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Abstract

Evolutionary psychiatry attempts to explain and examine the development and prevalence of psychiatric disorders through the lens of evolutionary and adaptationist theories. In this edited volume, leading international evolutionary scholars present a variety of Darwinian perspectives that will encourage readers to consider 'why' as well as 'how' mental disorders arise. Using insights from comparative animal evolution, ethology, anthropology, culture, philosophy and other humanities, evolutionary thinking helps us to re-evaluate psychiatric epidemiology, genetics, biochemistry and psychology. It seeks explanations for persistent heritable traits shaped by selection and other evolutionary processes, and reviews traits and disorders using phylogenetic history and insights from the neurosciences as well as the effects of the modern environment. By bridging the gap between social and biological approaches to psychiatry, and encouraging bringing the evolutionary perspective into mainstream psychiatry, this book will help to inspire new avenues of research into the causation and treatment of mental disorders.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Childhood Trauma

 !"#$
%&'
('%&'
)*%&'
Abstract
"'  +++
"$"" $+ "
"+ $$+ 
,$* + 
' $$'$
'','$
"$$"*,'''
'"$$$'$-$$"
$$  ' $$+ ,
', $'*''$
Key words
 .'.+.-$$"$.'
 .$ 
1 An evolutionary perspective on why parents may maltreat their children
 %"'"$'%
  +'"" %!$'+$ 
%  %"'"$' $
'/01230124.*012501026*
%"'" $"+
""'+ '%"$$"+'"' 
'+*+'"$
"$'
""+ $$'$$$
,/!6 '"$/78
01206$'$'-""'
''"++ 
,+ '"',#
$  +"$+
 $  %"' +$
9$' /6+"$+' +
$"+"/+6+
" $ '% '' 
"$'*,+
2
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
% +''$/01256 
 "
!+''+''A $++
$+"$
%$"'/*901016%  
 " $ ' 
/"#B01016+"+$+
+$' /+"
253?6</''6/$6" /'6
  $%"++ $''
'+'+,
'$$ '"-' '-
/'01256*%'
"%$+"/-01256
%" "    " '"
C+"'+ DE$++$'
$
*"DE'
" "$''''+
+."""
"$+"+A"
$""/$$"/66"/$$"+6+
+  "'%$+9$'+
, *+" '$$
"$''",
+$$$' ' +
$+
#, $'%"$6-$$"
$+6$  6++ ' 
6$$+ 9'+ 
' + '$'
+' $'  $#$$
'E$$'%" '
 ''
2 Parent-offspring conflict: can child maltreatment be adaptive for the parent?
2.1 Introduction
& $ "''''
$++ '$'+"
'''' $
"+$' $' ')+
'+++%++
0
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
'&-$$"$$$$$'
'$'$$$$"#"'
"+""'""
"'"' 
$' E
"
2.2 Stepparents
F$+ -#2541" 
'$'%$'$'
$'+"'+'%D!
$$E$+ &24 +*'(''
25 #!''%$' $
#" '$"''$
' '%'$$$'""$$$
+" "+"'$'/01016
#$+25>12551  "
7 "*+
+$'"'% ' % '
'+"/"7 8*
25536 "$ $' +" &
'  $'++$'%
'" E7 *
 '-','
F$$$'%+ "$'
'$%+'+%
''"$$"
'$
7 *E"" '++ 
+ ' $'"'
''+$-''%"'"
"$'" +/+01256E
,''%"$$'*' 
"+'"%%,'"  "
+" "'% '/("
01256$'"'A $'
F ,' $'/("8
!'011?6 +
'$'E$"$+
+"+ +E+"+ +"
!"$''"+"
$"'"'''
'++'"" /$$8011?6
?
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
'" +,+ %$DE$'"
 $''$$")
+ +:"'
"% +'/& 8"01126
2.3 Fathers
"$'+"$'"+$'
$+'% '+"'
'+""E F'
''' D'"'E''$$"
$', $E"
''$$'D E'
$"" '$-F21GC$"0-;G"
''% /)011@.'012?60-;G
 ' ""$$
*',  
$$%'++ '$
+"*$,$+% 
'"DE$$" 
+'% ""''''' 
"DE+$'
'E"" E+$
',-F$ "'
'$'++$"
%+'
2.4 Mothers
# '$+-"
''$'++'$'"
%$$'$"/
+ ++6) ' ,' 
''$$$''
#% ''' $$
','' ' +
$'' +' 
'"F $' F"
$'' ,%$' 
F+A" *
%$DE "
/01246 -$$'
'DE-$$' +++
+"$+' '
''$' 
+$$""+ "$$/)+ 
;
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
2535=25546' + '
&'$+$'"
)$$ /255501156 "'"'
$'  '$'+"'+
+'" "'""$$ "#
"$$$''$"
+"7$$/0125.'6'$
'$"
" '*'"+$"$
'$''  + ,
 "$$+"'% +%$'"
$'  "+"'% 
+$$'+$"+"
 ,$'$ "+"
+
3 A life history take on child maltreatment
$ $-DE
/ 6'%<"$
$$"' $$"$""
$*'"$$"$+$"
""B',%+$
"H9$"%$+"+ +$
 " H+ $%$
F$  /2551.25506),2
BOX 1: ‘Fast’ and ‘slow’ life histories

! "#!
 $
$"
%!!
! "#!
& $
$"
'%' '  
""+"$$$"$
$ "+" '+" 
 "$+ /'01256$
-'+'$"'
 ''$$" +"
'+ '   ""
! ''"'" "$
@
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
'''A'/01246 "'
'"'+$ / %"
'+6#'"
%$''+ "
("+''% "$
'  '++F 
$ '"+#*"
'$+ /87(01256+
" $'$'F "'% +
,  "'$ 
,$ "+
"+$ '"+$ 
' ,$ ''
+ % $"
+++'% '
"'%'%'+-
"+'"', '+$
,'""+'+
+"'$""" /01246
!"$, +$+'-
 % $$'"+
$$+'
 "-'+/01236*"""
"+"+-
''%'%+"' 
"'+'%'%-
" /(%"01226$$$+
"$""'+'+
! $"-'$$+ '
"$"'+$
'
# $"$$''
+"$!''%$
$'""/7801206$' 
-$$#'''E"-' "'
 '" ' "  "       
"  + +%  ,'    ' $   $'
""'+++ /(01256
 "/*6 '$$+$$+
 '/"01236 '%
"$% '+'
$+ $ /!01016
' ,"
%$$$"%$ '
3
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
+%" " "/7+
011?6$"D$E ' $+
F$$'/!'8$$012@6%*
"' ''"" )+"
'$$""
$' ;1'
4 How children have adapted, with reference to attachment theory
+' $'
 +'"' 
++#, '#$
 '$$$" 
$E'/' $6$$'
'* " " '
"""++ E''$' 
''" $
''*"" "'"+$
'"+"
'"$ '$'$
 "$''$'"
"$#"$'
"+""''+

'+ /012?.(012@6'
 ""+''+'
"""'"
  """'
$$ '  "
"" $ "$$"-'
  "/*012;6%'"
 +"  , +
''/01246'%"$
'$ 'F"+"-
'*' 
' $'+  )+ /2535=25546
+$+$'"+'
"/ '6#$ +' "  "
+ "+")+
+"+'"
 "  D E#)+ $
++" " 
"D E
4
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
)+ $++  $'+   #
$'"' '%$
' 'D'
$ E/6' ' 
' E-")+ "
'%$' $'+
'$'
)+ E%$+ "/254>6$
$$%$'<D-ED-
'+E'/25>36+$"  '
D"E$+$$+"
$$'+' 
"",/! 801216),0$
$$' 
BOX 2: Secure and insecure attachment (percentages reflective of UK and US
populations)
! '()*+,!
"% !
"#- "#
  !',
!"
! '(.)+,
"%- 
! &"#
 "
!'+ '(/)+,
!!! "#
 & "#( 
!!"#$
 "
!" '(/*+,(
0! "%
(!!  
!"#
  
'1".**2,"
)+ +'D'E 
'+'' 
$' '++$+
 $'$+""'
$+,
""+,
/7% 01016
>
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
"$$'+=  ,+
,' " "'#$
+ $$
$$""$+
"""'%"'"+$$'
% #$$ "" '
+,' "" 
+'/7% 01016$F %
$ 2551 -''
!'/25556 )% /25546+"%<34 
   $
5
9$%"F+'+$$
'+'A '
 +$$'
'"$$ '
% +"' ++I"
$$$'$'"  " +$' 
DE
'$+'' 
+$'# $
'A"+$""
+"'$$$'
$'++"' '
+%' +
#$""-"'
 +/&01216$$ 
#  '+" "
$$' 'A/!'2555.
 25556'+' ""
$%$"
9+'""""
$/!'2555. 255501156#$$+
 $'/'"6+ 
'"$"7"'$"
'$$'
'"/ 2555012@6"
$+"+$-"/$$
012@6
*'$% $$'C$ '
'C,'$''" +
'
4.1 Fear system
5
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
 '+"E$ "
+" '- -/&6,/J-!K
012;6' " $"$
 ' F% '
# ' " "
&,$%$"'
$%"'$$
+/9'01216
F'#$' 
$ ' "/7,012;6,'
''%""'"
'#%$'"
''+E&, +$
 '/7 0114.25556) &-
"+,"""
'$$" 
"$$+"$+'
"'"'+$
$ '$" 
%"""" $'"
/L'012?.01226
'"'" &,'$ '
-+"/01216#%$$$"$'
$', $
' ''  $
 ''" , "$+ 
%$"",+" $-$$"
 '" '$$"
/$$012@6$+"'
""$' " "/!'25556
4.2 Internal models
$''FD'E$
 /255501156"$$$''%
+$'
++'D+E'"
'"$$" +$"
$-" '''/%
'6'  "'E
%" ''$."+
''$"
++$ $$ $"'+$
$'+"+"%),?
21
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
BOX 3: The effect of social support on internal models
6! !!!
!"%!-
0!"
6 ! !- -
 !"#
!"!
 - 
"# '7 /289,"
#'' +"'F
+% ++$"
'$$ +'% 
+'""/ 6$
 "   +
"$$$"
'+ +'"' $-/'6
" ' -%"/'+'6#
"  'C'"E
"'$' ,
*%"+' 
$/701156.+ 
'"$
 $
#'$$$"'C
'++"+ "
'' /01156"'
 """ 
+ $$"
%"$B"/D''+ E6$
"-%,"+
' + '$/"6'+
"% -"' +,"
"''$ +%
/"6
#'"'$$''/
#AB01016'' $+%
$+"$""+'
"''''
!/01136""" ,+
,'$'+ 
" '"','
  + " +
'," $'
22
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
"+ $$"""
'$'
#'"+ 
''  "$$+ 
'/69A+
''+"*%
' '$'
'
5 How does an evolutionary perspective view epigenetics, differential susceptibility and
resilience?
")%E /8)%25506'+'$+
$"''+ 'E'""
$'++D$  E+++
$"#$$+'+ 
+'% ++'+'""%
"$$"''"$
'% ++/(0122012@6'$
$+'+/+"6$
""+'$$
F $ ,$'+' ,$
'$$'"++ 
'"++$ 
$++'"$,$/)% 2554.
!'2555.')% 011>.!'$$012@6
++'"'$$"''"' 
"'"   '
+$  
 $ *'$$
'"$$ '
""' '/"" +%
"$'''6$'+ ' 
" ++""
  "$"$
+ '$'DE/)%'-
L+"#AB0122.)% '012;6& 
",'$
'C'' +'D+E#$
'A'++'DE
'$+ '" '""
"""+"
"""/))% 01206+%
DEC'DE+
20
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
'/L 012?6&
'+"'""' 
#$+"DE' ++$+'
$$DE 
""'$'/),;6'
+'$+ '/L 012?6
'""'" ""
 ""$$'
"''$$+ ''
/)%'-L+"#AB012@6!"
"@/01226'"
/)%'-L+"01226
BOX 4: Vignette
!/:"%4;"#
!- !(  
"( 
 " % 
   &(!- 
 "3 !& 
 !;! 
 "7;
 !!"7 
-  
  ! -  ("  -
 ;!  !  &  
! "%!(
- "; 
(   <
-"7!-
!  & ! !"
7 "
 !
  
!6(" !
 !!
!!!;"
3  ! 
!"%(
(   
 "=!-
  !
 "
2?
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
%!( 
&  
 "( !
 !"-
(&
"
-!"#
-!!;-!>
-(!--
("
;! 
;-! "%
!- !;"
!  ! 
!;"
D#%"E$'$$
+$" $'"$""
!$$" ' -""
 $$$""'' "
'/6*
"$$'+'"' '
" + $$'#$
' ' $'
Key points
!,':
,"+"
*'$'+' +$
',"+"
)+$+'#
+ "+"'#
 "A"''+
)++'+" $"
$" $ %
#$$"$ ''%
'""9'%
"" '-'+$"+"'
, C$'"' 
 "' 
''+'C$
 $F$$"$$
'
2;
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
'"$+'' +
%%+'
''
References
7/254>66 6%%
%"<+'
)%'-L+"#AB/012267$$+ 
"'"'-"<'-
 1 23?5-@0
)%'-L+"#B/012@6$$ $
<"M','$'$$+ 
6?!66?>2-;15
)L)% /01206(-'"
'$"<"$$-+  
@83/2605-;1
)"L"/011@6" 
+F;  
59/564;5-4@;
)% /25546''""<  
A8?32-?>2
)% '/012;6(-' <
$$+ '$713>4->5
)+ /2535=255466 B6 <&'
! &/01216-6 #?
6/06N%<($&
!'/255561%(%
"!'+"<!'+" &
!'$$7/012@6$ "<
'H#<$$7C # 
!?"<"23?-
2>2
!&L L')"L
/01016"'"''%"'
'$'$ " "
50/462151-215>
7 */25536  " '$<$
#<)7'%(! 
"9,$<9,$ &5-0>
7)/01206,
"-D=106/2605-?5:
7$$")&B %(&!&
!/01156,%$$"-
6D6163/20622?@-22;?
2@
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
7 /01146"''"$$"
$$",;A3204@-
0>;
7+O7"(*/011?6'$
,+'<$'$+"+%
251137/?603>-044:
7% /010166 ?9,$<9,$ &
)7(/012567'< 
6?!70/26222-2?5
))(%O%*/01246) %
$<-+:
%:12/;6@32-@>4
(*L'&/012?6! $-""
1 7;?-;>
O' &+&&B7/01226 
$$ '$ '- -,'
'A=?!35/462322-2305
77!'"7 /25556"
,'$$$ 6
A!E-6 %89633->;
("!!'/01256$E$$ -
%"$-F 'F 
$' '"$':; 
33/@6@02-@?2
(O/01226<"$ " <
 ;52/;6?@3-?34
(O/012@6&$$$<+ "
+"''#<(O! 
A 7<"035-0>?
(%O +7*+/01226$$
' '% <$  
;%100/36212@-2103
(7&F!)7B))/01256&+
+$$$ $B
A6 %116/;>60?5>;-0?5>>
!)%7/25506 0/--6+'<
$   135/46@5@-312
"77(L/6("'
"B<%"+%$6 D 1 
'!")!/01256"+%"
+"'+"$ -$$'
"''"$$":10520?-2?4
 )/25556AA% %<
!8*
 )/01156F#FC"
!'+"<)%&$ 
23
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
 )/012@6O+''"''
P+"Q<'  
=77040-0>?
L /012?69<''+
'$$+'$'
18?25-?02
'O+%O( 7$(O 
 L*7/012?6$% 
*'+ N-''""
?%==%280/24406<012?0;11
O'&!/01216#3 B# 
1# !'+"<!'+" &
7,/012;6!'"'$A6 
%1110>42-0>4>
L&/01226*"' <+$
''""''$$
#=A70@2-0>1
'/25>367 $'<
$"'$$$+#<)B
)N"'61 3<+,
5@-20;
)/01256A!3%(6!'<"
(/012?6-+<$$$+ 'E$'
3;=120-2@
(/01236AA6  %=
1 ."<& " &
+(&"%(L/01256!'+ $<
'$);( 
G148/362152-2210
9'!&7B"!/01216'
 '  '"$
1 22/26215-22>
&!/0121671 5*"7!<
(" 
/25516B"<"$' #
9045-054
J-!K/012;6 $''<''
"$$+,'
5??
$$7/012@6!"<,""$'
'-#<$$7C # 
!?<"002-
0?3
$$7/01256'E<$+'
62/262@-?;
')% /011>6' ' 
$'%#<&! -6 #
?60N%<($&2?2-2@4
24
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
/25506#B9,$<9,$ &
-77+-!'L!/01256#"
 = $'''"-''- <
$''' "$"
$' " 1  31/262>5-010
"'(%OL#-!'()% /01236
$-''+$$$$$ -$"$'
%27/@6334-34;
$$7(*)/01236
'+=;622?3-;?
(/01246 %"
77=;623;21-;2>
+"/253?69''$" HI#20;21-
;??
LL'A#L/01016<
""$'$:;
 :82/063?5-3@3
#B)%'-L+"!")A'/01016
<'+ $'- ''
<$$+ %
:;61/?6040-051
*I"LN")I'%%B77"-
&'+(&%9E"LB%(
L$'/012;6!+' "
 + ;6 6 
653/;6;24-;0;
*9/01016 <====-'=$-==-
''/<001026
*'(/  (6/254;67+ ;
3/;62@-0>
*)(/01256! 
%""" H=;6:25/36?@2-?30
*)(/01026! 
"'+$H
26/260>?-05;
2>
(8*)/01006 
'#+8&-'/6:
:/02;-0046!'+"<!'+" &
<212124=54>252230?30@123
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Scholars in psychology increasingly apply a behavioral ecology/adaptive calibration framework to understand how childhood harshness and unpredictability shape downstream psychology, physiology, and behavior. Adapted from evolutionary biology, behavioral ecology in psychology has conceptualized harshness as morbidity/mortality and unpredictability as fluctuations in morbidity/mortality within an environment. Broad theoretical conclusions about adaptive calibration based on the body of work in psychology are limited by the fact that these factors have been conceptualized and operationalized in so many different ways that comparisons within harshness or unpredictability, and according to both original theory and theory specific to psychology, are difficult. As a starting point, we conducted a systematic (PRISMA) review of the psychology behavioral ecology literature in order to classify and assess the frequency of use of extant conceptualizations and operationalizations of childhood harshness and unpredictability (final papers N = 156; measures of harshness N = 199; measures of unpredictability N = 78), describe the attributes of designs and samples of these studies, and create a database with all of these measures. We then consider heuristic strengths and weaknesses of various kinds of measures, make suggestions for best practices, and discuss theoretical implications.
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In this special issue paper we reflect on the next generation of attachment research with a focus on disorganization, a central but still poorly understood topic in this area. We suggest that progress will be facilitated by a return to attachment theory’s evolutionary roots, and to the emphasis on biological function that inspired Bowlby’s original thinking. Increased interdisciplinary cross- fertilization and collaborations would enable novel and generative research on some of the long- standing questions surrounding attachment disorganization. Accordingly, we present an agenda for future research that encompasses contributions of modern ethology and neurobiology, novel hypotheses based on the concept of adaptive decanalization, connections with neurodevelopmental vulnerability and risk for mental disorders such as schizophrenia, and the possibility of sex differences in the behavioral manifestations of attachment disorganization. We believe that these avenues of theory and research offer exciting potential for innovative work in attachment disorganization in the years ahead.
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