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53
Jurnal Littera: Fakultas Sastra Darma Agung Volume 1, Nomor 1, 2021 (April) ; 53 - 64
THE COMPLEXITY OF READING COMPREHENSION PROCESSES:
A REVIEW FROM READER, TEXT, AND COGNITIVE PROCESS PERSPECTIVES
By:
Magdalena Br Marpaung 1)
Humiras Betty M. Sihombing 2)
Universitas Darma Agung 1,2)
E-mail:
marpmaqdie@gmail.com 1)
bettysihombing1807@gmail.com 2)
ABSTRACT
This is a review of reading comprehension theories from published articles. This theoretical
review differs its content by showing reading complexities which is viewed from the
perspective of its readers, text’s, and cognitive process. Readers individual differences are
highly affect reading comprehension process as it can be also the source of its complexity by
the factors of attitude, habit, and linguistics proficiency (Cassanave: 1988, Mcmaster: K.L.,
Espin, C.A., Van den Broek: 2014). On the other side, texts as the mediator of reader and
writer interaction in reading process as also play an important factor in turning reading to be
complex process, genre, content, format, and degree of difficulty are sub-factors that affect
the complexity of reading in readers mind (Mcmaster, K.L., Espin, C.S., Van den broek;
2014). However, as the motor of reading process, cognitive activities are also play its
important role started from decoding, translation, schemata, questioning, and metacognition
process are closely affect reading comprehension process. As mainly composed from
published article, this review focus to articles which are published on the year of 2000 and
above but for a better result of reviews this theoretical review is taken Cassanave research
result which was published on 1988 and Van den Broek research result which was published
on 1999.
Keywords: Reading, Complexity
INTRODUCTION
In relation to its nature, questioning the real
process in reader’s mind during reading is
difficult to be answered satisfactorily; either
linguistically or cognitively (M. Marpaung;
2011, Ngabut M.N: 2015, P. Kendeou:
2014), as it interrelates factors of text
complexity, reader individual differences,
and their interaction to the nature of
cognitive process (Cassanave: 1988). What
are there in readers while reading and how
are they interrelated one to another in the
process of reading are the further questions
after what is happening in reader’s mind
during reading. Theories in researches
findings are delivered in several decades as
experts in its field have tried to capture the
mysterious things of reading in many
models of process which is conceptually
various as cognitive (Gough: 1972,
Goodman: 1980, Rumelhart: 1988,Smith;
1973, in Ngabut M.N; 2015) and
Constructivist (Van Den Sandford and
Garrod: 1981 and 1998). Various model of
reading processes are introduced such as the
approaches of bottom-up, top-down, and
interactive, then the second generation of
reading researches had introduced
Landscape theory and
Construction-integration, and finally the
later current reading researches had
introduced the situation model, event-
indexing, scenario mapping, and immersed
experience framework.
54
THE COMPLEXITY OF READING COMPREHENSION PROCESSES:
A REVIEW FROM READER, TEXT, AND COGNITIVE PROCESS PERSPECTIVES
Magdalena Br Marpaung 1) , Humiras Betty M. Sihombing 2)
The complexity of reading process is not
only derived from the perspective of
thinking processes, as a learned language
skill began from the early age, reading is
also impacted by reader’s environmental
factors and his individual characteristics
(Cassanave: 1988, Mcmaster: K.L., Espin,
C.A., Van den Broek: 2014). These two
factors are directly impacted the cognitive
process of reading comprehension. It is even
harder for the English as a Foreign
Language learners (EFL), as it was reported
that reading attitude of EFL learners in
private college are various due to the
environmental factors of major/ study
program, parents’ education level, either
their financial income rate (Marpaung, M:
2020a). It was also reported various due to
EFL learners gender. Next, similar to the
previous report, reading habit is also
reported various in EFL learners due to its
factors of reading attitude, first language
reading habit, and second language reading
proficiency. The report said that second
language reading habit is highly been
impacted by second language reading
proficiency rather than reader’s L1 reading
habit and reading attitude (Marpaung, M:
2020b). Both of reading attitude and reading
habit are parts of the reader’s environmental
factors (Mcmaster, KL., Espin, C.S., Van
den Broek: 2014).
In this article, the review is mainly focus to
(1) review the complexity of reading
comprehension process and supporting it by
showing the records of cognitive models of
reading started from the latest to the current
researches, (2) review the reader’s
environmental factors and their related
researches which is impacted the complexity
of reading process, and (3) review the
individual differences of readers and how
related researches show the impacts to the
complexity of reading process. This article
expected fits the questions of how the
process of reading comprehension can be
very complex as its complexity often
become obstacles for the EFL learners
reading activities and how this reality also
often confused teacher and researchers of
reading and linguistics field of study. As it is
in the question of what makes reading
become a complex process? And the
following are three parts of reading process
which is believed as the source of its
complexities; (1) reader perspective, (2) text
perspective, and (3) the cognitive process
perspective.
Figure 1. An Introduction to Reading Complexity
Form
Text Complexity
Content
Readers’ Complexity
Degree of
Difficulty
Environmental Factors
Reading
Complexity
Cognition
Good
Reader
Process Complexity
Metacognition
Motivational
Components
Models
Comprehension Skills
Poor
Reader
Interest
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Jurnal Littera: Fakultas Sastra Darma Agung Volume 1, Nomor 1, 2021 (April) ; 53 - 64
THEORIES OVERVIEW
A.
The complexity of reading process
from readers perspective
The first orientation to define the
complexities of reading process is reader
side. There are many researches proved
reader’s has their own characteristics which
are individually different one to another. In
building the a coherent mental
representation, a reader is affected by two
factors (1) environmental factors and (2)
psychological factors (Pecjak, S., Podlesek,
A., Pirc T ; 2011). Environmental factors
also can be defined as a nurturing factors as
it is picturing treatments accepted in the
early ages of a reader which can be divided
into two big condition of (1) family
environment and (2) school environment.
These two environment are believed
contributed highly in reader’s reading ability
in the mature age as it is contributed in
school such as the way the teacher instructed
reading and writing activities, how the
teacher proceed idea in the classroom, and
how the teacher make persuasion in reading
activities, either family environments are
also contributed highly such as how parents
accompany children in their reading
activities, the availability of books or even
mini libraries at home, how often parents let
children accepting books as a gift, and how
often did children saw their parents do
reading activity. Next, psychologically,
readers are defined by their degree of ability
in cognitive, metacognition, motivational,
and emotional. Cognitive is defined as the
center processor of the thinking process in
reading, as it is also defined as the working
memory capacity which is classified into
high working memory capacity and low
working memory capacity (Bohn-Gettler &
Kendeou: 2014). Metacognition is defined
as an assessor of thinking process
(Cassanave: 1988), it is the center of
evaluation of thinking process; a part which
is thinking the think in reader’s mind.
Motivation defined as a desire and as a
satisfaction in an experience that support
someone’s effort in learning, doing, and
striving something (Nezhad, A.Z. et al:
2015), and emotional is defined as a feeling
which conduct reader’s perception in
reading; accepting or rejecting the process.
Another sources mention reader’s
characteristics into 5 (five), they are (1)
decoding, (2) Comprehension skills, (3)
motivation, (4) interest, and (5) goals for
reading (Mcmaster, K.L., Espin, C.S., Van
den broek: 2014). Further, reader’s
characteristics are also explained into (1)
ability functioning perception and cognitive
skills, (2) knowledge of the language used,
(3) Prior knowledge or experience, and (4)
motivation, purpose, interest (Cassanave:
1988). Decoding is the initial eye working of
analyzing printed words which is aimed
deriving meaning from it (Cassanave: 1988).
Decoding is also defined as a process after
perception by the eyes (Aryadous V: 2015).
Comprehension skills is defined as readers’
language proficiency in reading. Reading
proficiency is defined into skills and
strategies in reading, text types ability and
knowledge of the language, metacognitive
working, and level of vocabulary (Marpaung
M: 2020b). Interest is defined as the
emotional to the activity of reading. Interest
is a part of habit which is mainly structured
into frequency and preference(interest) in
reading (Marpaung M: 2020b). The last,
Goals for reading is noted important in the
students success in reading. A source
mentioned it as a purpose of reading
(Ngabut, M.N: 2015) as she reviewed
reading purposes into four those are
skimming, scanning, intensive, and critical
reading (Clarke & Silberstein, 1979;
Greenwood 1981; Grellet 1987).
Moreover, the complexity of reading
comprehension processes which is oriented
to the readers classified readers into two;
good readers and poor readers; by the
following characteristics of a good reader
such as (1) directed by a purpose, (2) easily
to be concentrated, (3) comprehend the
content of the text, (4) remember what has
been read, (5) has a sufficient vocabulary,
56
THE COMPLEXITY OF READING COMPREHENSION PROCESSES:
A REVIEW FROM READER, TEXT, AND COGNITIVE PROCESS PERSPECTIVES
Magdalena Br Marpaung 1) , Humiras Betty M. Sihombing 2)
(6) read rapidly (Berg 1971; Hosenfeld 1984
in Cassanave 1988), and poor reader such as
(1)
lack of practice, (2) insufficient
vocabulary, (3) unable to concentrate, (4)
and reading slowly (it can be fast but will
miss some important detail information), (5)
a poor reader also comes from a bad habit of
reading (Berg 1971; Swan 1975 in
Cassanave 1988). Thus, reader’s
characteristics clearly contributed to the
complexity of reading processes as it
impacted the process by two main
characteristics of environmental and
psychological factors, and by other source
mention five reader’s characteristics such as
decoding, comprehension skills, motivation,
interest, and goals of reading. These
characteristics is classified reader into two
of good reader and poor reader with their
each different characteristics. The following
table is another form of explanation of
reading processes complexity viewed from
reader’s characteristics.
No
Reader’s
Characteristics
Good Reader
Poor Reader
1
Environmental
Factors
(1)
School
Environment
(2)
Family
Environment
(Pecjak, S et al:
2011)
A good reader comes from:
1. Good teacher’s instruction
in reading and writing
activities
2. High persuasion in reading
and writing activities
3. Clear idea delivery in
reading class activity.
4. Good parental guidance in
reading activity at home
5. Good availability of book/
reading facility at home
6. Good parents performance
in reading activity
A poor reader comes from:
1. Poor teacher’s instruction in
reading and writing activities
in class.
2. Low persuasion in reading
and writing activities.
3. Ambiguous idea delivery in
reading class activity
4. Lack of parental guidance in
reading activity at home
4. Lack of availability of book
and other reading facility at
home
5. Poor parents performance in
reading activity.
2
Cognition/
Decoding
(Pecjak S, et al;
2011, Mcmaster
K.L et al 2014)
Higher level process:
1. Focus on connecting written
unit to a coherent
comprehension
2. Demonstrating:
a. Inference Making
(connecting parts of text to the
background knowledge)
b. Executive Function
(interrelating working memory
capacity to organize the
reading process)
c. Attention-Allocation Ability
(monitoring and giving
attention on selection parts of
text)
(Van den Broek 1997; Cain,
Oakhill & Bryant 2004;
Sesma, Mahone, Levine,
Eason & Cutting 2009; Hartt
Lower level process:
1. Focus on translating the
written code into meaning
2. Depends on:
a. Decoding process
b. Reading Fluency
c. Vocabulary
(Perfetti 1985; Fuchs, Hops, &
Jenkins 2001; Nagy, Herman,
& Anelson1985 in Kendeou P;
2014)
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Jurnal Littera: Fakultas Sastra Darma Agung Volume 1, Nomor 1, 2021 (April) ; 53 - 64
& Samols 2005 in Kendeou P;
2014)
3
Metacognition
(Pecjak, S 2011)
Top-down Approach:
Metacognition is highly
interrelated monitoring the
process started the beginning.
(Pecjak S, et al: 2011)
Bottom-up Approach:
Metacognition is the a product
accumulated from the
linguistic clues processes.
(Pecjak S, et al: 2011)
4
Motivational
(Pecjak S 2011)
High motivated reader:
1. Reading by goals
2. Spend more time in reading
3. Showing concrete effort in
reading (member of reading
club, often go to the library,
etc)
(Nezhad-A.Z. et al: 2015)
Low motivated reader:
1. Just reading
2. Spend a little time in
reading
3. Showing low effort in
reading (just read to complete
an assignment, etc)
(Nezhad-A.Z et al: 2015)
5
Comprehension
Skills
(Mcmaster K.L et
al; 2014)
Activating:
-Background knowledge
-Schemata
-metacognition as center of
monitoring system
-textual ability (Pecjak, S et al:
2011)
Activating:
-linguistic clues
-decoding
-depends on vocabulary
-depends on fluency
(Pecjak S, et al: 2011)
6
Interest,
emotional/
Goals of Reading
(Pecjak S, et al;
2011, Mcmaster
K.L et al 2014)
-have a big interest for various
reading material
-have positive perception
about reading activity
-reading with purpose
(Noor, NM: 2011)
-have a low interest in reading
-have a negative or neutral
perception about reading
-just reading (with no purpose)
(Noor, NM: 2011)
B.
The complexity of reading process
oriented to text
The complexity of reading processes also
can be viewed from the perspective of the
text. It can be ignored that text structure is
also a complex material that must be taught
seriously in several subjects (e.g. basic
reading, analytical reading, textual reading,
and critical reading). The complexity of the
text is structured by genre, content, format,
and degree of difficulty (Mcmaster, K.L.,
Espin, C.S., Van den broek; 2014). Text, as
a reading material, is classified into two
literary and factual text (Paltridge, B 1996 in
Marpaung, M 2019). Literary text types
(genre) such as narrative, poems,
autobiography, literary recount are easier to
be understood by a reader than the factual
text types such as factual descriptive,
discussion, expository, etc. The text types
themselves structured by three important
parts social function, generic structures, and
linguistics features (Marpaung, M 2019),
these three structures in any text impacted
the reading process itself. Next, content of
the text is affect the process of reading as it
is stated that the length of a text is highly
contributed to the reader’s comprehension; a
beginner reader is difficult to build a
comprehension from a short text, a research
report stated that long text can easily build a
coherent comprehension for a reader even it
is objected a top-down reading process
(Shrum and Gilian, 1994 in Ngabut M.N
2014). The format and degree of difficulty
of a text is also highly contributed to the
readers reading understanding, as it is
implemented in the vocabulary in the text. It
was reported that text clued context that
helped readers to define the meaning of a
58
THE COMPLEXITY OF READING COMPREHENSION PROCESSES:
A REVIEW FROM READER, TEXT, AND COGNITIVE PROCESS PERSPECTIVES
Magdalena Br Marpaung 1) , Humiras Betty M. Sihombing 2)
difficult words, this situation named context
clues (Marpaung, M: 2019b). Readers in
building comprehension will often defined
meaning by context and this situation let
readers highly affect by contextual factors of
richness, local-global, partial, and clear-
ambiguous factors, and it is reported that
rich-local factor is the highest factor
impacted readers in defining the difficult
words in a reading process (Marpaung, M;
2019b).
In conclusion, text which is mediated the
complex process of reading should be
learned intensively for its complexities.
Some of the review of literature confirmed
that this reading material could also be the
source of complexities that led to a
difficulties of building a coherent
comprehension. Reader should anticipated
themselves by the genre, content, format,
and degree of difficulty of the text by
learning it.
C.
The complexity of reading process
from the process perspective
In relation to the process of reading
comprehension, records of defining the
complexity of reading comprehension
processes has been recorded for several
decades. Reading has been defined as a
process of interaction between readers and
writers stimulated by reading material
(text/passage) that requires readers’ complex
skills to combine accurate reading strategies
in bounding connection to the main message
of the writer in the reading material
(Nezhad, A.Z., et al, 2015). Psychologically,
reading was defined as cognitive processes,
a complex cognitive process (Goodman
1967; Marpaung, M. 2011) as it mainly
persisted on the discussion of mental
representation (comprehension) and memory
representation (Broek, 1999). Bounding
connection to the message written in reading
material by readers is the main problem tried
to overcome in any reading researches
history; the problem of how is the process of
building the mental representation
(comprehension) in reading activity.
Cognitively, the complex processes of
reading in building comprehension has been
tried to be mapped/ modeled in several ways
and concepts (goodman; 1967, stanovich;
1986, rumelhurt; 1977, kintsch; 1988,
Mckenna & stahl; 2009). Moreover,
Urguhart and Weir (1998) defined that
cognitive model of reading comprehension
is classified into two (1) process models and
(2)
componential models. While the process
models of reading comprehension are
defined into (1) top-down, (2) bottom-up,
(3)
interactive, and (4) situation model, the
componential model of reading
comprehension is defined into (1) two-
components approach and (2) three-
component approach.
In this review from the process perspective,
the complexity of the process will be
reviewed in three main ideas (1) research
generation, (2) basic concept, and (3)
components interrelated.
There were three eras recorded which were
characterized by their own basic inquiry.
The first is the early era (1928-the mid of
1980) of reading cognitive research which
was focus on the reader’s memory resulted
after reading, the main focus of this first
reading cognitive research generation is
determining reading features and drawing-
recalling memory or conclusion in reading
process, at the late of this first generation of
reading cognitive research was much
influenced by the finding of top-down
(Smith; 1973, Goodman; 1988), bottom -up
(Gough; 1972), and interactive (Rumelhart;
1977, Stanovich; 1980) reading processes
model. The second era (mid of 1980 - mid of
1990) was focus on the real process of
reading, this second generation was
identified by its willing to describe the real
process of reading complex cognitive as
they also accomplish it to the process of
inference to be discovered. This second
generation was much identified by the
reading model of construction-integration,
minimalist, causal inference, and structure
building. The last era (mid of 1990 -
present) of reading cognitive research was
focus on the online (comprehension process)
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Jurnal Littera: Fakultas Sastra Darma Agung Volume 1, Nomor 1, 2021 (April) ; 53 - 64
and offline (memory representation) aspects
of reading cognitive process, this current era
believed that mental representation is built
by the interaction of online and offline
aspect; the interaction of comprehension
skills and memory representation. This last
era of reading cognitive research is mainly
identified by the coming of landscape model
of reading cognitive process, including the
situation model of reading process (Van den
Broek; 1999). The following table is another
review of reading process by the research
generation based on Van den broek 1999
book chapter.
No
Research Generation
Focus
Approach/ Model
1
Early Generation
1928 - mid of 1980
Memory representation
(what do readers remember
after reading?)
1. Bottom - Up
(Gough 1972)
2. Top - Down
(Goodman 1978)
2
Second Generation
Mid of 1980 - mid of
1990
1. Modeling the process of
reading
(focus to the process - what
do readers do in reading?)
2. Inference making
1.Interactive Model
(Rumelhart 1988)
2.Construction-Integration
3
Third/Late Generation
Mid of 1990 - current
1. Online and offline
components
(Online: memory capacity,
background knowledge,
schemata.
Offline: text component,
linguistic clues/ stimuli
from new coming
information)
2. The interaction between
online and offline
components of reading
1. Landscape theory
2. Event - indexing
3. Scenario mapping
4. Immersed experience
framework
Moreover, there are various basic
classification (concept) of the model of
reading process. A concept of psycholinguist
(cognitive) believe that reading process is a
psychological process; depended on the
reader’s cognitive access (Goodman; 1988,
Smith; 1973, Gough; 1972 in Ngabut M.N;
2015); bottom-up and top-down reading
model are the product of this concept, then
landscape theory came later proposing the
same concept of reading process. However,
a concept of constructivist (Hejsek, L.,
Kopecky, K., Kusa, J., Polak, M., &
Maresova, H.:2015) believe that reading
process is an interactive process and
developed by reader’s access to the text
parts (the content of reading material);
interactive reading model and construction-
integration are believed as the most
appropriate in describing the process of
reading in this concept. Furthermore, a
concept of connectionist (Vahid
Aryadoust:2017) believed that a
comprehension in reading process is much
built by the readers’ ability to see the
connection of the text parts, this concept
believed that the ideas connected in the text
are the source of readers’ comprehension;
this last concept has many theory of reading
model such as (1) situation model: Event
indexing (Zwaan; 1995), (2) Scenario
Mapping (Sandford & Garrod; 1981 and
1998), and (3) Immersed Experience
Framework (Zwaan; 2004).
60
THE COMPLEXITY OF READING COMPREHENSION PROCESSES:
A REVIEW FROM READER, TEXT, AND COGNITIVE PROCESS PERSPECTIVES
Magdalena Br Marpaung 1) , Humiras Betty M. Sihombing 2)
No
Basic concept
Main idea
Approach/model
1
Psychologist/ Cognitive
Reading as a psychological
Process.
1. Data Driven
2. Conceptual Driven
3. Landscape Model
2
Constructivist
Reading as a process of
interactive communication
between readers’ prior
knowledge to the passage
current information.
1. Interactive Reading
Model
2. Construction - Integration
Reading Model
3
Connectionist
Reading comprehension as a
process of building
connection in the text parts,
the ability to build the text
parts connections believed as
a source of comprehension.
1. Situational Model
2. Scenario Mapping
3. Immersed Experience
Framework
Due to the comprehension as the main
problem in reading is affected by two factors
of (1) reader’s characteristics and (2)
reading material characteristics (Sandford in
Cassanave; 1988). Further, reader’s
characteristics are explained more into (1)
ability functioning perception and cognitive
skills, (2) knowledge of the language used,
(3) Prior knowledge or experience, and (4)
motivation, purpose, interest. Moreover,
‘interest’ as a part of the last reader’s
characteristics, claimed as an essential
component to successful comprehension. It
was explained that even the reading material
is easy without interest in a reader the
comprehension will not be built
successfully. Interest to approach the
comprehension is essential as it is supported
by (1) the content of the reading material
and (2) the style of the writing in the reading
material. Noor, M.N. (2011) defined
individual interest and preferences as parts
of reading habit which is various depended
on the level of readers’ ages, (and
reflected by the numbers and types of
reading materials being read.
In addition to the previous explanation,
interest which dependant on the reading
material and style of writing is closely
similar to reading habit which is defined as
behaviour of reading frequency, numbers of
book being read, and reading preference
(Marpaung, M; 2020). Reading habit which
is consisted of frequency and preferences in
reading is believed handed a great role in
students successful academic life.
Furthermore, Marpaung, M (2020) found
that second language reading habit is mainly
dependant on the second language reading
proficiency the most than the other factors
affected such as first language reading habit
and reading attitude. The better the second
language reading proficiency of a reader, the
better the second language reading habit can
be built.
As a complex process, reading was affected
by two main factors; (1) readers’ various
environmental factors such as school
environment, teacher’s method of teaching
reading, parents’ persuasion in reading (e.g.
books provided, guidance given in reading
activities), and (2) psychological factors
such as students’ competence in cognition,
metacognition, students’ motivation, and
their emotional (attitude) related to reading
activity (Pecjak, S., Podlesek, A., Pirc T ;
2011). moreover, due to the second factor,
reading cognition is still a relevant and
important thing to research since there are
no satisfied model of reading process
discovered (Davoudi, M., & Moghadam,
H.R.H; 2015)
Unlike the first and second explanation of
reading process models, this paper
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Jurnal Littera: Fakultas Sastra Darma Agung Volume 1, Nomor 1, 2021 (April) ; 53 - 64
proposing another way of explanation of
reading process models. This last
explanation defined reading process model
into three groups (1) reader-oriented reading
process model, and (2) goal of reading
oriented models.
No
Era/
Generation
Basic Concept
Process
Orientation
Components
interrelated
Process
Approach
1
Early
Generation
(1928-mid
1980)
A process of
psycholinguistic
(Cognitivist)
Reader-text
Orientation
Minimalist
(one componen
interrelated for eac
process element)
Bottom-up
(Gough; 1972,
2
Top-down
3
Interactive
4
Second
Generation
(mid
1980-mid
1990)
A process of
construction
comprehension
(Constructivist)
Goal
Orientation
Construction-Int
egration
5
Late
Generation
(mid
1990-curren
t time)
A Process of
Connecting text
content to
readers mind
(Connectionist)
Maximalist (more
than one
component
interrelated for
each process
element)
Landscape
Theory
6
Event Indexing
7
Scenario
Mapping
8
Immersed
Experience
Framework
And the last, the following are lists of
reading model and its components overview
included what are the reading elements
proceed. The following table is listed you
models of reading as a cognitive process by
showing you the components interrelated
and its elements’ processes.
No
Reading
Model
Components
Process Elements
1
Bottom-up
Linguistics Clues
-
Decoding
-
Syntactic structure
-
Word association
-
Interpretation
2
Top-down
-
Reader’s background
knowledge
-
Prediction/hypothesis
-
Activating background knowledge
-
Checking/confirming
prediction/hypothesis
3
Interactive
-
Linguistic clues
-
Reader’s background
knowledge
-Prediction/ hypothesis
-
Fasten word’s association
-
supporting confirming/ checking
prediction
4
Construction-In
tegration
-
Linguistic clues (text
based)
-
syntactic - semantic
association
-
reader’s background
knowledge
-
Surface information
-
Microstructure
-
Macrostructure
62
THE COMPLEXITY OF READING COMPREHENSION PROCESSES:
A REVIEW FROM READER, TEXT, AND COGNITIVE PROCESS PERSPECTIVES
Magdalena Br Marpaung 1) , Humiras Betty M. Sihombing 2)
5
Landscape
Theory
-
Linguistic clues
-
background knowledge
-
episodic memory
-
Long-term memory
-
text based information
-
comprehender’s semantic memory
-
activating the previous cycle
comprehension
-
elaborating previous cycle of text
comprehension, background
knowledge, long-term memory to
build comprehension
6
Event-Indexing
-
Linguistic clues
-
Text dimensions
-
interpretations
-
comprehension
-
textual representation
-
mental representation
7
Scenario
Mapping
-
Linguistic clues
-
text based representation
-
Background knowledge
-
long term memory
-
Mapping the stimuli from the
discourse (text)
-
Connect the mapping to the scenario
exist in long term memory
-
building comprehension
8
Immersed
Experience
Framework
-
Linguistic clues
-
Reader’s experience
-
world knowledge
-
Visual representation
(Visuospatial)
-
Textual stimuli
-
Building visual representation
-
Activated reader’s experience
-
Activating reader’s world
knowledge
-
Building knowledge
CONCLUSION
Reading comprehension processes is defined as a process of decoding and perception viewed
from language skill perspective and as a complex cognitive process viewed from
psycholinguistics perspective (Ngabut, M.N.: 2015). Reading process is an everlasting issue
to be questioned and never be really satisfactorily to be explained for its complexity. Reading
complexity is sourced from its readers’ characteristics, text’s variety, and sure cognitive
processes which are listed complex elements and components resulted into many researches
and models of it. The above theories reviewed showed you how reading is complex in its
readers’ capacity related to their attitude, habit, and motivation towards reading. In addition to
that, reading is also complex is its text form and degree of difficulty. And last reading is also
complex viewed from its cognitive elements and components interrelated which are resulted
various models to be learned. This article which contains explanation of reading from those
three perspectives expected able to overcome the mystery and unsatisfactorily sense of
reading complexity.
63
Jurnal Littera: Fakultas Sastra Darma Agung Volume 1, Nomor 1, 2021 (April) ; 53 - 64
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