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The Consequences of not Being Me: Longitudinal Examination of the Relations Among Anticipated Discrimination, Authenticity, and Counterproductive Work Behaviors
Abstract
The current study examines the relations among anticipated discrimination, authenticity, and counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) in an employee population that is vulnerable to mistreatment—namely, employees with depression and bipolar disorder. Using a longitudinal research design, we collected data at 3 points in time from 279 individuals diagnosed with depression and/or bipolar disorder. We tested the extent to which authenticity mediated the relationship between anticipated discrimination and counterproductive work behaviors. Our results provided support for our research model. Thus, when individuals perceived that they were likely to be targets of discrimination due to their mental illness, it resulted in increased counterproductive work behaviors, and this effect was transmitted through decreased perceptions of authenticity. In addition, we tested stigma centrality and symptom severity moderators of the mediated relationships. We found support for symptom severity (but not stigma centrality) as a moderator in which the mediated relationship between anticipated discrimination and CWBs through authenticity was stronger for those with more severe symptoms.
... The idea that interpersonal workplace mistreatment may be (selfishly) instrumentally motivated is also indirectly supported by some of the empirical articles in this Special Issue. Follmer, Geiger, Beatty, and Follmer (2022) find that people may become aggressive when they anticipate discrimination towards themselves. Similarly, the article by Paciello, Fida, Skovgaard-Smith, Barbaranelli, and Caprara (2022) finds that people act out when they are on the receiving end of mistreatment. ...
... Such heightened uncertainty can, for example, be triggered by unstable employment, variable pay, and excessive competition between employees. In addition, Follmer et al. (2022) highlight how the cultural context will interact with personal factors; they find that mistreatment can be triggered by anticipated discrimination. Such anticipations are likely based on indirect and direct past experiences of discrimination in the given organizational and cultural context, heightening the importance of a system perspective to address workplace mistreatment. ...
... However, workplace mistreatment can also manifest itself over longer timespans. Paciello et al. (2022) and Follmer et al. (2022) illustrate that the relationship between perceived and enacted aggression can be found across a time lag of 1-month and can be explained by people's lack of moral and emotional resources, respectively. Finally, the study by Vranjes et al., (2022a) suggests that when it comes to bullying, the time-lag needed to observe the effect might be even longer. ...
The ‘good life’ is described by philosophers and psychologists as consisting of authentic expression of self, a sense of well-being, and active engagement in life and work. Well-being and employee engagement are outcomes of value in themselves to work organisations, but also improve performance and reduce turnover. This meta-analysis tests the relationships between authenticity and well-being, and authenticity and engagement, investigating the impact of several moderators: age, gender, sample type, conceptual measure and individualism-collectivism. Systematic searches identified 75 studies (well-being = 65, engagement = 10) with a total N == 36,533. Analysis revealed a positive relationship between authenticity and well-being (r == 0.40) and between authenticity and engagement (r == 0.37). Individualism and type of measure were significant moderators, but age, gender and sample type were not. Specific recommendations are made for researchers choosing measures of authenticity, well-being and engagement. The study also highlights the need for further research on the interaction of culture and authenticity, as the majority of studies rely on Western / individualist conceptualisations and measures. Overall, the meta-analysis demonstrates that authenticity has positive implications for individual well-being and work engagement and could provide an important path to building healthy work organisations.
Studies on hiring discrimination typically consider 1 diversity dimension at a time. Building on a multiple categorization and cognitive matching perspective, this study investigated how applicants’ gender intersects with other status characteristics (ethnicity) and cognitive job demands for a better understanding of gender discrimination in resumé screening. An experimental study among 214 Belgian human resources professionals showed that a Maghreb/Arab female applicant received lower job suitability ratings compared with equally qualified native/Belgian female and Maghreb/Arab male applicants when they applied for a high-cognitive demanding job. No differences were found when they applied for a low-cognitive demanding job. Study findings point to the complexity of gender discrimination in hiring (i.e., resumé screening) as double jeopardy of ethnic minority women (i.e., Maghreb/Arab) may also depend on the type of job (i.e., cognitive demanding or not) one is applying for. We conclude with a critical reflection on findings, future research opportunities and implications for practice, like anonymous resumé screening.
Research shows that smokers feel stigmatized, but does stigmatizing smokers do more harm than good? The model of stigma-induced identity threat was used to experimentally examine how U.S. and Danish smokers respond to stigma-relevant cues. Heavy smokers (112 Americans, 112 Danes) smoked a cigarette while giving a speech that was either video (stigma-visible condition) or audio recorded (stigma-concealed condition). Smokers high in self-concept reacted to the stigma-visible (as opposed to the stigma-concealed) condition with greater physiological reactivity (b = -2.80, p = .05), cognitive depletion (U.S. smokers, b = -0.06, p = .11), self-exempting beliefs (b = 0.32, p < .001), and less interest in stopping smoking (b = 0.28, p = .02). Thus, stigmatization led smokers toward emotional, cognitive, and attitudinal reactions that might make them less likely to quit. Future research should examine when smokers respond to stigmatization by quitting rather than with resistance or indifference.
This article asks how identity is constructed for individuals with mental health conditions (MHCs) in the workplace. It takes especial regard to how MHCs are discursively situated, constructed and reconstructed in the workplace. Employees with MHCs face a difficult situation: not only do they need to deal with the stigma and discrimination commonly associated with MHCs, but they must also manage their health condition whilst adhering to organizational demands to demonstrate performance and commitment to work. Discourse analysis derived from 32 interviews with individuals with MHCs delineates how these individuals feel both stigmatized and empowered by their MHCs. The findings address three discursive strands: (i) a pejorative construction of mental illness in employment and society; (ii) contesting mental illness at work by embracing mental health management skills; and (iii) recounting mental illness through public disclosure and change. This article enhances understanding of how the construction of positive identity in the face of negative attributions associated with MHCs contributes to literature on identity, organizations and stigma as well as raising implications for policy and practice.
This study investigates the role of context-specific authenticity at work for work-related outcomes (intrinsic motivation, work ability) and depressivity. Furthermore reciprocal relations between work-related authenticity and healthy psychological functioning are investigated. Longitudinal data from 1,243 employees from 63 subsidiaries of a non-profit organization in the social sector were analyzed using multilevel structural equation modeling. Work-related authenticity at T1 predicted work ability and depressivity, but not intrinsic motivation at T2, about 6 months later. Work-related authenticity at T2 was predicted by intrinsic motivation and depressivity, but not by work ability at T1. We conclude that work-related authenticity and healthy psychological functioning are positively reinforcing each other. Thus, enabling employees to be authentic supposedly increases their well-being and is a pivotal opportunity for organizations to foster health and performance-related indicators like work ability and prevent negative health indicators like depressivity. At the same time, authenticity of employees can be fostered through workplace health promotion.
Purpose
– Previous research has demonstrated strong relations between work characteristics (e.g. job demands and job resources) and work outcomes such as work performance and work engagement. So far, little attention has been given to the role of authenticity (i.e. employees’ ability to experience their true selves) in these relations. The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship of state authenticity at work with job demands and resources on the one hand and work engagement, job satisfaction, and subjective performance on the other hand.
Design/methodology/approach
– In total, 680 Dutch bank employees participated to the study. Structural equation modelling was used to test the goodness-of-fit of the hypothesized model. Bootstrapping (Preacher and Hayes, 2008) was used to examine the meditative effect of state authenticity.
Findings
– Results showed that job resources were positively associated with authenticity and, in turn, that authenticity was positively related to work engagement, job satisfaction, and performance. Moreover, state authenticity partially mediated the relationship between job resources and three occupational outcomes.
Research limitations/implications
– Main limitations to this study were the application of self-report questionnaires, utilization of cross-sectional design, and participation of a homogeneous sample. However, significant relationship between workplace characteristics, occupational outcomes, and state authenticity enhances our current understanding of the JD-R Model.
Practical implications
– Managers might consider enhancing state authenticity of employees by investing in job resources, since high levels of authenticity was found to be strongly linked to positive occupational outcomes.
Originality/value
– This study is among the first to examine the role of authenticity at workplace and highlights the importance of state authenticity for work-related outcomes.
Purpose
– The authors sought initial validity evidence for a measure of anticipated discrimination in the workplace using three samples of working adults with various chronic illnesses. The purpose of this paper is to propose a single factor structure, correlations with stigma dimensions, discriminant validity from similar scales, and incremental validity in predicting work-related outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach
– Adults working at least 20 hours per week with various chronic illnesses (Sample 1 n =332, Sample 2 n =193, Sample 3 n =230) voluntarily completed an online survey. Structural equation modeling and hierarchical multiple regression were used to analyze the data.
Findings
– Results supported the proposed single-factor structure, along with proposed correlations with strain, and job attitudes (job satisfaction, affective commitment, and both procedural justice). Discriminant validity was observed between anticipated discrimination and procedural justice perceptions and perceived impact on performance. The scale demonstrated incremental validity in predicting strain beyond the relevant controls in all three samples, although it only demonstrated incremental validity in predicting job satisfaction in Samples 1 and 3 and affective commitment in Sample 1.
Research limitations/implications
– Study limitations include the use of single-source, cross-sectional data, omission of a non-stigmatized sample, and a deductive approach to item generation. Future research should attempt to validate the scale on other stigmatized worker populations.
Practical implications
– Organizations may use this scale to monitor employees’ perceptions of anticipated discrimination and researchers may use it as a measure of a workplace stressor.
Originality/value
– The vast majority of existing stigma and discrimination scales do not specifically address the workplace context. This study contributes to the literature by providing psychometric information for a workplace anticipated discrimination scale using samples from an under-represented worker population.
This article broadens our perspective of stigma by examining the process of disclosing an invisible stigmatized identity in work and nonwork domains. I present a model that examines the effects of individual and environmental factors on disclosure decisions across life domains. Individuals may disclose their stigma to varying degrees across life domains, and this inconsistency leads to disclosure disconnects. I examine psychological states and outcomes associated with disclosure disconnects and offer directions for future research.
Proposed as a theory of motivation, the basic tenet of conservation of resources (COR) theory is that humans are motivated to protect their current resources and acquire new resources. Despite its recent popularity in the organizational behavior literature, several criticisms of the theory have emerged, primarily related to the central concept of resources. In this review, we address concerns regarding the conceptualization, conservation, acquisition, fluctuation, and measurement of resources. We highlight gaps in the COR literature that can be addressed by integrating research from other areas of psychology and management. In this manner, we hope to push the COR literature forward by resolving several concerns and providing suggestions for future research that might address other concerns.
Extant research suggests subtle, interpersonal forms of discrimination, though often normalized and overlooked, may be just as detrimental to targets as compared to more traditional, overt forms of discrimination. To further examine this question, we meta-analyzed the current literature to estimate the relationship between discrimination and a host of psychological, physical health, and work-related correlates as a function of its form (subtle or overt). Analysis of 90 effect sizes suggested that subtle and overt forms of discrimination hold relationships of comparable magnitude with a host of adverse correlates. By demonstrating that these two forms of discrimination are not differentially related to relevant outcomes, our findings call into serious question the pervasive belief that subtle discrimination is less consequential for targets as compared to overt discrimination (Landy, 2008; McWhorter, 2008). Taken together, our results suggest that subtle discrimination is at least as important to consider and address as its overt counterpart. Implications for organizational scholars and practitioners are discussed.
Three decades after its introduction as a concept, emotional labor-regulating emotions as part of the work role-is fully on the map in organizational behavior and organizational psychology. As research has accelerated, roadblocks, such as fuzzy construct conceptualizations, assumed but untested processes, and methodological stagnation, have emerged. To provide direction to new scholars and suggestions to seasoned emotional labor researchers, we review theoretical perspectives and evidence for emotional labor and its (a) construct development and measurement, (b) chronic and momentary determinants, (c) prediction of employee well-being, and (d) influence on organizational performance. On this path, we introduce emotional labor as a dynamic integration of three components (i.e., emotional requirements, emotion regulation, and emotion performance), interpret personal and organizational moderators, and point to innovative new methodological approaches. Overall, we provide a new road map to jump-start the field in exciting new directions.
We examine daily leader sleep as an antecedent to daily abusive supervisory behavior and work unit engagement. Drawing from ego depletion theory, our theoretical extension includes a serial mediation model of nightly sleep quantity and quality as predictors of abusive supervision. We argue that poor nightly sleep influences leaders to enact daily abusive behaviors via ego depletion, and these abusive behaviors ultimately result in decreased daily subordinate unit work engagement. We test this model through an experience sampling study spread over ten work days with data from both supervisors and their subordinates. Our study supports the role of the indirect effects of sleep quality (but not sleep quantity) via leader ego depletion and daily abusive supervisor behavior on daily subordinate unit work engagement.
Purpose
Proactive strategies for avoiding stigmatization may prevent work-related discrimination (Singletary and Hebl J Appl Psychol 94:797–805, 2009), yet these strategies may also cause strain in the stigmatized. We tested a model in which previous workplace discrimination experiences and anticipated future workplace discrimination related to proactive responses (compensatory behaviors and concealing behaviors), which, in turn, related to job tension.
Design/Methodology/Approach
Survey data were obtained from 332 workers with chronic illnesses. Structural equation modeling was used to test the proposed relationships.
Findings
Perceived previous discrimination directly related to anticipated future discrimination and indirectly related to compensatory and concealing behaviors. Anticipated discrimination directly related to compensatory and concealing behaviors, and indirectly related to job tension through compensatory behaviors. Compensatory behaviors were, but concealing behaviors were not, related to job tension.
Implications
Workers with chronic illness should be educated on ways to mitigate the negative effects of compensatory behaviors, including ensuring adequate opportunities to replenish resources. Organizations should provide assistance to these workers through Employee Assistance Programs or other types of job counseling. Organization leaders and supervisors have a responsibility to build an environment of acceptance for those with chronic illness in order to reduce potential discrimination.
Originality/Value
While proactive strategies are effective in reducing negative outcomes of stigmatization, little research has explored their potential downsides. We highlight the “double-edged sword” nature of compensatory behaviors. In addition, while a large proportion of U.S. workers are managing chronic illness, this population is understudied.
The Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS(®)) is an NIH Roadmap initiative devoted to developing better measurement tools for assessing constructs relevant to the clinical investigation and treatment of all diseases-constructs such as pain, fatigue, emotional distress, sleep, physical functioning, and social participation. Following creation of item banks for these constructs, our priority has been to validate them, most often in short-term observational studies. We report here on a three-month prospective observational study with depressed outpatients in the early stages of a new treatment episode (with assessments at intake, one-month follow-up, and three-month follow-up). The protocol was designed to compare the psychometric properties of the PROMIS depression item bank (administered as a computerized adaptive test, CAT) with two legacy self-report instruments: the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CESD; Radloff, 1977) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9; Spitzer et al., 1999). PROMIS depression demonstrated strong convergent validity with the CESD and the PHQ-9 (with correlations in a range from .72 to .84 across all time points), as well as responsiveness to change when characterizing symptom severity in a clinical outpatient sample. Identification of patients as "recovered" varied across the measures, with the PHQ-9 being the most conservative. The use of calibrations based on models from item response theory (IRT) provides advantages for PROMIS depression both psychometrically (creating the possibility of adaptive testing, providing a broader effective range of measurement, and generating greater precision) and practically (these psychometric advantages can be achieved with fewer items-a median of 4 items administered by CAT-resulting in less patient burden).
Understanding how stigmatized identities contribute to increased rates of depression and anxiety is critical to stigma reduction and mental health treatment. There has been little research testing multiple aspects of stigmatized identities simultaneously. In the current study, we collected data from a diverse, urban, adult community sample of people with a concealed stigmatized identity (CSI). We targeted 5 specific CSIs - mental illness, substance abuse, experience of domestic violence, experience of sexual assault, and experience of childhood abuse - that have been shown to put people at risk for increased psychological distress. We collected measures of the anticipation of being devalued by others if the identity became known (anticipated stigma), the level of defining oneself by the stigmatized identity (centrality), the frequency of thinking about the identity (salience), the extent of agreement with negative stereotypes about the identity (internalized stigma), and extent to which other people currently know about the identity (outness). Results showed that greater anticipated stigma, greater identity salience, and lower levels of outness each uniquely and significantly predicted variance in increased psychological distress (a composite of depression and anxiety). In examining communalities and differences across the five identities, we found that mean levels of the stigma variables differed across the identities, with people with substance abuse and mental illness reporting greater anticipated and internalized stigma. However, the prediction pattern of the variables for psychological distress was similar across the substance abuse, mental illness, domestic violence, and childhood abuse identities (but not sexual assault). Understanding which components of stigmatized identities predict distress can lead to more effective treatment for people experiencing psychological distress.
Interest in measuring patient-reported outcomes has increased dramatically in recent decades. This has simultaneously produced numerous assessment options and confusion. In the case of depressive symptoms, there are many commonly used options for measuring the same or a very similar concept. Public and professional reporting of scores can be confused by multiple scale ranges, normative levels, and clinical thresholds. A common reporting metric would have great value and can be achieved when similar instruments are administered to a single sample and then linked to each other to produce cross-walk score tables (e.g., Dorans, 2007; Kolen & Brennan, 2004). Using multiple procedures based on item response theory and equipercentile methods, we produced cross-walk tables linking 3 popular "legacy" depression instruments-the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977; N = 747), the Beck Depression Inventory-II (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996; N = 748), and the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (Kroenke, Spitzer, & Williams, 2001; N = 1,120)-to the depression metric of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS; Cella et al., 2010). The PROMIS Depression metric is centered on the U.S. general population, matching the marginal distributions of gender, age, race, and education in the 2000 U.S. census (Liu et al., 2010). The linking relationships were evaluated by resampling small subsets and estimating confidence intervals for the differences between the observed and linked PROMIS scores; in addition, PROMIS cutoff scores for depression severity were estimated to correspond with those commonly used with the legacy measures. Our results allow clinicians and researchers to retrofit existing data of 3 popular depression measures to the PROMIS Depression metric and vice versa. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Invisible social identities influence social interaction in distinct ways and create unique dynamics in terms of identity management. We integrate research from the sexuality, illness, and racial diversity literature, as well as the stigma, disclosure, and identity literature, to create a generalized model of invisible identity management. We focus specifically on revealing and passing strategies of identity management and conclude by discussing the implications of invisible differences for diversity research.
The adverse employment effects that attach to disability are empirically well established. They are large and persistent. This is a conceptual article that investigates the source of this deep and enduring employment disadvantage. Debate begins by examining the origins of ideas that have shaped approaches to work study and have influenced concepts of what constitutes an ideal worker. Drawing on feminist critiques of organisational analysis that have highlighted the gendered character of processes, practices and values, it explores the relatively neglected position of disabled employees. With reference to transcripts from four Employment Appeal Tribunals brought under the Disability Discrimination Act, it illustrates how standard jobs, designed around ideal (non-disabled) employees, create a mismatch between a formal job description and someone with an impairment. We suggest this mismatch is central to the organisation’s resistance to implementing adjustments and also to any radical approaches to include impaired employees in the workplace.
Stigmas pervade organizational life. A stigma is a discrediting social evaluation that devalues an individual or group. We review research on stigmatized work and stigmatized workers, with a particular emphasis on how people become stigmatized and what they (and others) do about it. To do so, we connect stigma to other concepts in its nomological net and compare multiple models of stigma dynamics. We consider the intertwining nature of stigma and identity/image, how context affects stigma, and how stigma is managed by both the stigmatized and the nonstigmatized. We also offer critiques of key blind spots in workplace stigma research and point toward future research in this area that is more interconnected with other literatures and more inclusive of overlooked populations. Our vantage point is that workplace stigma continues to be an exciting domain of research with a high potential for theoretical discoveries and practical applications.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 9 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
This multi-method study examined disclosure decisions made by employees with depression as well as their motives for those decisions. In Study 1, we conducted in-depth interviews with employees who had been diagnosed with depression to better understand why they chose to disclose or conceal their depression at work. Based on the results of the interviews, both approach and avoid motives for disclosure and concealment emerged in the analysis. Further, these motives were influenced by multiple organizational factors including social support, stigma, and diversity climate. In Study 2, we developed and validated a scale to measure approach and avoid motives for disclosure and concealement. In Study 3, we tested approach and avoid motives as mediators of the relationships between organizational factors and employee outcomes (i.e., engagement and presenteeism). We tested our model among 223 working adults with depression. Our results provided support for the hypothesized relationships among those who disclosed but not those who concealed, suggesting that when employees disclosed for approach reasons they were more likely to be engaged, and when they disclosed for avoid reasons they were more likely to engage in presenteeism. These findings provide both theoretical and practical contributions to the study of concealable identity management and to employees with mental illness.
Concealing a sexual minority identity at work has been linked to adverse health and employment outcomes. The authors of this paper examine whether LGBQ employee levels of concealment from coworkers and supervisors are linked to perceived workplace climate and LGBQ-identity centrality. Rainbow Illinois 2010–2011 data were used; N = 319 LGBQ full or part-time employees. Multiple regression with moderation was used to test the hypotheses. Support and hostility in the workplace each had a negative main effect on concealment from coworkers as well as supervisors. The interaction between support and centrality was also significant. LGBQ employees who placed greater importance on their sexual orientation were more likely to disclose that identity to supervisors in the face of hostility than those with less central identities. Thus, sexual minorities may be more responsive to workplace climate when they have more central identities.
The purpose of this review is to consolidate the stock of empirical research relating to the disclosure or concealment of mental illness in the workplace. We present a comprehensive framework for understanding the challenges that employees and job applicants face surrounding mental illness and identity management. This review aims to synthesize the findings of studies pertaining to the decision to disclose (or not) mental illnesses in the workplace and to channel the findings into a comprehensive model that can serve as a stepping-stone for future research in the field of human resource management (HRM). From the review, we found that organizational support, social support, and individual differences were key antecedents of the decision to disclose. Disclosure also affects outcomes such as access to accommodations and support programs, helping behaviors, psychological wellbeing, and employment success. Practically speaking, this research contributes to the development of a safe and diverse organizational climate in which all employees, regardless of mental illness, feel included in their work environment.
Despite the fact that suicide deaths are on the rise in the United States and that prior research has implicated workplace factors as contributors to suicide, there is a dearth of management research specific to work and suicide. This study posited and found support for a mediated relationship between workplace mistreatment (i.e., incivility, social undermining, and ostracism) and work engagement via suicidal ideation among at-risk employees: those with depression and/or bipolar disorder. Next, we identify which individuals might be especially vulnerable to the effect of mistreatment on suicidal ideation: individuals not seeking treatment for their mood disorder. Our findings indicate that low-grade workplace mistreatment can have serious implications for employees’ mental health and work-related outcomes. We conclude by discussing additional workplace factors that might contribute to suicidal ideation as well as identifying ways organizations can use the reported findings to aid in suicide prevention.
As an increasing number of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees are choosing to disclose their LGBT identity at work, it is important to understand how organizations can best manage LGBT diversity in the workplace. Previous research has established that LGBT employees are more likely to derive benefits from working in organizations with supportive LGBT practices in place. However, the psychological mechanisms behind this process are largely unknown. The present research investigates the value of both disclosure and authenticity at work in understanding why perceptions of LGBT supportive practices facilitate the life satisfaction of LGBT employees. A time‐lagged questionnaire was completed by 150 LGBT individuals working in various UK organizations. Results of a path analysis find that although both disclosure and authenticity at work are positively related with LGBT supportive practices, it is the experience of authenticity at work which mediates the relationship between perceived LGBT supportive practices and life satisfaction. We also find that disclosure and authenticity at work are positively linked, yet LGBT identity centrality moderates this relationship. These findings show that authenticity at work may be particularly important for understanding the experiences of LGBT employees.
Practitioner points
We measure perceptions of LGBT supportive practices and show evidence that such perceptions are positively related to important aspects of psychological well‐being.
Authenticity adds value to disclosure at work as we find it is a key mediating process that translates LGBT supportive practices into increased life satisfaction.
It seems that not disclosing is particularly detrimental for the authenticity for those whose LGBT identity is central to their self‐concept.
Experiencing and anticipating discrimination because one possesses a visible (e.g., race) or concealable (e.g., mental illness) stigmatized identity has been related to increased psychological distress. Little research, however, has examined whether experiencing and anticipating discrimination related to possessing both a visible and concealable stigmatized identity (e.g., a racial/ethnic minority with a history of mental illness) impacts mental health. In the current study, we test two hypotheses. In the first, we examine whether experienced discrimination due to a visible stigma (race/ethnicity) and anticipating stigma due to a concealable stigma (e.g., substance abuse) each predict unique variance in depressive symptomatology. In the second, we examine whether experienced discrimination due to a visible stigma is related to greater anticipated stigma for a concealable stigma, which in turn is related to more depression. A total of 265 African American and Latinx adults who reported concealing a stigmatized identity at least some of the time completed measures of racial/ethnic discrimination, anticipated stigma of a concealable stigmatized identity, and depressive symptomatology. Results of a simultaneous linear regression revealed that increased racial/ethnic discrimination and anticipated stigma independently predicted greater depressive symptomatology (controlling for each other). A mediation analysis showed that the positive association between increased racial/ethnic discrimination and higher depressive symptomatology was partially mediated by greater anticipated stigma. These results demonstrate that a person can experience increased psychological distress from multiple types of stigma separately, but also may anticipate greater stigma based on previous experiences of racial discrimination, which in turn relates to increased distress.
The concept of authenticity has been increasingly on the scholarly radar. While conceptualized in numerous ways, authenticity has been suggested to include some form of alignment of one’s internal sense of self (e.g., beliefs, values, motivations) and the external expression of it. State or felt authenticity has been defined as the sense of being one’s real self. Much evidence highlights the positive consequences of authenticity, both in general and at work. Yet, many questions remain. This special section consists of four articles that theorize and provide novel empirical evidence, including experiments and field studies, on antecedents and consequences of authenticity in the work context. The articles focus on behavioral, felt, and perceived authenticity, document intrapersonal and situational factors triggering authenticity. Moreover, the articles lay the foundation for novel research directions, integrating concepts such as identity integration, humility, and power into the authenticity at work discourse.
This review focuses on the disclosure decisions faced by employees with concealable stigmatized identities – one of the most challenging decisions these individuals must make on a day‐to‐day basis. Indeed, multiple theoretical frameworks have provided a foundation for understanding the antecedents and outcomes associated with the decision to disclose or not to disclose a stigmatized identity. What is less clear, however, is the extent to which these frameworks have been empirically supported. This systematic review serves to unify the extant literature and prompt continued research related to employees with concealable stigmatized identities. Specifically, we draw upon multiple fields of study, including applied psychology, management, social psychology, and occupational health as a means to systematically synthesize the existing empirical research related to disclosure of stigmatized identities at work. In addition to advancing the scholarly knowledge of disclosure, this review also provides practical utility to organizations as they continue to create work environments that foster inclusion of all stigmatized and non‐stigmatized employees.
In tandem with a surge of public interest in authenticity, there is a growing number of empirical studies on individual authenticity in work settings. However, these studies have been generated within separate literatures on topics such as authentic leadership, emotional labor, and identity management, among many others, making it difficult for scholars to integrate and build on the authenticity research to date. To facilitate and advance future investigations, this article reviews the extant empirical work across 10 different authenticity constructs. Following our research review, we use a power lens to help synthesize our major findings and insights. We conclude by identifying six directions for future research, including the need for scholars to embrace a multifaceted view of authenticity in organizations. Overall, our review both reinforces and tempers the enthusiasm in contemporary discussions of authenticity in the popular and business press.
This research investigates the effect of individuals’ subjective perceptions of the overlap among different identities on their feelings of authenticity and the likelihood of engaging in unethical behavior. Across four studies we found that low (vs. high) identity integration led to greater feelings of inauthenticity and a higher likelihood of engaging in unethical behavior. Manipulation of low (vs. high or control) identity integration led to higher feelings of inauthenticity (Study 1) and greater cheating behavior (Study 2). Feelings of inauthenticity mediated the causal effect of low identity integration on dishonesty (Study 3). In a field survey, using supervisor–employee dyads, we replicated the results from the lab to show that employees who reported lower identity integration felt more inauthentic and were more likely to behave unethically as measured by their supervisors’ report of interpersonal and organizational deviance (Study 4). Our results demonstrate that the manner in which individuals view their multiple identities influences feelings of inauthenticity and unethical behavior.
Impression management (IM) refers to behaviors employees use to create and maintain desired images in the workplace. Prior studies have shown that the successful use of IM relates to a number of important outcomes for employees (e.g., higher performance evaluations), but this work has tended to compare IM usage between individuals, ignoring the fact that employees likely adjust their use of IM depending on the situations they face at work on a given day. In this paper, we argue that managing impressions on a daily basis can be draining, thereby leaving employees susceptible to the temptation to engage in subsequent harmful behaviors at work. To better understand the nature and within-person consequences of IM, we examine the daily use of two supervisor-focused IM tactics—ingratiation and self-promotion—among 75 professionals in China over the course of two work weeks. Our results indicate that there is significant within-person variance in employees’ use of ingratiation and self-promotion aimed at supervisors. Moreover, our findings suggest that the use of ingratiation, but not self-promotion, depletes employees’ self-control resources. In the case of ingratiation, this depletion is positively associated with employee deviance, and the indirect effect is stronger among employees with low political skill. Overall, this research contributes to our understanding of the dynamic, within-person nature of IM, the consequences of IM for employees, and the dark side of IM for organizations.
Importance
No US national data are available on the prevalence and correlates of DSM-5–defined major depressive disorder (MDD) or on MDD specifiers as defined in DSM-5.
Objective
To present current nationally representative findings on the prevalence, correlates, psychiatric comorbidity, functioning, and treatment of DSM-5 MDD and initial information on the prevalence, severity, and treatment of DSM-5 MDD severity, anxious/distressed specifier, and mixed-features specifier, as well as cases that would have been characterized as bereavement in DSM-IV.
Design, Setting, and Participants
In-person interviews with a representative sample of US noninstitutionalized civilian adults (≥18 years) (n = 36 309) who participated in the 2012-2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III (NESARC-III). Data were collected from April 2012 to June 2013 and were analyzed in 2016-2017.
Main Outcomes and Measures
Prevalence of DSM-5 MDD and the DSM-5 specifiers. Odds ratios (ORs), adjusted ORs (aORs), and 95% CIs indicated associations with demographic characteristics and other psychiatric disorders.
Results
Of the 36 309 adult participants in NESARC-III, 12-month and lifetime prevalences of MDD were 10.4% and 20.6%, respectively. Odds of 12-month MDD were significantly lower in men (OR, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.46-0.55) and in African American (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.54-0.68), Asian/Pacific Islander (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.45-0.67), and Hispanic (OR, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.62-0.78) adults than in white adults and were higher in younger adults (age range, 18-29 years; OR, 3.0; 95% CI, 2.48-3.55) and those with low incomes ($19 999 or less; OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.49-2.04). Associations of MDD with psychiatric disorders ranged from an aOR of 2.1 (95% CI, 1.84-2.35) for specific phobia to an aOR of 5.7 (95% CI, 4.98-6.50) for generalized anxiety disorder. Associations of MDD with substance use disorders ranged from an aOR of 1.8 (95% CI, 1.63-2.01) for alcohol to an aOR of 3.0 (95% CI, 2.57-3.55) for any drug. Most lifetime MDD cases were moderate (39.7%) or severe (49.5%). Almost 70% with lifetime MDD had some type of treatment. Functioning among those with severe MDD was approximately 1 SD below the national mean. Among 12.9% of those with lifetime MDD, all episodes occurred just after the death of someone close and lasted less than 2 months. The anxious/distressed specifier characterized 74.6% of MDD cases, and the mixed-features specifier characterized 15.5%. Controlling for severity, both specifiers were associated with early onset, poor course and functioning, and suicidality.
Conclusions and Relevance
Among US adults, DSM-5 MDD is highly prevalent, comorbid, and disabling. While most cases received some treatment, a substantial minority did not. Much remains to be learned about the DSM-5 MDD specifiers in the general population.
Given the prevalence of and consequences associated with mental illness in the workplace, we believe this review is both critical and timely for researchers and practitioners. This systematic review broadens the extant literature in both theoretical and practical ways in an effort to help lay a foundation for the organizational scholarship of employees with mental illness, a group that has traditionally been underrepresented in the management and industrial-organizational psychology literatures. After defining and conceptualizing mental illness as a social identity, we systematically review the existing empirical research on employees with mental illness across multiple fields of study. Using research that accounts for individual, other, and organizational perspectives, we present a model that outlines the performance, employment, career, and discriminatory outcomes that characterize the experiences of individuals with mental illness as well as individual and organizational strategies that moderate the relationship between having a mental illness and experiencing those outcomes. Together, this article provides a synthesis of what is known about employees with mental illness while also highlighting avenues for future scholarly attention.
Mediation of X’s effect on Y through a mediator M is moderated if the indirect effect of X depends on a fourth variable. Hayes [(2015). An index and test of linear moderated mediation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50, 1–22. doi:10.1080/00273171.2014.962683] introduced an approach to testing a moderated mediation hypothesis based on an index of moderated mediation. Here, I extend this approach to models with more than one moderator. I describe how to test if X’s indirect effect on Y is moderated by one variable when a second moderator is held constant (partial moderated mediation), conditioned on (conditional moderated mediation), or dependent on a second moderator (moderated moderated mediation). Examples are provided, as is a discussion of the visualization of indirect effects and an illustration of implementation in the PROCESS macro for SPSS and SAS.
Mental illness is increasingly prevalent among employees, but little is known about how these individuals are perceived at work. Using the stereotype content model as a framework, we investigated warmth and competence stereotypes associated with employees with anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder. Employees with these disorders were perceived to be low in warmth and competence, and stereotypes about individuals with anxiety were relatively more positive than those with depression or bipolar. This study also proposed and tested the extent to which stereotypes predicted work-related social distancing intentions. We found that two characteristics moderated this relationship: gender and social dominance orientation. We discuss practical and theoretical implications as they pertain to improving the experiences and well-being of employees with mental illness.
Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals must make decisions regarding the extent to which they disclose their sexual orientation to others each time they encounter a new individual. Although researchers have acknowledged potential person-to-person variation in sexual orientation disclosure, we know little as to the effects of individual, group, and organizational characteristics on within-person variation in sexual orientation disclosure decision-making. We also know little of how different types of support relatively predict disclosure. The present study takes a multilevel approach and examines the role of different levels of support (at the individual recipient level, the coworker group level, and the organization level) on sexual orientation disclosure, focusing on LGB working adults. A one-with-many multilevel design accounted for coworker relationships (N = 371) being nested within LGB employees (k = 125). Results showed that disclosure was predicted by the perceived supportiveness of the potential recipient of that information, the most supportive person in the LGB employee's work group, and the organization itself. A relative weight analysis suggests that organizational policies and the most supportive coworker are stronger predictors of disclosure across the coworker group, compared to mean coworker supportiveness. © 2017 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Research has portrayed person-environment (PE) fit as a pleasant condition resulting from people being attracted to and selected into compatible work environments; yet, our study reveals that creating and maintaining a sense of fit frequently involves an effortful, dynamic set of strategies. We used a two-phase, qualitative design to allow employees to report how they become aware of and experience misfit, and what they do in response. To address these questions, we conducted interviews with 81 individuals sampled from diverse industries and occupations. Through their descriptions we identified three broad responses to the experience of misfit: resolution, relief, and resignation. Within these approaches we identify distinct strategies for responding to misfit. We present a model of how participants used these strategies, often in combination, and develop propositions regarding their effectiveness at reducing strain associated with misfit. These results expand PE fit theory by providing new insight into how individuals experience and react to misfit - portraying them as active, motivated creators of their own fit experience at work.
The present research examined the relation between authentic identity expression and transgender
employees’ work-related attitudes and experiences. Drawing on Kernis’ (2003) theoretical conceptualization
of authenticity and expanding on current workplace identity management research, we predicted
that employees who had taken steps to reduce the discrepancy between their inner gender identities and
their outward manifestations of gender would report more positive job attitudes and workplace experiences,
in part because the reduction of this discrepancy is related to greater feelings of authenticity. In
Study 1, we found that the extent to which one has transitioned was related to higher job satisfaction and
perceived person-organization (P-O) fit and lower perceived discrimination. In Study 2, we replicate and
extend these results by showing that the extent to which employees felt that others at work perceived
them in a manner consistent with how they perceived themselves (relational authenticity) mediated the
relations between extent of transition and all 3 of these outcomes. However, perceptions of alignment
between one’s felt and expressed identity (action authenticity) only mediated this link for job satisfaction.
We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our results, as well as avenues for future research
on authenticity in the workplace.
When service providers regulate their moods and expressions (i.e., deep acting and surface acting), are they better performers? Drawing on the framework of activation-inhibition regulatory systems and regulatory fit, we propose (a) that deep acting represents an activation-oriented regulation strategy and surface acting, an inhibition-oriented regulation strategy; (b) that these strategies have separate pathways to desirable performance (i.e., affective delivery) and counterproductive performance (i.e., service sabotage), respectively; and (c) that performance is optimized when momentary regulation strategies are aligned with activation- and inhibition-oriented traits. Empirically, across two studies, we employ a multilevel approach (i.e., within- and between-person), a multisource approach (i.e., self, coworker, customer), and a multicontext approach (i.e., banks and restaurants) to test regulatory fit as applied to emotional labor. In two studies, we support separate activation and inhibition pathways, plus regulatory fit, in that deep acting is beneficial to affective delivery for those higher in two activation traits—namely, extraversion and openness—and that surface acting predicts service sabotage for those lower in an inhibition trait: conscientiousness. We empirically rule out mood as the explanation for these effects, propose future research to apply regulatory fit to other outcomes and contexts, and suggest practical implications for services.
Purpose
– The idea of being authentic at work is gaining traction in both academia and organizations. The purpose of this paper is to test whether four types of perceived organizational culture (hierarchical, clan, market, and adhocracy) influence employees’ authenticity and whether behaving more authentically at work influences the extent to which employees are engaged with their jobs.
Design/methodology/approach
– The sample includes 208 professionals working in a variety of industries in Brazil. Hypotheses are tested using structural equation modeling.
Findings
– Results indicate that environments that are perceived to be more inclusive and participative, and that incentivize autonomy (i.e. clan and adhocracy cultures) neither nurture nor inhibit authenticity. On the other hand, cultures perceived to emphasize stability, order, and control (i.e. hierarchy and market cultures) are negatively related to authenticity. In addition, employees who behave more authentically at work are more engaged with their jobs. Authenticity at work also mediates the relationship between hierarchical and market cultures and work engagement.
Originality/value
– The authors address the call of Roberts et al. (2009) for more research associated with the role that the organizational context plays in the development of authenticity. With the focus on authenticity the authors broaden the range of work engagement antecedents already discussed in the literature (Christian et al., 2011).
When employees feel that their values do not match those of the organization, they often respond by pretending to fit in. We examine how leader integrity influences the tendency to create facades of conformity, proposing that employees will actually fake more when leaders are principled. In a laboratory experiment (Study 1), undergraduate students whose values ostensibly differed from those of other discussion group members and the university administration created more facades when they perceived the discussion group leader as having high integrity. A two-wave survey of employed adults (Study 2) replicated the moderation effect and also revealed negative effects of facade creation on work engagement. In both studies, our results indicate that, ironically, when leader integrity is high, the tendency to create facades of conformity in response to low values congruence is magnified. Additionally, our findings reveal that positive attributes in leaders may not always result in positive responses from followers. The results from our study also show that facades of conformity may serve as a partial explanatory mechanism in the relationship between values congruence and employee engagement.
We report on the development and evaluation of a 3-hr training program designed to increase organizational leaders' mental health literacy. In Study 1, we used a wait-list control design to randomly assign organizational leaders (N = 43) to a training or control group. Leaders who received the training reported enhanced knowledge of, and attitudes toward, mental health, as well as increased self-efficacy and intent to promote mental health at work. In Study 2, these effects were replicated based on a sample of 142 leaders from another organization. Further analysis suggested that training had a direct effect on knowledge and self-efficacy, but indirect effects on attitudes and intentions. Analysis of organizational data suggests that the program resulted in a reduction in the duration of short-term disability claims. Results support the effectiveness of a brief training session to enhance leaders' mental health literacy. (PsycINFO Database Record
Although counterproductive work behavior (CWB) has long been established as a broad domain of job behaviors, little agreement exists about its internal structure. The present research addressed alternative models of broadly defined CWB according to which specific behaviors can be grouped into (a) one general factor, or into (b) two, (c) five, or (d) eleven narrower facets, and a number of possible integrations of these models. First, conceptual differences between these models (including the nature of overall CWB as implying a reflective or formative model, boundaries of the domain, and relations among specific facets) are reviewed with regard to theoretical and practical implications. In Study 1, structural meta-analysis was then used to test whether a reflective higher-order factor underlies meta-analytically constructed correlation matrices of five CWB facets. Analyses supported a general factor model. For Study 2, a primary data set (N = 1,237 employees) was collected in order to test alternative structural models and possible integrations of these models. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the best fit was for a bimodal (nonhierarchical) model in which individual CWBs simultaneously load on one of the eleven facets describing their content (e.g., theft, absenteeism) and on one of three factors describing the target primarily harmed (organization, other persons, self). Less support was found for hierarchical models and for models involving fewer content factors. These findings suggest that CWB is best described by a reflective higher-order factor at the general level and by a complex set of bimodal facets at the more specific level.
The five experiments reported here demonstrate that authenticity is directly linked to morality. We found that experiencing inauthenticity, compared with authenticity, consistently led participants to feel more immoral and impure. This link from inauthenticity to feeling immoral produced an increased desire among participants to cleanse themselves and to engage in moral compensation by behaving prosocially. We established the role that impurity played in these effects through mediation and moderation. We found that inauthenticity-induced cleansing and compensatory helping were driven by heightened feelings of impurity rather than by the psychological discomfort of dissonance. Similarly, physically cleansing oneself eliminated the relationship between inauthenticity and prosocial compensation. Finally, we obtained additional evidence for discriminant validity: The observed effects on desire for cleansing were not driven by general negative experiences (i.e., failing a test) but were unique to experiences of inauthenticity. Our results establish that authenticity is a moral state-that being true to thine own self is experienced as a form of virtue.
© The Author(s) 2015.
Objectives:
A previous analysis showed the positive impact of education and contact with persons with lived experience on public stigma toward mental illness, with contact yielding significantly greater effect sizes than education. This study reported a further analysis of those data that examined effects of education and contact at follow-up.
Methods:
The literature (before October 2010) was searched and coded for studies that examined strategies for changing public stigma.
Results:
The search found 72 articles, and 19 contained follow-up data. The effect size for overall impact was significantly different from zero for education, but a similar effect size was not significantly different from zero for contact because a small number of contact-intervention studies included follow-up. Effect sizes for attitudinal change were significantly different from zero for education and contact, but the effect size for contact was significantly greater.
Conclusions:
Future research designs need to include strategies for follow-up assessments.
Over the past 20 years, a large body of laboratory and field research has shown that, when people perform in settings in which their group is negatively stereotyped, they may experience a phenomenon called stereotype threat that can undermine motivation and trust and cause underperformance. This review describes that research and places it into an organizational context. First, we describe the processes by which stereotype threat can impair outcomes among people in the workplace. Next, we delineate the situational cues in organizational settings that can exacerbate stereotype threat, and explain how and why these cues affect stereotyped individuals. Finally, we discuss relatively simple empirically based strategies that organizations can implement to reduce stereotype threat and create conditions in which employees and applicants from all groups can succeed.
ABSTRACT Previous research on authenticity has mainly focused on trait conceptualizations of authenticity (e.g., Wood et al., 2008), whereas in specific environments (e.g., at work) state conceptualizations of authenticity (cf. Van den Bosch & Taris, 2013) are at least as relevant. For example, working conditions are subject to change, and this could well have consequences for employees' perceived level of authenticity at work. The current study employs a work-specific, state-like conceptualization of authenticity to investigate the relations between authenticity at work, well-being, and work outcomes. A series of ten separate hierarchical regression analyses using data from 685 participants indicated that after controlling for selected work characteristics and demographic variables, authenticity at work accounted for on average 11% of the variance of various wellbeing and work outcomes. Of the three subscales of authenticity at work (i.e., authentic living, self-alienation, and accepting influence), self-alienation was the strongest predictor of outcomes, followed by authentic living and accepting external influence, respectively. These findings are discussed in the light of their practical and theoretical implications.
Although hospitality employees’ service sabotage behavior in service encounters is not only, more seriously prevailed than generally presumed but also detrimental to the organizations’ growth, and profitability, the topic has not been a major topic in hospitality research. Thus, this study aims to, provide answers to the questions “Why do hospitality employees engage in service sabotage, behaviors?” and “What can hospitality organizations do to mitigate them?” Based on conservation of, resources (COR) theory, we hypothesized hospitality employees’ emotional labor, specifically, emotional dissonance, to be a major source of service sabotage. We also hypothesized burnout to have, a mediating effect, while emotional intelligence has a buffering effect on the mediated relationship, between emotional dissonance and service sabotage via burnout. The results of moderated mediation, regression analyses of the data from 309 customer-contact hotel employees in the U.S. supported all, the hypotheses in this study. The implications of the findings and future research directions were, discussed.
Socialization theory has focused on enculturating new employees such that they develop pride in their new organization and internalize its values. We draw on authenticity research to theorize that the initial stage of socialization leads to more effective employment relationships when it instead primarily encourages newcomers to express their personal identities. In a field experiment carried out in a large business process outsourcing company in India, we found that initial socialization focused on personal identity (emphasizing newcomers’ authentic best selves) led to greater customer satisfaction and employee retention after six months than socialization that focused on organizational identity (emphasizing the pride to be gained from organizational affiliation) or the organization’s traditional approach, which focused primarily on skills training. To confirm causation and explore the mechanisms underlying the effects, we replicated the results in a laboratory experiment in a U.S. university. We found that individuals working temporarily as part of a research team were more engaged and satisfied with their work, performed their tasks more effectively, and were less likely to quit when initial socialization focused on personal identity rather than on organizational identity or a control condition. In addition, authentic self-expression mediated these relationships. We call for a new direction in socialization theory that examines how both organizations and employees can benefit by emphasizing newcomers’ authentic best selves.
Building on the work by Barrett-Lennard (Carl Rogers’ helping system: Journey & substance. Sage, London 1998) and Wood et al. (J Couns Psychol 55:385–399 2008), this study describes the development and validation of a theory-based measure of state authenticity at work, the Individual Authenticity Measure at Work (IAM Work). Even though this construct is obviously relevant to the work context (e.g., as regards issues of work relations, leadership and well-being), none of the instruments currently available focuses on authenticity in the area of work and organizational psychology. A total sample of 646 participants was divided in two equal sized subsamples. Exploratory factor analysis supported the underlying tripartite construct of authenticity at work, resulting in the subscales authentic living, self-alienation, and accepting external influences. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the tripartite construct and showed good psychometric properties of the state-focused measure of authenticity at work. Finally, correlation analysis showed that each subscale and the total score of authenticity was positively related to commonly used work outcomes such as job satisfaction, in-role performance, and work engagement. This study concludes that the IAM Work is a reliable and valid measure of state authenticity at work. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.