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Longitudinal Case Study Research to Study Self-Regulation of Professional Learning: Combining Observations and Stimulated Recall Interviews Throughout Everyday Work
Abstract
Professional learning reflects critical processes of change whereby one modifies and extends prior competencies while performing one’s job. Over the past two decades, the need has emerged and grown for insights on how employees take responsibility for their own learning and engage in self-regulation of professional learning. However, the process of measuring professional learning as well as self-regulation of professional learning during everyday work has raised difficult methodological problems for various reasons. The retrospective, cross-sectional, self-report measurement techniques often used, tend to de-contextualise learning from the complex environments in which professionals operate. Under such techniques, study participants are asked to make abstractions of this complexity to self-report regarding possibly implicit, multifaceted competencies and metacognitive strategy use as features of self-regulated learning. In this chapter, we offer an alternative approach via a longitudinal multiple case study design combining long-term observations with immediate consecutive stimulated recall interviews, towards building a more dynamic and situated understanding of professional learning through which to explore participants’ self-regulation. Using both ‘on-line’ and ‘off-line’ measurement techniques, the proposed interactive approach was empirically applied to investigate self-regulation of professional learning in medical practice. Without pretentiously suggesting that this is the ultimate research solution, we aim to outline the approach, its opportunities and challenges, how to tackle these challenges, and how the approach’s research insights could function to advance theory-building on professional learning in general—and self-regulation of professional learning in particular—in everyday work.KeywordsProfessional learningSelf-regulated learningWorkplace learningLongitudinal multiple case studyLong-term observationsStimulated recall interviews
... This handbook contains three chapters on intensive longitudinal methods: the chapter by Cuyvers et al. (2022) on longitudinal multiple case study design, the chapter by Seifried and Rausch (2022) on the experience sampling method (ESM), as well as the chapter at hand on the diary method. The method suggested by Cuyvers et al. strongly differs from diaries or ESM in so far as data collection is conducted by the researchers themselves and not by the study participants. ...
Many of the processes and outcomes of informal workplace learning remain almost unnoticed by the learner, which makes it difficult to empirically investigate informal workplace learning using retrospective self-reports. Intensive longitudinal methods allow for a data collection in situ, that means during or close to the actual processes. One such approach is the diary method, more rarely also referred to as working journals or learning logs. This chapter provides an introduction to the diary method as a data gathering tool for investigating informal workplace learning. It provides a discussion of different forms of validity, a systematic overview of typical research questions, diary parameters such as sampling methods, recording methods, and item formats as well as reporting standards in diary studies. In the second part of this chapter, two diary studies are presented to illustrate the various forms of implementation. The first study by Rausch investigates learning from errors in the workplace with a paper-based diary. In this section, the focus is on the measurement of emotions and the lack of correlation between diary and questionnaire data of similar phenomena. The second study by Goller and Steffen investigates the informal workplace learning of nurses during a special instructional setting (student-run hospital wards) and implemented voice recording. Future directions for diary studies on workplace learning are reviewed with respect to technological developments and mixed method designs.KeywordsDiary methodWorkplace learningProcess dataResearch design
This chapter discusses the contributions in the edited volume Methods for Researching Professional Learning and Development: Challenges, Applications and Empirical Illustrations from a primarily qualitative research perspective. The discussion takes the different methodological challenges or shortcomings that the chapters aim at addressing as a starting point, and moves between the suggested methods to discuss opportunities and limitations. A recurrent challenge is to find adequate ways to approach and delimit work practices within which learning unfolds, especially when work becomes multi-sited, interlinked in network constellations of actors and practices, and possibly black-boxed through the use of various information systems. In these efforts, a variety of theoretical and methodological approaches is needed. This edited volume is a valuable contribution to methodological discussion and awareness, which, through its various chapters, provides condensed introductions to various approaches as well as examples of how the given approach has been used in studies of professional learning or development. A suggested way forward is to establish more strategic connections to other research fields that take an interest in work-related learning and development, such as organisation studies, information system research and infrastructure studies.KeywordsProfessional learningProfessional practiceProfessional expertiseDigitalisationTransformation of workQualitative research
Workplace learning takes place in conditions that are, in many respects, different from that occurring in on educational institution. Due to this, essential workplace learning may not always be apparent and may therefore be difficult to capture with conventional methods of learning research. The present book discusses methodological issues from the standpoint of research design, data collection and data analysis. There is a rich and inspiring collection of established and emerging approaches, all of which attempt to tackle the challenge of research on workplace learning in its complexity. Professional competences and the processes of learning that support the development of them are multi-layered. There is no possibility to collect data about them in a uniform way using a single methodology. The book presents multimodal approaches to the collection of data. The implication of this challenge call for novel approaches to data analysis and particularly well-developed theoretical frameworks for interpreting and combining the findings from different data sources. In this discussion, I conclude that the chapters in this book provide powerful approaches for future research on workplace learning, but also new challenges relating to a deeper theoretical understanding of the affordances provided by the methods.KeywordsWorkplace learningResearchComplexityDiscussion
Research in the area of professional learning and development is faced with particular empirical and methodological challenges due to its nature and contexts. This chapter introduces and briefly describes these challenges. It then gives an overview of each of the methods/approaches (i.e., chapters) in this book in relation to the identified challenges. The chapter ends with a presentation of the overall structure of the book.KeywordsProfessional learning and developmentWorkplace learningVETResearch methods
This quasi-experimental study of self-regulated learning (SRL) in the context of primary teacher education emerged from the importance attributed to SRL for developing student teachers’ active and conscious learning. Contrary to earlier studies that focused on SRL within the initial teacher training, in this study we sought for the impact of increased SRL opportunities on student teachers’ motivation for learning in their workplace which is an important part of their educational program. The study focused on the way in which SRL opportunities for student teachers can be shaped in the workplace (research question one), the differences in perceived SRL opportunities between the experimental and the control condition (research question two) and the differences in motivation for learning between the experimental and the control condition (research question three). In answer to research question one, the earlier findings of SRL within the initial teacher program were combined with the insights and experiences of the stakeholders in practice. This resulted in a SRL approach for the workplace that was applied during one academic year by 12 primary teacher educators in cooperation with 45 primary teachers of 45 training schools. In answer to research question two, the training appeared effective because student teachers in training schools (N = 80) experienced more SRL opportunities than student teachers in the non-training schools (N = 51). In answer to research question three, student teachers in training schools demonstrated more motivational expectancy (i.e. control belief and self-efficacy for learning) compared with student teachers in non-training schools. This was in line with previous findings within initial teacher training. The importance of a gradual transition from teacher control to student control appeared vital.
Purpose
This study aims to unravel the dynamic nature of the process of self-regulated learning (SRL) of medical specialists as it actually unfolds over time in the authentic clinical environment.
Design/methodology/approach
A longitudinal multiple case-study design was used, combining multiple data-collection techniques. Long-term observations offered evidence on overt SRL strategies. Physicians’ observed behaviours were used as cues for in loco stimulated recall interviews, asking about covert SRL strategies and their thoughts regarding a situation at hand. Field notes and audiotaped stimulated recall interviews were transcribed verbatim and integrated in a longitudinal database to map SRL as it actually unfolds moment-by-moment. The transcripts were analysed from an inter- and intra-individual perspective using Nvivo 12.
Findings
Results show a variety of strategies that initiate, advance and evaluate the process of SRL. Different SRL strategies not included in contemporary frameworks on SRL are found and classified as a new category which the authors labelled “learning readiness”. Exemplary for an SRL strategy in this category is awareness of learning needs. Results show that SRL in the clinical environment is found as an interrelated, dynamic process unfolding in time with feedback loops between different SRL strategies. Performance is found to play a leading role in driving SRL.
Originality/value
This study contributes empirically to the conceptual understanding of SRL in the clinical environment. The use of a situated, longitudinal methodology, which goes beyond the common path of retrospective self-report questionnaires, adds to the disentanglement of the process of SRL as it actually unfolds in the work environment.
Much of individual’s learning takes place during job performance, implying that professionals engage in self-regulated learning (SRL). This study systematically reviews the current state of the field concerning conceptualisation and operationalisation within research on self-regulation of professional learning - for which we use the acronym “SRpL”. Although there is a growing interest for research on SRpL, this study concludes that the field is still in its infancy; not only is empirical research scarce, the field also lacks a common theoretical ground in terms of concept. Different theoretical frameworks are used, which leads to various operationalisations of what is meant by SRpL. An important concern is related to the transferability of frameworks developed for educational settings to the workplace. Analyses beyond mainstream areas, which focus on professionals’ SRL during job performance, are becoming increasingly important. This study suggests conceptual handles and proposes methodologies for future research.
Context:
Medical students are expected to self-regulate their learning within complex and unpredictable clinical learning environments. Research increasingly focuses on the effects of social interactions on the development of self-regulation in workplace settings, a notion embodied within the concept of co-regulated learning (CRL). Creating workplace learning environments that effectively foster lifelong self-regulated learning (SRL) requires a deeper understanding of the relationship between CRL and SRL. The aim of this study was therefore to explore medical students' perceptions of CRL in clinical clerkships and its perceived impact on the development of their SRL.
Methods:
We conducted semi-structured interviews with 11 purposively sampled medical students enrolled in clinical clerkships at one undergraduate competency-based medical school. Data collection and analysis were conducted iteratively, informed by principles of constructivist grounded theory. Data analysis followed stages of open, axial and selective coding, which enabled us to conceptualise how co-regulation influences the development of students' self-regulation.
Results:
Data revealed three interrelated shifts in CRL and SRL as students progressed through clerkships. First, students' CRL shifted from a focus on peers to co-regulation with clinician role models. Second, self-regulated behaviour shifted from being externally driven to being internally driven. Last, self-regulation shifted from a task-oriented approach towards a more comprehensive approach focusing on professional competence and identity formation. Students indicated that if they felt able to confidently and proactively self-regulate their learning, the threshold for engaging others in meaningful CRL seemed to be lowered, enhancing further development of SRL skills.
Conclusions:
Findings from the current study emphasise the notion that SRL and its development are grounded in CRL in clinical settings. To optimally support the development of students' SRL, we need to focus on facilitating and organising learners' engagement in CRL from the start of the medical curriculum.
From the Handbook of Qualitative Research, 5th ed., (Edited by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln; SAGE Publications) this chapter places the method of Observation within a genealogy of surveillance. It examines the relationship between visuality and power, especially when it comes to academic research.
In this article, we provide a nuanced perspective on the benefits and costs of covert research. In particular, we illustrate the value of such an approach by focusing on covert participant observation. We posit that all observational studies sit along a continuum of consent, with few research projects being either fully overt or fully covert due to practical constraints and the ambiguous nature of consent itself. With reference to illustrative examples, we demonstrate that the study of deviant behaviors, secretive organizations and socially important topics is often only possible through substantially covert participant observation. To support further consideration of this method, we discuss different ethical perspectives and explore techniques to address the practical challenges of covert participant observation, including; gaining access, collecting data surreptitiously, reducing harm to participants, leaving the site of study and addressing ethical issues.
Professional learning is a critical component of ongoing improvement and innovation and the adoption of new practices in the workplace. Professional learning is often achieved through learning embedded in everyday work tasks. However, little is known about how professionals self-regulate their learning through regular work activities. This paper explores how professionals in the finance sector (n-30) self-regulate their learning through day-to-day work. Analysis focuses on three sub-processes of self-regulated learning that have been identified as significant predictors of good self-regulated learning at work. A key characteristic of good self-regulation is viewing learning as a form of long-term, personalised self-improvement. This studyprovides a foundation for future policy and planning in organisations aiming to encourage self-regulated learning.
The entrance of newly qualified medical specialists into daily practice is considered to be a stressful period in which curriculum support is absent. Although engaging in both personal and professional learning and development activities is recognized fundamental for lifelong professional competence, research on medical professionals’ entrance into practice is scarce. This research aims to contribute to the framework of medical professionals’ informal learning and outlines the results of an exploratory study on the nature of learning in daily practice beyond postgraduate training. Eleven newly qualified physicians from different specialized backgrounds participated in a phenomenographic study, using a critical incident method and a grounded theory approach. Results demonstratedthatlearning in the workplace is, to a large extent, informal and associated with a variety of learning experiences. Analysis shows that experiences related to diagnostics and treatments are important sources for learning. Furthermore, incidents related to communication, changing roles, policy and organization offer learning opportunities, and therefore categorized as learning experiences. A broad range of learning activities are identified in dealing with these learning experiences. More specifically, actively engaging in actions and interactions, especially with colleagues of the same specialty, are the most mentioned. Observing others, consulting written sources, and recognizing uncertainties, are also referred to as learning activities. In the study, interaction, solely or combined with other learning activities, are deemed as very important by specialists in the initial entrance into practice. These insights can be used to develop workplace structures to support the entrance into practice following postgraduate training.
Self-regulated learning has benefits for students’ academic performance in school, but also for expertise development during their professional career. This study examined the validity of an instrument to measure student teachers’ regulation of their learning to teach across multiple and different kinds of learning events in the context of a postgraduate professional teacher education programme. Based on an analysis of the literature, we developed a log with structured questions that could be used as a multiple-event instrument to determine the quality of student teachers’ regulation of learning by combining data from multiple learning experiences. The findings showed that this structured version of the instrument measured student teachers’ regulation of their learning in a valid and reliable way. Furthermore, with the aid of the Structured Learning Report individual differences in student teachers’ regulation of learning could be discerned. Together the findings indicate that a multiple-event instrument can be used to measure regulation of learning in multiple contexts for various learning experiences at the same time, without the necessity of relying on students’ ability to rate themselves across all these different experiences. In this way, this instrument can make an important contribution to bridging the gap between two dominant approaches to measure SRL, the traditional aptitude and event measurement approach.
In recent years, the diary method has attracted increasing attention in research on work and learning. Since workplace learning is often only a by-product of working processes, data collection in situ seems to be a promising approach compared to retrospective instruments. This chapter provides a systematic overview of
the manifold options when using diaries in research on work and learning. Exemplary implementations of diary instruments are presented, and future perspectives of the diary method and related measures are discussed. By discussing benefi ts and pitfalls of the method, this contribution aims at helping and encouraging other researchers to use diaries in their research.
Ethical tensions are part of the everyday practice of doing research—all kinds of research. How do researchers deal with ethical problems that arise in the practice of their research, and are there conceptual frameworks that they can draw on to assist them? This article examines the relationship between reflexivity and research ethics. It focuses on what con- stitutes ethical research practice in qualitative research and how researchers achieve ethi- cal research practice. As a framework for thinking through these issues, the authors dis- tinguish two different dimensions of ethics in research, which they term procedural ethics and "ethics in practice." The relationship between them and the impact that each has on the actual doing of research are examined. The article then draws on the notion of reflexivity as a helpful way of understanding both the nature of ethics in qualitative research and how ethical practice in research can be achieved.
This paper focuses mainly on theoretical frameworks for understanding and investigating informal learning in the workplace, which have been developed through a series of large‐ and small‐scale projects. The main conclusions are included but readers are referred to other publications for more detailed accounts of individual projects. Two types of framework are discussed. The first group seeks to deconstruct the ‘key concepts’ of informal learning, learning from experience, tacit knowledge, transfer of learning and> intuitive practice to disclose the range of different phenomena that are embraced by these popular terms. The second group comprises frameworks for addressing the three central questions that pervaded the research programme: what is being learned, how is it being learned and what are the factors that influence the level and directions of the learning effort?
Articles in this special issue present recent advances in using state-of-the-art software systems that gather data with which to examine and measure features of learning and particularly self-regulated learning (SRL). Despite important advances, there remain challenges. I examine key features of SRL and how they are measured using common tools. I advance the case that traces of cognition and metacognition offer critical information about SRL that other state-of-the-art measurements cannot.
Conducted a meta-analytic review of 33 studies (1975–1987) that have examined the relationships between social desirability response sets and organizational behavior constructs. Results indicate that social desirability, as traditionally measured in the literature, is significantly (although moderately) correlated with widely used constructs in organizational behavior research. Study 2 examined whether the meta-analytic results would be replicated using D. L. Paulhus's (unpublished) measure of socially desirable responding. Results indicate that, even though a number of the measures commonly used in organizational behavior research are significantly correlated with Paulhus's impression management dimension, the majority of these correlations are generally small to moderate in size. Controlling for socially desirable responding had little impact on the nature of the relationships reported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Various studies have focused on self-regulated student learning. However, little attention has been given to the self-regulation processes in teacher learning. In this study, we focus on the work-related learning processes reported by experienced higher education teachers. The aim of this study was to discover whether teachers actively self-regulate their learning experiences (as their students are expected to do) and to examine how this regulation takes place in the workplace. We tested some generally held assumptions and conceptions regarding teacher learning. Fifteen experienced college teachers, from three different colleges in The Netherlands, participated. Two semi-structured interviews and a (digital) diary study were used as the primary data collection methods. We collected 86 examples of teacher learning episodes. These were analysed using a phenomenographic method. The results show that our teachers’ learning experiences are not as self-regulated, planned, reflective, or spiral as some assume. Sometimes, the teachers’ learning was planned (self-regulated), but mostly it occurred in a non-linear (both external and self-regulated) or spontaneous (externally regulated) way. We conclude that our teachers do not always self-regulate their learning, but they mostly do self-regulate their teaching practice (with learning as a result).
The article presents a thematic review of the recent research on workplace learning. It is divided into two main sections. The first section asks what we know about learning at work, and states four propositions: (1) the nature of workplace learning is both different from and similar to school learning; (2) learning in the workplace can be described at different levels, ranging from the individual to the network and region; (3) workplace learning is both informal and formal; and (4) workplaces differ a lot in how they support learning. The second section focuses on workplace learning that is related to formal education. Different models of organising work experience for students and the challenges of creating partnerships between education and working life are described. It is concluded that the worlds of education and work are moving closer each other and that the integration of formal and informal learning is an essential prerequisite for developing the kinds of expertise needed in response to the changes taking place in working life.
Researchers have been applying their knowledge of goal-oriented behavior to the self-regulated learning domain for more than 30 years. This review examines the current state of research on self-regulated learning and gaps in the field's understanding of how adults regulate their learning of work-related knowledge and skills. Self-regulation theory was used as a conceptual lens for deriving a heuristic framework of 16 fundamental constructs that constitute self-regulated learning. Meta-analytic findings (k=430, N=90,380) support theoretical propositions that self-regulation constructs are interrelated-30% of the corrected correlations among constructs were .50 or greater. Goal level, persistence, effort, and self-efficacy were the self-regulation constructs with the strongest effects on learning. Together these constructs accounted for 17% of the variance in learning, after controlling for cognitive ability and pretraining knowledge. However, 4 self-regulatory processes-planning, monitoring, help seeking, and emotion control-did not exhibit significant relationships with learning. Thus, a parsimonious framework of the self-regulated learning domain is presented that focuses on a subset of self-regulatory processes that have both limited overlap with other core processes and meaningful effects on learning. Research is needed to advance the field's understanding of how adults regulate their learning in an increasingly complex and knowledge-centric work environment. Such investigations should capture the dynamic nature of self-regulated learning, address the role of self-regulation in informal learning, and investigate how trainees regulate their transfer of training.
Eye tracking is a particularly interesting technology for investigating professional learning and development in vision-intensive professions. At the workplace, professionals are often confronted with complex visual tasks that they must solve quickly. From a psychological and educational point of view, it is interesting to examine professionals’ attentional behaviours during work activities and to understand how they analyse and interpret visual input. Common to vision-intensive professions is the notion that professionals need the ability to perceive the relevant from the irrelevant and correctly interpret it. A radiologist, for instance, needs to make correct medical diagnoses based on complex visual material. Eye tracking enables the measurement of eye movements. By tracking the movements of the eyeball(s), we can learn where a person is looking, the duration of his or her gaze, and the order of the eye movements. Eye-tracking technology does not explain the underlying motives of looking; it only visualises gaze behaviour. The focus of this chapter is the meaning of eye tracking, the purposes of its application and the aspects of eye tracking that warrant attention. To illustrate the challenges and benefits of using eye-tracking technology in workplace learning, an empirical study in the medical domain is presented. A longitudinal quasi-experimental study with three measurement points was designed with the aim of investigating expertise development among eight residents of a radiology department and to identify changes in their way of analysing and diagnosing medical X-ray images during their residency.KeywordsEye trackingWorkplace learningDiagnostic reasoningVisual expertise professional developmentResidency in radiology
One of the benefits of computer-based assessments lies in the automatic generation of log data. Such behavioural process data provide a time-stamped documentation of students’ interactions with the assessment system (e.g., mouse clicks). This chapter explores the usefulness of computer-generated log data for the measurement of professional competence and their potential for the research on professional learning and development. Based on a selection of studies, we illustrate how interindividual differences in task completion processes can be analysed with the help of log data, e.g. to identify the use of certain problem-solving strategies, or to reveal subgroups of students with efficiency barriers. We further present our own research, where we applied a theory on the diagnostic process (Abele, Vocat Learn 11(1):133–159, 2018) in order to assess diagnostic strategies (Abele and von Davier, CDMs in vocational education: assessment and usage of diagnostic problem-solving strategies in car mechatronics. In: von Davier M, Lee YS (eds) Handbook of diagnostic classification models. Springer International Publishing, pp 461–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05584-4_22, 2019) in the domain of car mechatronics using log data. A profound understanding of interindividual process differences may supplement a merely product-oriented competence measurement and pave the way for a more process-oriented approach. Challenges concerning the assessment, analysis and interpretation of log data will be discussed.KeywordsProcess dataLog dataCompetence measurementComputer-based assessmentVocational education
Many of the processes and outcomes of informal workplace learning remain almost unnoticed by the learner, which makes it difficult to empirically investigate informal workplace learning using retrospective self-reports. Intensive longitudinal methods allow for a data collection in situ, that means during or close to the actual processes. One such approach is the diary method, more rarely also referred to as working journals or learning logs. This chapter provides an introduction to the diary method as a data gathering tool for investigating informal workplace learning. It provides a discussion of different forms of validity, a systematic overview of typical research questions, diary parameters such as sampling methods, recording methods, and item formats as well as reporting standards in diary studies. In the second part of this chapter, two diary studies are presented to illustrate the various forms of implementation. The first study by Rausch investigates learning from errors in the workplace with a paper-based diary. In this section, the focus is on the measurement of emotions and the lack of correlation between diary and questionnaire data of similar phenomena. The second study by Goller and Steffen investigates the informal workplace learning of nurses during a special instructional setting (student-run hospital wards) and implemented voice recording. Future directions for diary studies on workplace learning are reviewed with respect to technological developments and mixed method designs.KeywordsDiary methodWorkplace learningProcess dataResearch design
In the workplace, employees are increasingly expected to take responsibility for their own professional learning. However, there is high variability in the capability of professionals to self-regulate their own learning. Previous descriptive and explanatory studies on self-regulation of professional learning (SRpL) have explored the operationalization of SRpL and provided insights in what personal and contextual factors benefit engagement in this self-regulated learning process. However, in-depth research on the process of how professionals regulate their learning intertwined with their daily work in various social constellations is scarce. Also, insights in how we can support professionals’ self-regulation of their learning at work are limited, but highly needed. In this chapter we give an overview of the state-of-the-art of current research on SRpL. Moreover, we identified and explored three avenues to forward research on SRpL based on recent developments in the field of self-regulated learning in educational settings: inclusion of a temporal approach to study the process of SRpL, exploration of social regulation of professional learning, and the use of adaptive tools to support SRpL. This way, we identified crucial building blocks for a new era of research on SRpL.
Context
Research in workplace learning has emphasized trainees’ active role in their education. By focusing on how trainees fine‐tune their strategic learning, theories of self‐regulated learning (SRL) offer a unique lens to study workplace learning. To date, studies of SRL in the workplace tend to focus on listing the factors affecting learning, rather than on the specific mechanisms trainees use to regulate their goal‐directed activities. To inform the design of workplace learning interventions that better support SRL, we asked: How do residents navigate their exposure to and experience performing invasive procedures in Intensive Care Units?
Methods
In two academic hospitals, we conducted post‐call debriefs with residents coming off shift and later sought their elaborated perspectives via semi‐structured interviews. We used a constant comparative methodology to analyze the data, to iteratively refine data collection, and to inform abductive coding of the data, using SRL principles as sensitizing concepts.
Results
We completed 29 debriefs and nine interviews with 24 trainees. Participants described specific mechanisms: identifying, creating, avoiding, missing, and competing for opportunities to perform invasive procedures. While using these mechanisms to engage with procedures (or not), participants reported: distinguishing trajectories (i.e., become attuned to task‐relevant factors), navigating trajectories (i.e., create and interact with opportunities to perform procedures), and co‐constructing trajectories with their peers, supervisors, and interprofessional team members.
Conclusions
We identified specific SRL mechanisms trainees used to distinguish and navigate possible learning trajectories. We also confirmed previous findings, including that trainees become attuned to interactions between personal, behavioural, and environmental factors (SRL theory), and that their resulting learning behaviours are constrained and guided by interactions with peers, supervisors, and colleagues (workplace learning theory). Making learning trajectories explicit for clinician teachers may help them support trainees in prioritizing certain trajectories, in progressing along each trajectory, and in co‐constructing their plans for navigating them.
In medicine, competences need to be updated continuously and at warp
speed to keep up with the evolutions in science and technology, and at the same
time provide high standard evidence-based patient-care. Although continuous
development programs offer a broad variety of learning activities for recognised
medical specialists to keep developing knowledge and skills, the workplace itself
offers many learning opportunities. Active engagement in learning processes is
needed: learning goals need to be set and strategies planned. Subsequent actions
and results need to be monitored and adjustments made to reach the goals set. Also,
reflection on and evaluation of the learning process and its outcomes is a necessity to
consecutively learn. In sum, blending all these actions represents self-regulation of
learning (SRL) which has been acknowledged as an essential requirement for lifelong
learning in medical practice. Notwithstanding the importance of SRL, research on
SRL of recognised medical specialists in the clinical environment is lacking.
This dissertation deepens the understanding of the concept of SRL as it actually
evolves in the authentic clinical environment while engaging in performance. This
dissertation also contributes methodologically to the research field by exploring the
measurement of SRL as an ongoing process, unfolding moment-by-moment. Our
work unravels that besides a broad variety of SRL-strategies that initiate, advance,
and evaluate the process, SRL-strategies conditional for SRL to take place can be
found. Also, feedback loops between strategies are found. However, SRL in the
clinical environment is not found to take place in delimited phases as existing
research in educational settings demonstrated. Further, a longitudinal multiple
case study design offers a methodological approach for in-depth, valide and reliable
measurements of the process of SRL in the clinical environment.
The interest in research focusing on learning taking place at work, through work and for work has considerably increased over the past two decades. The purpose of the paper is to review and structure this wide and diverse research field. A tentative holistic model—the 3-P model of workplace learning—is presented, in relation to which the following six lines of research are identified: (1) studies describing the nature of workplace learning, (2) research on work identities and agency in workplace learning, (3) studies on the development of professional expertise, (4) analyses of competence development in education–work contexts in vocational education and training as well as in higher education, (5) research on communities of practice, and (6) research on organisational learning. The research lines and the holistic 3-P model should be seen as analytic tools for understanding the diversity in workplace learning research. They may also serve as a kind of map for individual researchers, helping them to locate their main areas of interest in this broad field of research and to outline research designs for future studies.
Self-regulated learning (SRL) with hypermedia environments involves a complex cycle of temporally unfolding cognitive and metacognitive processes that impact students’ learning. We present several methodological issues related to treating SRL as an event and strengths and challenges of using online trace methodologies to detect, trace, model, and foster students’ SRL processes. We first describe a scenario illustrating the complex nature of SRL processes during learning with hypermedia. We provide our theoretically driven assumptions regarding the use of several cognitive methodologies, including concurrent think aloud protocols, and provide several examples of empirical evidence regarding the advantages of treating SRL as an event. Last, we discuss challenges for measuring cognitive and metacognitive processes in the context of MetaTutor, an intelligent adaptive hypermedia learning environment. This discussion includes the roles of pedagogical agents in goal-generation, multiple representations, agent-learner dialogue, and a system's ability to detect, track, and model SRL processes during learning.
This book presents a disciplined, qualitative exploration of case study methods by drawing from naturalistic, holistic, ethnographic, phenomenological and biographic research methods. Robert E. Stake uses and annotates an actual case study to answer such questions as: How is the case selected? How do you select the case which will maximize what can be learned? How can what is learned from one case be applied to another? How can what is learned from a case be interpreted? In addition, the book covers: the differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches; data-gathering including document review; coding, sorting and pattern analysis; the roles of the researcher; triangulation; and reporting.
This paper draws primarily on an ESRC-TLRP longitudinal study of early career professional learning, which focused on the first three years of employment of newly qualified nurses, graduate engineers seeking chartered status and trainee chartered accountants. The first section introduces the theoretical and methodological base provided by previous projects, then proceeds to explore an epistemology of practice, using three dimensions: (1) four key elements of practice - situational assessment, decision-making, actions and meta-cognitive monitoring; (2) the mode of cognition and its dependence on time and prior learning; and (3) the context, its influence on mode of cognition and its affordances for learning. The central section presents the project's findings on modes of learning through a new framework, which divides learning processes according to whether the object is perceived to be learning or working, then adds a list of shorter learning activities used within both types of process, including various types of mediating artifact. The final section summarises the project's findings on factors affecting learning, then draws practical conclusions from the project's work.
In spite of a widespread belief in the importance of integrating learning and work, little is known about the conditions that promote such an integration. In order to both clarify the concept of learning and see how to integrate learning and work, this article distinguishes between two major modes of learning: adaptive and developmental learning, which the author breaks down into four levels. Using these conceptualizations as a starting point, the article focuses on identifying and analyzing a number of factors that are assumed to be critical for facilitating or constraining an integration of learning and work.
To provide guidance on improving the quality of case studies in health services research.
Secondary data, drawing from previous case study research.
Guidance is provided to two audiences: potential case study investigators (eight items) and reviewers of case study proposals (four additional items).
The guidance demonstrates that many operational steps can be undertaken to improve the quality of case studies. These steps have been a hallmark of high-quality case studies in related fields but have not necessarily been practiced in health services research.
Given higher-quality case studies, the case study method can become a valuable tool for health services research.
Background:
This paper explores the conceptual and methodological problems arising from several empirical investigations of professional education and learning in the workplace.
Aims:
1. To clarify the multiple meanings accorded to terms such as 'non-formal learning', 'implicit learning' and 'tacit knowledge', their theoretical assumptions and the range of phenomena to which they refer. 2. To discuss their implications for professional practice.
Method:
A largely theoretical analysis of issues and phenomena arising from empirical investigations.
Analysis:
The author's typology of non-formal learning distinguishes between implicit learning, reactive on-the-spot learning and deliberative learning. The significance of the last is commonly overemphasized. The problematic nature of tacit knowledge is discussed with respect to both detecting it and representing it. Three types of tacit knowledge are discussed: tacit understanding of people and situations, routinized actions and the tacit rules that underpin intuitive decision-making. They come together when professional performance involves sequences of routinized action punctuated by rapid intuitive decisions based on tacit understanding of the situation. Four types of process are involved--reading the situation, making decisions, overt activity and metacognition--and three modes of cognition--intuitive, analytic and deliberative. The balance between these modes depends on time, experience and complexity. Where rapid action dominates, periods of deliberation are needed to maintain critical control. Finally the role of both formal and informal social knowledge is discussed; and it is argued that situated learning often leads not to local conformity but to greater individual variation as people's careers take them through a series of different contexts. This abstract necessarily simplifies a more complex analysis in the paper itself.
Qualitative content analysis as described in published literature shows conflicting opinions and unsolved issues regarding meaning and use of concepts, procedures and interpretation. This paper provides an overview of important concepts (manifest and latent content, unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensation, abstraction, content area, code, category and theme) related to qualitative content analysis; illustrates the use of concepts related to the research procedure; and proposes measures to achieve trustworthiness (credibility, dependability and transferability) throughout the steps of the research procedure. Interpretation in qualitative content analysis is discussed in light of Watzlawick et al.'s [Pragmatics of Human Communication. A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies and Paradoxes. W.W. Norton & Company, New York, London] theory of communication.
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