No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
فاعلية وحدة مقترحة في العروض قائمة على نظرية العبء المعرفي في تنمية المهارات العروضية لدى طلاب الصف الثاني الثانوي الأزهري واتجاهاتهم نحو دراسة العروض
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Cognitive load theory was introduced in the 1980s as an instructional design theory based on several uncontroversial aspects of human cognitive architecture. Our knowledge of many of the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory and the relations between them had been well-established for many decades prior to the introduction of the theory. Curiously, this knowledge had had a limited impact on the field of instructional design with most instructional design recommendations proceeding as though working memory and long-term memory did not exist. In contrast, cognitive load theory emphasised that all novel information first is processed by a capacity and duration limited working memory and then stored in an unlimited long-term memory for later use. Once information is stored in long-term memory, the capacity and duration limits of working memory disappear transforming our ability to function. By the late 1990s, sufficient data had been collected using the theory to warrant an extended analysis resulting in the publication of Sweller et al. (Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296, 1998). Extensive further theoretical and empirical work have been carried out since that time and this paper is an attempt to summarise the last 20 years of cognitive load theory and to sketch directions for future research.
Teaching object-oriented programming (OOP) is a difficult task, especially to the beginners. First-time learners also find it difficult to understand. Although there is a considerable amount of study on the cognitive dimension, a few study points out its physiological meaning. Moreover, it has been suggested that neuroscientific studies and methods can enable educational researchers gain an insight into brain and cognitive processes as well. Therefore, this experimental study explored the previously learned OOP skills in terms of cognitive load. By using the functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) method, we measured the cognitive load of participants when executing OOP tasks. The average oxygenation changes in prefrontal cortex of the brain represented their total cognitive response to a set of OOP tasks. There were two research questions investigated by this study. The first research question explored whether the average oxygenation changed according to the participants' academic achievements and task completion status. The second research question was for identifying the instant changes in the oxygenations to find out which programming tasks were more contributing to the oxygenation. Later, we compared the findings with experts' judgments. We observed that the fNIRS system was an effective and promising technology for monitoring cognitive tasks both in classrooms and in experimental environments.
Although the theoretical framework of cognitive load theory has acknowledged a role for the learning environment, the specific characteristics of the physical learning environment that could affect cognitive load have never been considered, neither theoretically nor empirically. In this article, we argue that the physical learning environment, and more specifically its effects on cognitive load, can be regarded as a determinant of the effectiveness of instruction. We present an updated version of the cognitive load model of Paas and Van MerriA << nboer (Educational Psychology Review, 6:351-371, 1994a), in which the physical learning environment is considered a distinct causal factor that can interact with learner characteristics, learning-task characteristics, or a combination of both. Previous research into effects of the physical learning environment on cognitive performance that could inspire new cognitive load research is discussed, and a future research agenda is sketched.
1: Overview In recent years there has been an increased focus on the role of education and training, and on the effectiveness and efficiency of various instructional design strategies. Some of the most important breakthroughs in this regard have come from the discipline of Cognitive Science, which deals with the mental processes of learning, memory and problem solving. Cognitive load theory (e.g. Sweller, 1988; 1994) is an instructional theory generated by this field of research. It describes learning structures in terms of an information processing system involving long term memory, which effectively stores all of our knowledge and skills on a more-or-less permanent basis and working memory, which performs the intellectual tasks associated with consciousness. Information may only be stored in long term memory after first being attended to, and processed by, working memory. Working memory, however, is extremely limited in both capacity and duration. These limitations will, under some conditions, impede learning. The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is that the quality of instructional design will be raised if greater consideration is given to the role and limitations, of working memory. Since its conception in the early 1980's, cognitive load theory has been used to develop several instructional strategies which have been demonstrated empirically to be superior to those used conventionally.
Research on techniques for teaching computer programming to novice learners has suggested that introducing programming concepts and theories is extremely difficult because the learners have to assimilate syntactical methods of the programming language as well as their interface to the programming world. Computer programming for the novice requires the understanding of a variety of different areas such as logic and mathematical concepts, syntax, the language interface, algorithms, flowcharts, and pseudocode associated with programming theory, which can overwhelm the learner and increase levels of stress and frustration cognitive load. The central theme of this research was to examine the effects of scaffolding tools on cognitive load levels as participants completed laboratory assignments within a Visual Basic for Applications programming course, and to compare final course grades in Phase I and Phase II of the research. Participants were asked to evaluate their cognitive load as they completed assignments throughout the course. Course grades were also collected because all students in Phase I of the research eventually received the scaffolding tool prior to the final exam. Phase I of this study showed that within the major groups of online and face-to-face learners, and the subgroups of treatment and control, some benefit as determined by the statistical means was obtained by the use of the scaffolding tool to reduce cognitive load and improve laboratory scores. In the second phase of this research the students did not receive the scaffolding tool. A comparison of Phase I and Phase II indicates that the Group with the Scaffolding Tool Phase I experienced lower levels of cognitive load and attained higher laboratory and course scores than did the Group without the Scaffolding Tool.
Cognitive load theory is intended to provide instructional strategies derived from experimental, cognitive load effects. Each effect is based on our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, primarily the limited capacity and duration of a human working memory. These limitations are ameliorated by changes in long-term memory associated with learning. Initially, cognitive load theory's view of human cognitive architecture was assumed to apply to all categories of information. Based on Geary's (Educational Psychologist 43, 179-195 2008; 2011) evolutionary account of educational psychology, this interpretation of human cognitive architecture requires amendment. Working memory limitations may be critical only when acquiring novel information based on culturally important knowledge that we have not specifically evolved to acquire. Cultural knowledge is known as biologically secondary information. Working memory limitations may have reduced significance when acquiring novel information that the human brain specifically has evolved to process, known as biologically primary information. If biologically primary information is less affected by working memory limitations than biologically secondary information, it may be advantageous to use primary information to assist in the acquisition of secondary information. In this article, we suggest that several cognitive load effects rely on biologically primary knowledge being used to facilitate the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge. We indicate how incorporating an evolutionary view of human cognitive architecture can provide cognitive load researchers with novel perspectives of their findings and discuss some of the practical implications of this view.
Cognitive Load Theory provides a theoretical basis for understanding the learning process. It uses an information processing model to describe how the mind acquires and stores knowledge, and to provide an explanation for the limitations imposed by working memory.
The purpose of this review is to provide educational practitioners with a brief overview of cognitive load theory (CLT) and its major implications for learning. To achieve this objective, the article includes a short description of human cognitive architecture as conceived by cognitive load theorists. Following this overview, the article provides a description of what makes CLT different from other cognitive theories. Included in this section is a summary of the predictions about learning and novel instructional designs that CLT has produced. Next, the article presents a discussion of learner experience and how different levels of prior knowledge can interact with various instructional methods to differentially influence learning outcomes. Finally, the review ends with a discussion of various instructional methods that may be problematic when considered from a CLT perspective. With an understanding of CLT and its instructional implications, educational practitioners will be in better position to design and develop instructional materials that align with human cognitive architecture. Ultimately, instructional materials that utilize CLT guidelines have the potential to enhance learning effectiveness and efficiency for students in a multitude of education and training contexts. 426 Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(4) As part of a larger class of limited capacity theories (Goldman, 1991), cognitive load theory (CLT) provides a framework for designing instruction-al materials. The basic premise of CLT is that learners have a working memory with very limited capacity when dealing with new information (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). Moreover, CLT assumes that learners have "an effectively unlimited long-term memory holding cognitive schemas that vary in their degree of complexity and automation" (van Merriënboer & Ayres, 2005, p. 6). The implication of these assumptions is that learning will be hindered if instructional materials overwhelm a learner's limited working memory resources. Accordingly, early CLT research focused on identifying instructional designs that can effectively reduce unnecessary cognitive burden on working memory, thereby support-ing improved learning efficiency (van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). More recently, cognitive load theorists have shifted their attention to how learner characteristics, such as prior knowledge and motivational beliefs, interact with instructional designs to influence the effectiveness of CLT methods (Moreno, 2006). The purpose of this review is to provide educational practitioners with a brief overview of CLT and its major implications for learning. To achieve this objective, the article includes a short description of human cognitive architecture as conceived by cognitive load theorists. Following this overview, the article provides a description of what makes CLT different from other cognitive theories. Included in this section is a summary of the predictions about learning and novel instructional designs that CLT has produced. Next, the article presents a discussion of learner experience and how different levels of prior knowledge can interact with various instruc-tional methods to differentially influence learning outcomes. Finally, the review ends with a discussion of various instructional methods that may be problematic when considered from a CLT perspective.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of leads (or hypertext node previews) on cognitive load and learning. Leads provided a brief summary of information in the linked node, which helped orient the reader to the linked information. Dependent variables included measures of cognitive load: self-report of mental effort, reading time, and event-related desynchronization percentage of alpha, beta and theta brain wave rhythms; and learning performance: a recall task, and tests of domain and structural knowledge. Results indicated that use of leads reduced brain wave activity that may reflect split attention and extraneous cognitive load, and improved domain and structural knowledge acquisition. Further, findings provide insights into differentiating the types of cognitive load apparent in hypertext-assisted learning environments. Use of EEG measures allowed examination of instantaneous cognitive load, which showed that leads may be influencing germane load—reducing mental burden associated with creating coherence between two linked node. The self-report of mental effort measure appears more closely associated with overall and intrinsic load.
Cognitive load theory suggests that effective instructional material facilitates learning by directing cognitive resources toward activities that are relevant to learning rather than toward preliminaries to learning. One example of ineffective instruction occurs if learners unnecessarily are required to mentally integrate disparate sources of mutually referring information such as separate text and diagrams. Such split-source infonnation may generate a heavy cognitive load, because material must be mentally integrated before learning can commence. This article reports findings from six experiments testing the consequences of split-source and integrated information using electrical engineering and biology instructional materials. Experiment 1 was designed to compare conventional instructions with integrated instructions over a period of several months in an industrial training setting. The materials chosen were unintelligible without mental integration. Results favored integrated instructions throughout the 3-month study. Experiment 2 was designed to investigate the possible differences between conventional and integrated instructions in areas in which it was not essential for sources of information to be integrated to be understood. The results suggest that integrated instructions were no better than split-source infonnation in such areas. Experiments 3, 4, and 5 indicate that the introduction of seemingly useful but nonessential explanatory material (e.g., a commentary on a diagram) could have deleterious effects even when presented in integrated format. Experiment 6 found that the need for physical integration was restored if the material was organized in such a manner that individual units could not be understood alone. In light of these results and previous findings, suggestions are made for cognitively guided instructional packages.
Reading comprehension is one of the main purposes of ESL teaching/learning. In brief there are two main outlooks on reading. The first, a product oriented approach to reading, assumes meaning exists in the text itself, and it is text-based factors that determine meaning. In this view pre-reading activities rely mostly on clarifying the meaning of difficult words or complex structures. Whereas, for the second, process- oriented approach to reading, meaning is obtained through a successful interaction between the reader and the text, and it is inside-the-head factors th at play an important role in comprehension. Accordingly, background knowledge will be of primary importance for ESL readers, and schema-based pre- reading activities should be used for activating and constructing such background knowledge. In this study, as an ESL reading instructor I worked with a group of intermediate -level students for one academic term, with a special focus on schema-theory -based pre-reading activities. At the end of the term, in a retrospective study the students' impressions and thoughts of the strategies covered during the term were taken into consideration.
This book provides the student with an understanding of theories and research on learning and related processes and demonstrates their application in educational contexts. The text is intended for graduate students in schools of education or related disciplines, as well as for advanced undergraduates interested in education. It is assumed that most students using this text are pursuing educationally relevant careers and that they possess minimal familiarity with psychological concepts and research methods.
Important historical theories are initially discussed, followed by accounts of current research. Differing views are presented, as well as criticism when warranted. A chapter is devoted to problem solving and learning in reading, writing, mathematics, and science.
The chapters on motivation, self-regulation, and instructional processes address topics relevant to learning theories. These topics traditionally have shown little overlap with learning theories, but fortunately this situation is changing. Researchers are addressing such topics as how motivation can influence quantity and quality of learning, how instructional practices impact information processing, and how learning principles can be applied to develop self-regulated learners.
The applications of learning principles focus on school-aged students, both because of personal preference and because most students are interested in working with children and teenagers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cognitive load is a theoretical notion with an increasingly central role in the educational research literature. The basic
idea of cognitive load theory is that cognitive capacity in working memory is limited, so that if a learning task requires
too much capacity, learning will be hampered. The recommended remedy is to design instructional systems that optimize the
use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. Cognitive load theory has advanced educational research considerably
and has been used to explain a large set of experimental findings. This article sets out to explore the open questions and
the boundaries of cognitive load theory by identifying a number of problematic conceptual, methodological and application-related
issues. It concludes by presenting a research agenda for future studies of cognitive load.
KeywordCognitive load theory
This study measured high-school learners' cognitive load as they interacted with different web-based curriculum components, and examined the interactions between cognitive load and web-based concept learning. Participants in this study were 105 11th graders from an academic senior high school in Taiwan. An online, multimedia curriculum on the topic of global warming, which lasted for four weeks, provided the learning context. After students worked through the curriculum, their feelings about the degree of mental effort that it took to complete the learning tasks were measured by self-report on a 9-point Likert scale. An online test and the flow-map method were applied to assess participants' concept achievements. The results showed that curriculum components such as scientific articles, online notebooks, flash animations and the online test induced a relatively high cognitive load, and that a lower cognitive load resulted in better concept achievement. Also, students appeared to adopt different learning approaches that were corresponding to different levels of cognitive load.
Cognitive load theory aims to develop instructional design guidelines based on a model of human cognitive architecture. The architecture assumes a limited working memory and an unlimited long-term memory holding cognitive schemas; expertise exclusively comes from knowledge stored as schemas in long-term memory. Learning is described as the construction and automation of such schemas. Three types of cognitive load are distinguished: intrinsic load is a direct function of the complexity of the performed task and the expertise of the learner; extraneous load is a result of superfluous processes that do not directly contribute to learning, and germane load is caused by learning processes that deal with intrinsic cognitive load.
This paper discusses design guidelines that will decrease extraneous load, manage intrinsic load and optimise germane load.
Fifteen design guidelines are discussed. Extraneous load can be reduced by the use of goal-free tasks, worked examples and completion tasks, by integrating different sources of information, using multiple modalities, and by reducing redundancy. Intrinsic load can be managed by simple-to-complex ordering of learning tasks and working from low- to high-fidelity environments. Germane load can be optimised by increasing variability over tasks, applying contextual interference, and evoking self-explanation. The guidelines are also related to the expertise reversal effect, indicating that design guidelines for novice learners are different from guidelines for more experienced learners. Thus, well-designed instruction for novice learners is different from instruction for more experienced learners. Applications in health professional education and current research lines are discussed.
The current state of A. D. Baddeley and G. J. Hitch's (1974) multicomponent working memory model is reviewed. The phonological and visuospatial subsystems have been extensively investigated, leading both to challenges over interpretation of individual phenomena and to more detailed attempts to model the processes underlying the subsystems. Analysis of the controlling central executive has proved more challenging, leading to a proposed clarification in which the executive is assumed to be a limited capacity attentional system, aided by a newly postulated fourth system, the episodic buffer. Current interest focuses most strongly on the link between working memory and long-term memory and on the processes allowing the integration of information from the component subsystems. The model has proved valuable in accounting for data from a wide range of participant groups under a rich array of task conditions. Working memory does still appear to be working.
The effects of visual complexity on cognitive load as influenced by field dependency and spatial ability (Doctoral dissertation
- C G Allen
Allen, C. G. (2011). The effects of visual complexity on cognitive
load as influenced by field dependency and spatial ability (Doctoral
dissertation, New York University).
When more cognitive load leads to less distraction
- K Deleeuw
DeLeeuw, K. (2009). When more cognitive load leads to less
distraction. University of California, Santa Barbara.
The Winner's Attitude: Using the Switch Method to Change How You Deal with Difficult People and Get the Best Out of Any Situation at Work: Using the Switch Method to Change How You Deal with Difficult People and Get the Best Out of Any S
- J Gee
- V Gee
Gee, J., & Gee, V. (2006). The Winner's Attitude: Using the Switch
Method to Change How You Deal with Difficult People and Get the
Best Out of Any Situation at Work: Using the Switch Method to
Change How You Deal with Difficult People and Get the Best Out of
Any S. McGraw Hill Professional.
Managing cognitive load during complex learning: A study on worked examples and element interactivity (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Utah
- U Gupta
- E Haapalainen
- S Kim
- J Forlizzi
- A Dey
Gupta, U. (2017). Managing cognitive load during complex learning:
A study on worked examples and element interactivity (Doctoral
dissertation, The University of Utah.)
-Haapalainen, E.; Kim, S.; Forlizzi, J.; & Dey, A. (2010).
Psychopsychological measures for assessing cognitive load.A paper
presented at the 12th ACM International Conference on
Ubiquitous Computing, Copenhagen, Denmark.
A cognitive theory of trust
- C A Hill
- E A Hara
Hill, C. A., & O'Hara, E. A. (2006). A cognitive theory of trust.
Wash. UL Rev., 84, 1717.
Content-area reading. Literacy instruction for adolescents: Research-based practice
- M -Mraz
- R J Rickelman
- R T Vacca
-Mraz, M., Rickelman, R. J., & Vacca, R. T. (2009). Content-area
reading. Literacy instruction for adolescents: Research-based
practice, 77.
394 working memory load in the learning of complex tasks
- F Paas
- J J Van Merriënboer
Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. (2020). Cognitive-load theory:
Methods to manage, 29(4), 394 working memory load in the
learning of complex tasks. Current Directions in Psychological
Science -398.
Advancing a theoretical model of learning and instruction. Educational psychology: A century of contributions
- A S Palincsar
Palincsar, A. S. (2003). Advancing a theoretical model of learning
and instruction. Educational psychology: A century of contributions,
459-475.
Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning
- J Sweller
Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of human cognitive architecture. In B.
Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, San Diego:
Academic Press., 43, 215-266.
-Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for
multimedia learning. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia
learning, 3(2), 19-30.
Charge cognitive et apprentissage. Une présentation des travaux de John Sweller
- S Tindall-Ford
- S Agostinho
- J Sweller
Tindall-Ford, S., Agostinho, S., & Sweller, J. (2020). Advances in
cognitive load theory. London: Routledge.
-Tricot, A. (1998). Charge cognitive et apprentissage. Une
présentation des travaux de John Sweller. Revue de Psychologie de
l'Éducation, 3, 37-64.