being, quality of life, sleep quality, life satisfaction, flourishing, mood, self-efficacy, curiosity, creativity, optimism, self-esteem, stress, nervousness, or happiness, to anxiety, minor psychiatric disorders, distress, or attempted suicide, were analyzed. The most prominent results indicated that high total intake of fruits and vegetables, and some of their specific subgroups including berries, citrus, and green leafy vegetables, may promote higher levels of optimism and self-efficacy, as well as reduce the level of psychological distress, ambiguity, and cancer fatalism, and protect against depressive symptoms. However, it must be indicated that the studies included were conducted using various methodologies and in different populations, so their results were not always sufficiently comparable, which is a limitation. Taken together, it can be concluded that fruits and/or vegetables, and some of their specific subgroups, as well as processed fruits and vegetables, seems to have a positive influence on mental health, as stated in the vast majority of the included studies. Therefore, the general recommendation to consume at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables a day may be beneficial also for mental health.
Background
Magnesium (Mg ²⁺ ) has received considerable attention with regards to its potential role in the pathophysiology of the mood disorders, but the available evidence seems inconclusive.
Aims
To review and quantitatively summarise the human literature on Mg ²⁺ intake and Mg ²⁺ blood levels in the mood disorders and the effects of Mg ²⁺ supplements on mood.
Method
Systematic review and meta-analyses.
Results
Adherence to a Mg ²⁺ -rich diet was negatively associated with depression in cross-sectional (odds ratio = 0.66) but not in prospective studies. Mg ²⁺ levels in bodily fluids were on average higher in patients with a mood disorder (Hedge's g = 0.19), but only in patients treated with antidepressants and/or mood stabilisers. There was no evident association between Mg ²⁺ levels and symptom severity. Mg ²⁺ supplementation was associated with a decline in depressive symptoms in uncontrolled ( g = −1.60) but not in placebo-controlled trials ( g = −0.21).
Conclusion
Our results provide little evidence for the involvement of Mg ²⁺ in the mood disorders.
Declaration of interest
None.
Mental illness, including depression, anxiety and bipolar disorder, accounts for a significant proportion of global disability and poses a substantial social, economic and heath burden. Treatment is presently dominated by pharmacotherapy, such as antidepressants, and psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavioural therapy; however, such treatments avert less than half of the disease burden, suggesting that additional strategies are needed to prevent and treat mental disorders. There are now consistent mechanistic, observational and interventional data to suggest diet quality may be a modifiable risk factor for mental illness. This review provides an overview of the nutritional psychiatry field. It includes a discussion of the neurobiological mechanisms likely modulated by diet, the use of dietary and nutraceutical interventions in mental disorders, and recommendations for further research. Potential biological pathways related to mental disorders include inflammation, oxidative stress, the gut microbiome, epigenetic modifications and neuroplasticity. Consistent epidemiological evidence, particularly for depression, suggests an association between measures of diet quality and mental health, across multiple populations and age groups; these do not appear to be explained by other demographic, lifestyle factors or reverse causality. Our recently published intervention trial provides preliminary clinical evidence that dietary interventions in clinically diagnosed populations are feasible and can provide significant clinical benefit. Furthermore, nutraceuticals including n -3 fatty acids, folate, S -adenosylmethionine, N -acetyl cysteine and probiotics, among others, are promising avenues for future research. Continued research is now required to investigate the efficacy of intervention studies in large cohorts and within clinically relevant populations, particularly in patients with schizophrenia, bipolar and anxiety disorders.
Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds found in varying concentrations in many plant-based foods. Recent studies suggest that flavonoids can be beneficial to both cognitive and physiological health. Long term flavonoid supplementation over a period of weeks or months has been extensively investigated and reviewed, particularly with respect to cognitive ageing and neurodegenerative disease. Significantly less focus has been directed towards the short term effects of single doses of flavonoids on cognition. Here, we review 21 such studies with particular emphasis on the subclass and dose of flavonoids administered, the cognitive domains affected by flavonoid supplementation, and the effect size of the response. The emerging evidence suggests that flavonoids may be beneficial to attention, working memory, and psychomotor processing speed in a general population. Episodic memory effects are less well defined and may be restricted to child or older adult populations. The evidence also points towards a dose-dependent effect of flavonoids, but the physiological mechanisms of action remain unclear. Overall, there is encouraging evidence that flavonoid supplementation can benefit cognitive outcomes within an acute time frame of 0–6 h. But larger studies, combining cognitive and physiological measures, are needed to strengthen the evidence base.
There have been few studies of whether vitamin D insufficiency is linked with depression in healthy young women despite women׳s high rates of both problems. Female undergraduates (n=185) living in the Pacific Northwest during fall, winter, and spring academic terms completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale weekly for 4 weeks (W1-W5). We measured serum levels of vitamin D3 and C (ascorbate; as a control variable) in blood samples collected at W1 and W5. Vitamin D insufficiency (<30ng/mL) was common at W1 (42%) and W5 (46%), and rates of clinically significant depressive symptoms (CES-D≥16) were 34-42% at W1-W5. Lower W1 vitamin D3 predicted clinically significant depressive symptoms across W1-W5 (β=-0.20, p<0.05), controlling for season, BMI, race/ethnicity, diet, exercise, and time outside. There was some evidence that lower levels of depressive symptoms in Fall participants (vs. Winter and Spring) were explained by their higher levels of vitamin D3. W1 depressive symptoms did not predict change in vitamin D3 levels from W1 to W5. Findings are consistent with a temporal association between low levels of vitamin D and clinically meaningful depressive symptoms. The preventive value of supplementation should be tested further.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Flavonoids and nitrate in a fruit and vegetable diet may be protective against cardiovascular disease and cognitive decline through effects on nitric oxide (NO) status. The circulating NO pool is increased via distinct pathways by dietary flavonoids and nitrate. Our aim was to investigate the acute effects of apples, rich in flavonoids, and spinach, rich in nitrate, independently and in combination on NO status, cognitive function and mood in a randomised, controlled, cross-over trial with healthy men and women (n = 30). The acute effects of four energy-matched treatments (control, apple, spinach and apple + spinach) were compared. Endpoints included plasma nitric oxide status (determined by measuring S-nitrosothiols + other nitroso species (RXNO)), plasma nitrate and nitrite, salivary nitrate and nitrite, urinary nitrate and nitrite as well as cognitive function (determined using the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) computerized cognitive assessment battery) and mood. Relative to control, all treatments resulted in higher plasma RXNO. A significant increase in plasma nitrate and nitrite, salivary nitrate and nitrite as well as urinary nitrate and nitrite was observed with spinach and apple + spinach compared to control. No significant effect was observed on cognitive function or mood. In conclusion, flavonoid-rich apples and nitrate-rich spinach augmented NO status acutely with no concomitant improvements or deterioration in cognitive function and mood.
The research field of fetal programming has developed tremendously over the years and increasing knowledge suggests that both maternal and paternal unbalanced diet can have long-lasting effects on the health of offspring. Studies implicate that macronutrients play an important role in fetal programming, although the importance of micronutrients is also becoming increasingly apparent. Folic acid and vitamins B2, B6 and B12 are essential for one-carbon metabolism and are involved in DNA methylation. They can therefore influence the programming of the offspring's epigenome. Also, other micronutrients such as vitamins A and C, iron, chromium, zinc and flavonoids play a role in fetal programming. Since it is estimated that approximately 78 % of pregnant women in the US take vitamin supplements during pregnancy, more attention should be given to the long-term effects of these supplements on offspring. In this review we address several different studies which illustrate that an unbalanced diet prior and during pregnancy, regarding the intake of micronutrients of both mother and father, can have long-lasting effects on the health of adult offspring.
Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), especially DHA (docosahexaenonic acid) are essential for brain development and physical health. Low blood Omega-3 LC-PUFA have been reported in children with ADHD and related behavior/learning difficulties, as have benefits from dietary supplementation. Little is known, however, about blood fatty acid status in the general child population. We therefore investigated this in relation to age-standardized measures of behavior and cognition in a representative sample of children from mainstream schools.493 schoolchildren aged 7-9 years from mainstream Oxfordshire schools, selected for below average reading performance in national assessments at age seven.Whole blood fatty acids were obtained via fingerstick samples. Reading and working memory were assessed using the British Ability Scales (II). Behaviour (ADHD-type symptoms) was rated using the revised Conners' rating scales (long parent and teacher versions). Associations were examined and adjusted for relevant demographic variables.DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), accounted for only 1.9% and 0.55% respectively of total blood fatty acids, with DHA showing more individual variation. Controlling for sex and socio-economic status, lower DHA concentrations were associated with poorer reading ability (std. OLS coeff. = 0.09, p
Zinc is an essential micronutrient with diverse biological roles in cell growth, apoptosis and metabolism, and in the regulation of endocrine, immune, and neuronal functions implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. This study sought to quantitatively summarize the clinical data comparing peripheral blood zinc concentrations between depressed and nondepressed subjects.
PubMed, Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, and PsycINFO were searched for original peer-reviewed studies (to June 2012) measuring zinc concentrations in serum or plasma from depressed subjects (identified by either screening or clinical criteria) and nondepressed control subjects. Mean (±SD) zinc concentrations were extracted, combined quantitatively in random-effects meta-analysis, and summarized as a weighted mean difference (WMD).
Seventeen studies, measuring peripheral blood zinc concentrations in 1643 depressed and 804 control subjects, were included. Zinc concentrations were approximately -1.85 µmol/L lower in depressed subjects than control subjects (95% confidence interval: [CI]: -2.51 to -1.19 µmol/L, Z17 = 5.45, p < .00001). Heterogeneity was detected (χ(2)17 = 142.81, p < .00001, I(2) = 88%) and explored; in studies that quantified depressive symptoms, greater depression severity was associated with greater relative zinc deficiency (B = -1.503, t9 = -2.82, p = .026). Effect sizes were numerically larger in studies of inpatients (WMD -2.543, 95% CI: -3.522 to -1.564, Z9 = 5.09, p < .0001) versus community samples (WMD -.943, 95% CI: -1.563 to -.323, Z7 = 2.98, p = .003) and in studies of higher methodological quality (WMD -2.354, 95% CI: -2.901 to -1.807, Z7 = 8.43, p < .0001).
Depression is associated with a lower concentration of zinc in peripheral blood. The pathophysiological relationships between zinc status and depression, and the potential benefits of zinc supplementation in depressed patients, warrant further investigation.
The intention of this short overview is to contribute to a better understanding of the physiological effects of the coffee,
cacao and tea phenolics to human health. The paper gives a short description of the principle phenolic compounds present in
each of the food stuffs, their intake, summarises the data available on their bioavailability and metabolism and gives finally
a short resume of their beneficial effects in biological systems in vitro, in animals, and in humans.
Ziel dieser kurzen Übersicht ist es, zum besseren Verständnis der physiologischen Effekte der phenolischen Verbindungen von
Kaffee, Kakao und Tee auf die menschliche Gesundheit beizutragen. Dazu werden die hauptsächlichen phenolischen Bestandteile
in jedem dieser Lebensmittel beschrieben sowie deren Aufnahme. Es werden die verfügbaren Daten über die Bioverfügbarkeit vorgestellt
und die positiven Effekte in biologischen Systemen in vitro, im Tierversuch und im Menschen diskutiert.
Objective:
To investigate whether high doses of folic acid supplementation in early pregnancy are associated with child neurodevelopment at 18 months of age.
Design:
The study uses data from the prospective mother-child cohort 'Rhea' study. Pregnant women completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire on folic acid supplementation at 14-18 weeks of gestation. Neurodevelopment at 18 months was assessed with the use of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (3rd edition). Red-blood-cell folate concentrations in cord blood were measured in a sub-sample of the study population (n 58).
Setting:
Heraklion, Crete, Greece, 2007-2010.
Subjects:
Five hundred and fifty-three mother-child pairs participating in the 'Rhea' cohort.
Results:
Sixty-eight per cent of the study participants reported high doses of supplemental folic acid use (5 mg/d), while 24 % reported excessive doses of folic acid (>5 mg/d) in early pregnancy. Compared with non-users, daily intake of 5 mg supplemental folic acid was associated with a 5-unit increase on the scale of receptive communication and a 3·5-unit increase on the scale of expressive communication. Doses of folic acid supplementation higher than 5 mg/d were not associated with additional increase in the neurodevelopmental scales.
Conclusions:
This is the first prospective study showing that high doses of supplementary folic acid in early pregnancy may be associated with enhanced vocabulary development, communicational skills and verbal comprehension at 18 months of age. Additional longitudinal studies and trials are needed to confirm these results.
Tyrosine hydroxylase is the rate-limiting enzyme of catecholamine biosynthesis; it uses tetrahydrobiopterin and molecular oxygen to convert tyrosine to DOPA. Its amino terminal 150 amino acids comprise a domain whose structure is involved in regulating the enzyme's activity. Modes of regulation include phosphorylation by multiple kinases at four different serine residues, and dephosphorylation by two phosphatases. The enzyme is inhibited in feedback fashion by the catecholamine neurotransmitters. Dopamine binds to TyrH competitively with tetrahydrobiopterin, and interacts with the R domain. TyrH activity is modulated by protein-protein interactions with enzymes in the same pathway or the tetrahydrobiopterin pathway, structural proteins considered to be chaperones that mediate the neuron's oxidative state, and the protein that transfers dopamine into secretory vesicles. TyrH is modified in the presence of NO, resulting in nitration of tyrosine residues and the glutathionylation of cysteine residues.
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) plays an important role in neural function. Decreases in plasma DHA are associated with cognitive decline in healthy elderly adults and in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Higher DHA intake is inversely correlated with relative risk of Alzheimer's disease. The potential benefits of DHA supplementation in age-related cognitive decline (ARCD) have not been fully examined.
Determine effects of DHA administration on improving cognitive functions in healthy older adults with ARCD.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical study was conducted at 19 U.S. clinical sites. A total of 485 healthy subjects, aged ≥55 with Mini-Mental State Examination >26 and a Logical Memory (Wechsler Memory Scale III) baseline score ≥1 standard deviation below younger adults, were randomly assigned to 900 mg/d of DHA orally or matching placebo for 24 weeks. The primary outcome was the CANTAB Paired Associate Learning (PAL), a visuospatial learning and episodic memory test.
Intention-to-treat analysis demonstrated significantly fewer PAL six pattern errors with DHA versus placebo at 24 weeks (difference score, -1.63 ± 0.76 [-3.1, -0.14, 95% CI], P = .03). DHA supplementation was also associated with improved immediate and delayed Verbal Recognition Memory scores (P < .02), but not working memory or executive function tests. Plasma DHA levels doubled and correlated with improved PAL scores (P < .02) in the DHA group. DHA was well tolerated with no reported treatment-related serious adverse events.
Twenty-four week supplementation with 900 mg/d DHA improved learning and memory function in ARCD and is a beneficial supplement that supports cognitive health with aging.
Clinicaltrials.gov, Identifier: NCT0027813.
Does it matter what we eat for our mental health? Accumulating data suggests that this may indeed be the case and that diet and nutrition are not only critical for human physiology and body composition, but also have significant effects on mood and mental wellbeing. While the determining factors of mental health are complex, increasing evidence indicates a strong association between a poor diet and the exacerbation of mood disorders, including anxiety and depression, as well as other neuropsychiatric conditions. There are common beliefs about the health effects of certain foods that are not supported by solid evidence and the scientific evidence demonstrating the unequivocal link between nutrition and mental health is only beginning to emerge. Current epidemiological data on nutrition and mental health do not provide information about causality or underlying mechanisms. Future studies should focus on elucidating mechanism. Randomized controlled trials should be of high quality, adequately powered and geared towards the advancement of knowledge from population-based observations towards personalized nutrition. Here, we provide an overview of the emerging field of nutritional psychiatry, exploring the scientific evidence exemplifying the importance of a well-balanced diet for mental health. We conclude that an experimental medicine approach and a mechanistic understanding is required to provide solid evidence on which future policies on diet and nutrition for mental health can be based.
This chapter will introduce the concept that nutritional factors before birth impact disease risk in later life. Evidence from epidemiologic and experimental studies demonstrates that variation in nutrition during fetal development exerts a programming effect on tissue development and metabolic/physiological status in adult life. These programming effects have profound implications for the attainment of metabolic phenotypes that promote the development of the metabolic syndrome and associated disease outcomes. There is growing evidence of interactions between the genotype and indicators of fetal growth and nutrition in determining this disease risk phenotype. For example, a well-characterized association between low birth weight and risk of type 2 diabetes in adult life is dependent on the pro12ala polymorphism of the peroxisome proliferators activated receptor γ 2. Similarly, the established association between the Bsm1 polymorphism of the vitamin D receptor and degenerative disease of bone appears to be modified by fetal growth-related factors. In considering how this knowledge might be applied to the development of personalized nutrition, the identification of simple markers of nutritionally programmed disease phenotypes may be an important adjunct to screening for genotypic biomarkers. The development of sensitive biomarkers of programmed events using nutrigenomics approaches should be an important priority for future research in the metabolic programming field.
A plausible mechanism underlying flavonoid-associated cognitive effects is increased cerebral blood flow (CBF). However, behavioural and CBF effects following flavanone-rich juice consumption have not been explored. The aim of this study was to investigate whether consumption of flavanone-rich juice is associated with acute cognitive benefits and increased regional CBF in healthy, young adults. An acute, single-blind, randomised, cross-over design was applied with two 500-ml drink conditions – high-flavanone (HF; 70·5 mg) drink and an energy-, and vitamin C- matched, zero-flavanone control. A total of twenty-four healthy young adults aged 18–30 years underwent cognitive testing at baseline and 2-h after drink consumption. A further sixteen, healthy, young adults were recruited for functional MRI assessment, whereby CBF was measured with arterial spin labelling during conscious resting state at baseline as well as 2 and 5 h after drink consumption. The HF drink was associated with significantly increased regional perfusion in the inferior and middle right frontal gyrus at 2 h relative to baseline and the control drink. In addition, the HF drink was associated with significantly improved performance on the Digit Symbol Substitution Test at 2 h relative to baseline and the control drink, but no effects were observed on any other behavioural cognitive tests. These results demonstrate that consumption of flavanone-rich citrus juice in quantities commonly consumed can acutely enhance blood flow to the brain in healthy, young adults. However, further studies are required to establish a direct causal link between increased CBF and enhanced behavioural outcomes following citrus juice ingestion.
Emerging evidence suggests a positive association of diet and obesity with depression. Researchers have examined several diet-mood hypotheses, including investigating the extent to which carbohydrates may impact mood. There is limited research on how glycemic load, a characteristic of carbohydrates, impacts mood in healthy adults. Eighty-two healthy weight and overweight/obese, but otherwise healthy, adults enrolled in a randomized, crossover controlled feeding study testing low-compared to high-glycemic load diets. All participants completed self-report mood and energy level questionnaires during each arm of the intervention. Diets were isocaloric and were matched by macronutrient content as a percent of total energy. Mood was assessed with the Profile of Mood States (POMS) subscales; tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, anger-hostility, vigor-activity, fatigue-inertia, and confusion-bewilderment, total mood disturbance (TMD), and negative affect (NA) in addition to the Center for Epidemiological Studies – Depression (CES-D) scale at baseline and end of both 28-day feeding periods. Linear mixed models tested the intervention effect on mood, controlling for baseline POMS and CES-D scores, diet type, diet sequence, feeding period, sex, and percent body fat classification. The consumption of the high-glycemic load diet resulted in a 38% higher score for depressive symptoms on the CES-D (P = 0.002) compared to the low-glycemic load diet as well as 55% higher score for TMD (P = 0.05), and 26% higher score for fatigue/inertia (P = 0.04). In subgroup analyses, the overweight/obese participants had 40% higher scores on the CES-D scale compared to healthy weight participants (P = 0.05). In conclusion, a high-glycemic load diet was associated with higher depression symptoms, total mood disturbance, and fatigue compared to a low-glycemic load diet especially in overweight/obese, but otherwise healthy, adults.
Affective disorders (depression) are considered as chronic illnesses leading to substantial disability, morbidity and mortality. While the etiology and pathophysiology of these diseases are still poorly recognized, the most important problems concerning them are low treatment response, treatment resistance and/or tolerance and risk of relapse. Recently published review articles have already demonstrated the important role of zinc in the pathophysiology and treatment of affective disorders, plus discussed the potential value of zinc as a marker of these diseases. This present concise review will update the experimental and clinical data on the antidepressant activity of zinc and focus on the mechanisms of its action. The mechanisms involving NMDA and AMPA glutamate, 5-HT1A serotonin and the GPR39 zinc-sensing receptor and intracellular pathways will be discussed.
Copyright © 2015 Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
It is the position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (the Academy) that dietary fat for the healthy adult population should provide 20% to 35% of energy, with an increased consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and limited intake of saturated and trans fats. The Academy recommends a food-based approach through a diet that includes regular consumption of fatty fish, nuts and seeds, lean meats and poultry, low-fat dairy products, vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes. These recommendations are made within the context of rapidly evolving science delineating the influence of dietary fat and specific fatty acids on human health. In addition to fat as a valuable and calorically dense macronutrient with a central role in supplying essential nutrition and supporting healthy body weight, evidence on individual fatty acids and fatty acid groups is emerging as a key factor in nutrition and health. Small variations in the structure of fatty acids within broader categories of fatty acids, such as polyunsaturated and saturated, appear to elicit different physiological functions. The Academy recognizes that scientific knowledge about the effects of dietary fats on human health is young and takes a prudent approach in recommending an increase in fatty acids that benefit health and a reduction in fatty acids shown to increase risk of disease. Registered dietitian nutritionists are uniquely positioned to translate fat and fatty acid research into practical and effective dietary recommendations.
The very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (C18–C22) and n-3 Omega PUFAs are apparently widely accepted as a part of modern nutrition because of their beneficial effects on metabolism. Most significantly, the reported protective effect of the n-3 omega fatty acids in relation to cardiovascular inflammatory diseases and cancer has led people to consider these fatty acids more beneficial than other dietary supplements. Unfortunately, there is a lack of studies relating to the physical performance increasing effect in sports diets, cholesterol-reducing effect in meat technology, effects on human serum profile, the application dose and the side effects with/without omega-6 PUFAs, which has left us with several crucial unanswered questions. We still do not know the correct dose of n-3 omega and the correct ratio of n-3 omega to n-6 omega or their possible contraindications when combined with drugs, other foods and herbal supplements. Another reported aspect of n-3 omega PUFAs is that they protect and even enhance the effect in medical treatment of important diseases such as Alzheimer’s, multiple sclerosis and cancer. These reports led to PUFAs becoming one of the most accepted and consumed food supplements. Despite this weight of evidence and the considerable current use, there is still a need for studies, which will determine whether the n-3 omega fatty acids are in fact important functional supplements with no adverse effects. This review will attempt to outline the current position of n-3 omega fatty acids in the field of clinical nutrition and healthcare and outline the studies needed to determine whether there are significant advantages in taking them as food supplement without any adverse effects.
Reflecting increased scientific interest in any nutritional contribution to the onset and treatment of mood disorders, we overview research into two neurotransmitter precursors - the amino acids tryptophan and tyrosine - particularly examining whether any deficiency increases risk to depression and whether those amino acids have any antidepressant properties.
The theoretical relevance of the two amino acids was overviewed by considering published risk and intervention studies, technical papers and reviews.
There is some limited evidence, suggesting that depressed patients, especially those with a melancholic depression, have decreased tryptophan levels. Whether such findings reflect a causal contribution or are a consequence of a depressed state remains an open question. There is a small database supporting tryptophan preparations as benefitting depressed mood states. There is no clear evidence as to whether tyrosine deficiency contributes to depression, while the only randomized double-blind study examining tyrosine supplementation did not show antidepressant benefit.
Acute tryptophan depletion continues to provide a research tool for investigating the relevance of serotonin to depression onset. There is limited evidence that tryptophan loading is effective as a treatment for depression through its action of increasing serotonin production. Most clinical studies are dated, involve small sample sizes and/or were not placebo controlled. The development of the new serotonin reuptake inhibitor drugs seemingly signalled an end to pursuing such means of promoting increased serotonin as a treatment for depression. The evidence for tyrosine loading promoting catecholamine production as a possible treatment for depression appears even less promising, and depletion studies less informative.
Caffeine ranks as one of the top most commonly consumed dietary ingredients throughout the world. It is naturally found in coffee beans, cacao beans, kola nuts, guarana berries, and tea leaves including yerba mate. The total daily intake, as well as the major source of caffeine varies globally; however, coffee and tea are the 2 most prominent sources. Soft drinks are also a common source of caffeine as well as energy drinks, a category of functional beverages. Moderate caffeine consumption is considered safe and its use as a food ingredient has been approved, within certain limits, by numerous regulatory agencies around the world. Performance benefits attributed to caffeine include physical endurance, reduction of fatigue, and enhancing mental alertness and concentration. Caffeine has also been recently linked to weight loss and consequent reduction of the overall risks for developing the metabolic syndrome. However, the caloric contribution of caffeine-sweetened beverages needs to be considered in the overall energy balance. Despite all these benefits the potential negative effects of excessive caffeine intake should also be considered, particularly in children and pregnant women.
Very low-carbohydrate (LC) diets are often used to promote weight loss, but the long-term effects on psychological function remain unknown.
A total of 106 overweight and obese participants (mean [SE] age, 50.0 [0.8] years; mean [SE] body mass index [calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared], 33.7 [0.4]) were randomly assigned either to an energy-restricted (approximately 1433-1672 kcal [to convert to kilojoules, multiply by 4.186]), planned isocaloric, very low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LC) diet or to a high-carbohydrate, low-fat (LF) diet for 1 year. Changes in body weight, psychological mood and well-being (Profile of Mood States, Beck Depression Inventory, and Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory scores), and cognitive functioning (working memory and speed of processing) were assessed.
By 1 year, the overall mean (SE) weight loss was 13.7 (1.8) kg, with no significant difference between groups (P = .26). Over the course of the study, there were significant time x diet interactions for Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory, and Profile of Mood States scores for total mood disturbance, anger-hostility, confusion-bewilderment, and depression-dejection (P < .05) as a result of greater improvements in these psychological mood states for the LF diet compared with the LC diet. Working memory improved by 1 year (P < .001 for time), but speed of processing remained largely unchanged, with no effect of diet composition on either cognitive domain.
Over 1 year, there was a favorable effect of an energy-restricted LF diet compared with an isocaloric LC diet on mood state and affect in overweight and obese individuals. Both diets had similar effects on working memory and speed of processing. Trial Registration anzctr.org.au Identifier: 12606000203550.
Chocolate consumption has long been associated with enjoyment and pleasure. Popular claims confer on chocolate the properties of being a stimulant, relaxant, euphoriant, aphrodisiac, tonic and antidepressant. The last claim stimulated this review.
We review chocolate's properties and the principal hypotheses addressing its claimed mood altering propensities. We distinguish between food craving and emotional eating, consider their psycho-physiological underpinnings, and examine the likely 'positioning' of any effect of chocolate to each concept.
Chocolate can provide its own hedonistic reward by satisfying cravings but, when consumed as a comfort eating or emotional eating strategy, is more likely to be associated with prolongation rather than cessation of a dysphoric mood.
This review focuses primarily on clarifying the possibility that, for some people, chocolate consumption may act as an antidepressant self-medication strategy and the processes by which this may occur.
Any mood benefits of chocolate consumption are ephemeral.
This review, intended for a broad scientific readership, summarizes evidence relevant to whether a causal relation exists between dietary iron deficiency with (ID+A) or without (ID-A) anemia during development and deficits in subsequent cognitive or behavioral performance. An overview of expert opinion and major evidence in humans and animals is provided. Cognitive and behavioral effects observed in humans with ID-A and in animals with ID+/-A are provided in tables. The degree to which 5 conditions of causality are satisfied and whether deleterious effects of ID-A might be expected to occur are discussed. On the basis of the existing literature, our major conclusions are as follows. Although most of the 5 conditions of causality (association, plausible biological mechanisms, dose response, ability to manipulate the effect, and specificity of cause and effect) are partially satisfied in humans, animals, or both, a causal connection has not been clearly established. In animals, deficits in motor activity are consistently associated with severe ID+A, but adverse effects on performance in tests that target cognitive function have not been clearly shown. Resistance to iron treatment was observed in most trials of children <2 y of age with ID+A, but not in older children. Similar observations were made in rodents when ID+A occurred before rather than after weaning. In children >2 y of age and in adolescents with ID-A, evidence suggests cognitive or behavioral deficits; however, the surprisingly small number of studies conducted in either humans or animals prevents a thorough assessment.
In animals, dendritic arborization and levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor are positively associated with intake of the omega-3 fatty acids. Here, we test whether omega-3 fatty acid intake in humans varies with individual differences in gray matter volume, an in vivo, systems-level index of neuronal integrity.
Fifty-five healthy adults completed two 24h dietary recall interviews. Intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids was categorized by tertiles. Regional gray matter volumes in a putative emotional brain circuitry comprised of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), amygdala and hippocampus were calculated using optimized voxel-based morphometry on high-resolution structural magnetic resonance images.
Region of interest analyses revealed positive associations between reported dietary omega-3 intake and gray matter volume in the subgenual ACC, the right hippocampus and the right amygdala, adjusted for total gray matter volume of brain. Unconstrained whole-brain analyses confirmed that higher intake of omega-3 fatty acids was selectively associated with increased greater gray matter volume in these and not other regions.
Higher reported consumption of the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids is associated with greater gray matter volume in nodes of a corticolimbic circuitry supporting emotional arousal and regulation. Such associations may mediate previously observed effects of omega-3 fatty acids on memory, mood and affect regulation.
Brain food: How nutrition alters our mood and behaviour. Hrana u zdravlju i bolesti: znanstveno-stručni časopis za nutricionizam i dijetetiku
- Vukoje I Mandić
Nourish - Carbohydrates Fuel Your Brain. The Franklin Institute Online
- N C Coimbra
Magnesiumand depression: a systematic review
- M L Derom
- C Sayon-Orea
- J M Martinez-Ortega
- Derom
Impact of calcium and magnesium dietary changes on women pain and discomfort from premenstrual syndrome at the Faculty of Pharmacy-Gaza Strip
- N A Ghalwa
- R A Qedra
- K Wahedy
Efficacy of adding nutritional supplements in unipolar depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- C Schefft
- L L Kilarski
- T Bschor
- Schefft