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Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
19 – 22 September 2022, Beijing, China
Copyright © 2022 by < Deyan QUAN, Christiane M HERR, Davide LOMBARDI, Ziyue GAO, Jun XIA>
Published by the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) and Asian-Pacific Conference
on Shell and Spatial Structures (APCS) with permission.
Prototyping Parametrically Designed Fiber-reinforced Concrete
Façade Elements Using 3D Printed Formwork
Deyan QUAN*, Christiane M HERRa, Davide LOMBARDI, Ziyue GAO, Jun XIA
*Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University
Department of Architecture
Deyan.Quan20@student.xjtlu.edu.cn
a Southern University of Science and Technology
Abstract
This paper documents the initial stage of a study investigating the interrelations between façade
geometry design, material and fabrication constraints, and focuses on incorporating structural and
fabrication constraints into parametric façade design. It presents the initial phase of the prototyping
process for intricate façade elements employing robotically 3D printed formwork in combination with
ultra-high-performance fiber reinforced concrete. Following a review of precedent research related to
digitally designed and fabricated concrete elements, experimental results derived from compression load
testing of high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete using 3D printed formwork are discussed and
compared to structural performance of the same material cast in conventional formwork. The
prototyping process and structural analysis of the prototypes demonstrate the feasibility of a design
approach that facilitates parametric geometry design and resource-efficient small-scale production of
façade prototypes.
Keywords: Parametric façade design, 3D printed formwork, robotic fabrication, ultra-high performance concrete.
1. Introduction
Concrete, as the most-used material in building construction over the last century, provides structural
support, aesthetic effect and durable construction in architecture. However, it is also responsible for a
significant percentage of global carbon emissions [1]. Accordingly, both architecture and engineering
research have developed a growing interest in how to render concrete construction methods more
efficient while at the same time reducing their environmental impact. To achieve low carbon emission
goals, innovative digital fabrication and construction techniques for concrete building elements have
recently come into focus.
Despite greatly improved digital capacity to create intricate shapes, this digital geometric flexibility is
not yet matched by contemporary fabrication methods. A large number of recent studies have examined
robotic concrete 3D printing technology with a focus on high-tech fabrication as well as diverse
strategies to omit steel reinforcement [2, 3]. At full scale, however, these structures have encountered
several challenges such as insufficient reinforcement and issues resulting from lack of inter-laminar
bonding in conventional 3D printed concrete [4]. Formwork is the most significant cost item in
conventional construction of concrete architectural components and generates significant waste. This is
especially the case for complex volumetric shapes that exceed two-dimensional surface geometries and
require specially made one-off formwork. To decrease financial and environmental cost, recent research
efforts have focused on digitally fabricated formwork systems employing reusable materials. Among
them, several projects employed non-repetitive 3D printed formwork with the aim of more geometric
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
2
flexibility, but primarily focused on the digital design aspect and a limited-scale prototype fabrication
process [5, 6]. In this context, the application of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
(UHPFRC) offers high structural performance and supports freeform geometry. The realization of such
applications has however been slow and mostly limited to two-dimensional panel geometries. While a
combination of UHPFRC with 3D printed formwork can potentially address existing limitations as
outlined above, the constructive feasibility of digitally designed architectural elements based on this
approach is not yet well understood or documented.
This paper presents the initial phase of a study investigating the interrelations between parametric façade
design, robotic fabrication and material constraints. The study examines how material properties and
fabrication constraints can be integrated into a parametric façade design process to achieve both
geometric flexibility and functional efficiency. A hybrid production method is adopted, casting
UHPFRC into robotically 3D printed formwork to produce structurally viable façade components in
geometries that are not easily achievable with conventional methods. The paper presents the prototyping
phase of this study and outlines insights deriving from this process to facilitate the later stages of the
study. To this end, this paper reviews precedent research related to digitally designed and fabricated
concrete elements. It then presents an initial series of compression loading tests of specimens cast in 3D
printed and conventional formwork, examining the feasibility of the combination of 3D printed
formwork and UHPFRC. The physical prototyping process and the structural analysis of the prototypes
demonstrate a potential design strategy to incorporate structural, material and fabrication constraints
into design parameters during the small-scale prototyping process. The paper concludes with a
discussion of the potential of a resource-effective parametric façade design and production approach.
2. Literature review
While the digital capability to create intricate shapes, for example through parametric design tools, is
widespread in architectural design, it is currently not matched with similarly available and suitable
fabrication methods. As a result, the realization of digitally designed and fabricated concrete façade
shapes remains mostly limited to two-dimensional panels and column-shaped forms. This section
reviews two related research areas, including realization of freeform concrete façade elements and the
technology of 3D printed formwork for concrete components.
2.1. Realization of freeform concrete façade elements
Digital design and fabrication have long promised next-generation parametrically designed facades
featuring intricate geometries, but their realization has been consistently hampered by fabrication
constraints. Since the 1950s, concrete facades have been designed as relatively massive volumes rather
than light-weight and efficient load bearing structures [7, 8]. Sculptural concrete facades with repetitive
components are typically used in low-rise building practice projects [9, 10]. With digitally fabricated
formwork offering the potential to achieve freeform concrete façade elements, several previous studies
investigated different kinds of formwork, such as clay formwork [11] and foam printed formwork [12].
Modular and discrete fabrication methods are the most widely used to generate overall flexible façade
geometries [13]. The potential of UHPFRC to achieve freeform shapes and high material strength has
been investigated by comparatively few studies. Herr et al. [14] examined the fabrication of non-
standard fiber reinforced concrete facade elements but mostly focused on the digital design aspects of a
parametrically defined sculptural concrete façade element employing fiber reinforced concrete, offering
first façade design considerations related to material properties, structural performance and related
fabrication constraints.
2.2. 3D printed formwork for cast concrete
A growing field of studies investigates digitally fabricated formwork to achieve greater geometric
flexibility and less environmental impact. These types of 3D printed formwork carry promise for full-
scale applications but have run into various challenges.
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
3
An additive polymer formwork was first developed under the name Mesh Mould in 2013 [15] and has
been investigated in the context of several innovative fabrication methods. The Mesh Mould formwork
is extruded as a lattice structure that acts both as formwork and secondary reinforcement. A London-
based company, Ai Build, constructed a thin 3D printed layer-based formwork lining supported by a
structural special mesh 3D printed in parallel [16]. A fully recyclable formwork material, water-soluble
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was investigated for concrete columns by two teams from Iowa State
University and ETH Zürich [5, 6]. The Eggshell formwork was explored based on simultaneous casting
and 3D printing fabrication methods to deal with fragile submillimeter formwork challenges [17]. It was
also used in the project of the Funicular slab prototype [3] and MAS stairs [18].
Extrusion-based clay formwork can easily be dissolved in water for demoulding. It was first used by
XtreeE to produce a prototype of a custom space truss with the aim of reducing material consumption.
It was further developed by Wang et al. [11] in the form of a 2.5-meter-high concrete element, but the
concrete surface needed an additional mechanical smoothening process. 3D printed wax formwork was
proposed to achieve zero-waste goals as it can be recycled and reused multiple times. Gardiner [19]
developed this approach by fabrication of 1400 unique wax formwork panels for the bespoke geometry
of the prefabricated concrete lining for underground tunnels in London. In the foam jetting formwork
system, the extruder sprays foam with a subtractive tool that corrects the layer irregularities to fabricate
according to a CAD model [12]. Recursive Lattices firstly developed binder jetting formwork which
acted as structural lattices and was combined with high-performance concrete [20]. The Smart Slab used
binder jetting to prefabricate a 15-tonne cantilevering structural slab while reducing material use [21].
Fast Complexity developed a reusable binder-jetting formwork for the prefabrication of discrete post-
tensioned slab elements [22].
3D printed concrete formwork with reinforcement and cast concrete are also investigated in a number
of current studies. To adapt to the structural requirements of full-scale construction, these prototypes
typically print the concrete shell and add steel reinforcement cages before finally casting the concrete
[23]. XtreeE further developed this technology by constructing a 4-meter-high load-bearing
prefabricated column [4]. YRYS Concept House used a similar fabrication method to build concrete
façade panels and 2.5-meter-long wall. Anton et al. [2] constructed a series of 3-meter-tall columns,
specifically employing printed thin double concrete shells, reinforcement cages and post-tensioning
tendons in the internal void of the column. In this case, the 3D printed concrete shell acted as stay-in
place reinforcement. The project significantly increased the geometric complexity compared to previous
projects since it achieves cantilevers, undercuts, voids, and inner chambers, but the overall geometric
shape is still limited [22].
Extending possibilities of conventional 3D concrete printing, the above outlined types of 3D printed
formwork allow for detailed control of concrete surface quality and increased geometric complexity.
While some research has been carried out on innovative methods combining reinforcement and digitally
fabricated formwork, the approach to eliminate conventional reinforcement using new material such as
UHPFRC has not been investigated systematically yet. Aside from functional concerns such as material
efficiency, constraints deriving from material and fabrication still need further investigation to be
embedded in the façade component design process.
3. A new hybrid materiality: 3D printed formwork and ultra-high-performance fiber
reinforced concrete
To address the limitations of precedent projects, this study aims to produce intricate façade elements
employing robotically 3D printed formwork in combination with UHPFRC. A preliminary
understanding of the physical properties of the composite material comprised of UHPFRC and 3D
printed formwork provides a first indication of the feasibility of the facade geometry development and
fabrication process. Physical properties of the concrete façade components were assessed in the form of
stress tests to examine how 3D printed formwork influences the structural function of UHPFRC
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
4
components. The compression loading tests were conducted with engineering colleagues from civil
engineering department. The tests follow conventional compression strength loading test arrangements
using typical cubic (100*100*100mm) and cylinder shapes (Ф-100mm*h-200mm) with different
formwork thicknesses. The test arrangement shown in the following includes formwork printing,
concrete casting and specimen curing. For each testing arrangement, the following sections discuss data
obtained as well as preliminary indications in terms of potentials and constraints for façade applications.
3.1. Formwork printing
The formwork printing was conducted using an UR10 Robot with a 2 mm-diameter extruder (Figure 1).
The printing material is PETG (polyethylene terephthalate glycol) with 230℃ melting temperature. To
achieve varying thicknesses, the printing setting needs to be well-defined including the printing speed
(ps) and extrusion speed (es): 1.5 mm thickness with ps 14.4 mm/s, es 60 r/min; 2.5 mm thickness with
ps 14.4 mm/s, es 80 r/min.
Figure 1: Printing process and 3D printed formwork of specimens
3.2. Specimen casting and curing
The investigated fabrication processes are developed to produce façade element shapes of non-standard
forms and high geometric variability. One potential challenge is the achievement of even fiber
distribution in the formwork. Hence, in the concrete mix design, 52.5 grade cement was mixed with
superplasticizer and PVA fibers. The diameter and length of the fibers are 0.12 mm and 12 mm
respectively, which give an aspect ratio of 1%. This mix design benefits the even material distribution
for complex geometries while reaching a target compression strength of 120 MPa. Figure 2 shows the
concrete mix and casting procedure. Concrete was cast into all formwork containers and vibrated to
decrease air bubble formation. To shorten the production period while achieving the same curing quality,
specimens were cured in 60℃ water for 72 hours rather than the 28 days of standard water curing (Figure
3).
Figure 2: Ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete casting
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
5
Figure 3: Concrete curing
3.3. Compression strength test
Six groups of models were produced, consisting of: 2 groups of 3D printed cubic formwork with
different thicknesses (1.5 mm and 2.5 mm); 2 groups of 3D printed cylinder formwork with different
thicknesses (1.5 mm and 2.5 mm); 2 groups of conventional ABS customized formwork, respectively
in cubic and cylinder shapes. Each group contains three specimens to obtain generalizable testing results.
The compression strength tests are conducted on the loading machine (Figure 4, left).
Figure 4: Compression strength tests
3.4. Test observation and result analysis
The compression test examined how 3D printed formwork influences the structural function of
UHPFRC components. To this end, it compared the compression strength of specimens cast in both
conventional and 3D printed formworks. During the casting process, deformation was observed in the
3D printed formwork with a thickness of 1.5 mm, indicating that insufficient support was provided by
the 1.5 mm-formwork at this scale. In terms of the compressive strength data, the difference between
specimens cast in conventional and 3D printed formwork was comparatively small and less than 10
MPa. This initial result indicates that the fabrication process is feasible: the 3D printed formwork not
only has the capacity to serve as the mould for UHPFRC without deformation but also shows very few
negative effects on the structural performance of the UHPFRC components.
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
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4. Prototyping parametrically designed fiber reinforced concrete façade elements
4.1. Prototype design
4.1.1. Preliminary design criteria
In order to generate prototype geometry for UHPFRC façade elements, the initial stage of the geometric
exploration to generate prototype geometry is based on the critical analysis of previous 3D printing and
concrete casting experiments. It mainly addresses the material, construction and functional aspects.
Based on the consideration of material properties, the geometry design should take into account the
maximum and minimum dimensions, angles, and curvatures of chosen geometries for the purpose of
even material deposition. It should also take efficient material use including constraints relating to
formwork and concrete into account. In terms of construction, the façade geometry should accommodate
connections between units of the modular system and should be printable by robotic arms with minimal
need for supporting systems. Regarding functional considerations, the design should consider not only
the structural performance but also aspects of building performance such as shading.
4.1.2. Façade topology
The prototype topology is based on one of 11 design series of sculptural modular elements developed
by Erwin Hauer in the 1950s. Hauer’s “Design 1” featured penetrations and prominent interior voids
bounded by continuous surfaces (Figure 5) [24]. Already from the creation of this series, architects were
inspired to employ the perforated modular structures as screen walls allowing air to circulate and
filtering light. The production of non-structural screen walls employed hand-operated moulds of
individual modules, leading to a complex and time-cost-consuming fabrication process. Even though
the following design series of Hauer’s work enriched the volumetric geometric application of the
architectural components, the placement of reinforcement still limited its geometric freedom. The
prototyping process in this study produces topology similarly complex as Hauer’s using HPFRC and 3D
printed formwork while eliminating requirements for rebars and achieving high structural performance.
Figure. 5 Design 1 modules from Erwin Hauer
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
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4.1.3. Parametric geometry design
The interlocking volumetric façade geometry is developed using a parametric method. The designed
shapes generate spaces between two layers to differentiate the shading function. A standard module is
defined through specific points/vertices, lines/boundaries, and surfaces to establish parameters,
variables, and their mutual geometric relationships and constraints. Based on the modular façade design,
six prototypes (Figure 6) with different variables (aa-gg) were fabricated to explore material and
fabrication constraints (including formwork printing and concrete casting feasibility) as parameters to
inform the facade geometry designs. A minimal thickness of 25 mm was adopted for the prototypes to
test the concrete fluidity.
Figure 6: Modular variations
4.2. Prototype fabrication
Figure 7 shows the prototyping process including formwork printing, concrete casting and curing. The
designed geometry can be fabricated at a small scale and to the minimum thickness of 25 mm for each
geometric parameter. The fabrication process raised new issues in terms of the casting and curing: the
concrete fluidity was influenced by the air pressure during the casting stage; parts of the formwork
cracked after curing (Figure 7). This indicates that the design phase should take into consideration
strategies to exhaust the air during the casting process. The formwork cracking mainly results from the
concrete shrinking when the temperature dropped sharply at the end of the curing stage. More gradual
temperature decreases and a new concrete mix design will be employed to decrease the shrinkage in
future series of prototypes.
Figure 7: Prototype fabrication process
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
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4.3. Structural performance of the prototypes
Physical loading tests and digital simulations were conducted on six prototypes to investigate the
correlation between the structural performance and geometric parameters. The 3D printed formwork
was dismantled before load testing and the specimen was sprayed with white color in order to better
observe the crack patterns. The point loading tests were conducted at the center of the arched part to
determine the lowest compressive strength of the prototype (Figure 8), with the load was applied at a
speed of 0.5 mm/min.
Figure 8: Loading test and simulation on prototypes
The load capacity and stiffness of each prototype derived from the experiments are summarized in Table
1. It was observed that the stiffness of prototype 2 is much smaller than other prototypes, which may be
attributed to uneven and unstable support conditions during experiments. The experimental results
indicate that all dimensions in Table 1 have a certain effect on the load capacity. However, the
comparison of the load capacity of panel prototypes 1 and 6 indicates that the thickness (cc in Figure 6)
of the prototype is the essential parameter for determining the load capacity and stiffness of the facade
prototype, which decreases as the thickness reduces from 45 to 25 mm. Experimental results also
demonstrate that smaller arch width (ff in Figure 6) will also lead to a decrease in load capacity.
Table 1: Load capacity and stiffness of prototypes
Prototype
aa
(mm)
bb
(mm)
cc
(mm)
dd
(mm)
ee
(mm)
ff
(mm)
gg
(mm)
Stiffness
(N/mm)
Load Capacity
from
Experiments
(kN)
Load Capacity
from Simulation
(kN)
1
225
225
45
30
85
45
35
5000.0
5.8
5.3
2
225
225
45
30
95
45
35
462.9
3.6
5.4
3
225
225
45
30
120
45
35
3636.4
6.5
5.9
4
225
225
35
20
120
35
35
2586.2
5.3
3.8
5
225
225
25
20
110
35
25
2000.0
7.1
2.6
6
225
225
25
20
110
25
25
960.0
1.9
1.7
The digital prototype models were imported into ABAQUS software for finite element analysis of the
same compressive loading as physical experiments (Figure 8, right). The digital simulation results in
Table 1 indicate a similar correlation between geometric parameters and compressive strength, however,
the details of the simulation are still under development to decrease the tolerance between results of
simulation and physical experiments.
According to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 [25], wind load was estimated through calculation assuming wind
load with a speed of 26 m/s is applied on a building constructed in flat terrain and the reference height
is 100 meters. Based on the calculation results, the peak wind load is approximately 70 N. The wind
Proceedings of the IASS 2022 Symposium affiliated with APCS 2022 conference
Innovation·Sustainability·Legacy
9
pressure is 1.677 kN/m2. According to the experimental results shown in Table 1, the minimum load
capacity of the tested prototypes can reach 1.9 kN, which indicates that the façade prototypes have
sufficient wind load bearing capacity. It also indicates that prototypes 1-5 have sufficient wind load
capacity but the structural and material efficiency could be improved significantly through the design
and simulation integrated process.
The results from both physical experiments and digital simulations present a preliminary relation
between predetermined parameters and structural performance, providing insights on the approach to
minimize the prototype key dimensions such as thickness based on the target structural requirements
during the design process. The wind load calculation demonstrates that all the prototypes have sufficient
structural performance for high-rise building facade application. It also indicates that further material
and structural optimization integrated into the design process has further potential to enable a more
sustainable production method.
5. Summary and outlook
This paper presents the initial phase of a study examining a systematic approach to integrate material
properties and fabrication constraints into a parametric façade design process to achieve both geometric
flexibility and material efficiency of concrete façade components. An initial series of prototypes and
related compressive loading tests presented in this paper gives preliminary indications regarding the
feasibility of the combination of 3D printed formwork and UHPFRC with sufficient formwork thickness
(2.5 mm) with a prototype scale of less than 200*200*200mm. While new fabrication challenges were
encountered during the prototyping process, it lays the groundwork for an architectural geometric design
strategy capable of integrating material and fabrication constraints as design parameters. Additional
physical experiments on prototypes at 1:1 scale will be conducted to examine the feasibility of the
construction and to check whether the proposed finite element model can predict its structural behaviors.
Results presented in this paper demonstrate the potential of the hybrid materiality to support complex
UHPFRC geometry development and production with good material strength and efficient material use,
avoiding waste associated with conventional formwork required for the proposed façade elements.
Based on experimental insights, this paper informs a resource-efficient method to design and fabricate
very thin and light-weight volumetric concrete façade elements with high structural performance. This
parametric design method informed by robotic fabrication constraints and new material properties
provides a material-and-fabrication informed design approach for concrete construction. As a first step
in this research, it uses design-driven and empirical mixed methods to explore the mutually limiting and
enhancing relations between material properties and geometric flexibility.
Acknowledgements
All physical tests were conducted in collaboration with the Department of Civil Engineering of Xi’an
Jiaotong-Liverpool University, with special thanks for the guidance offered by Professor Jun Xia and
the support of fourth-Year undergraduate student Ziyue Gao from the Architectural Engineering
programme.
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