Developing a Competency-Based Model in Relation to the Training Needs of Adult Learners

Abstract

The aim of the paper is to develop an innovative model of learners ' skills from the perspective of adult education. Several categories of skills are involved, as a result of the current holistic approaches in the field of adult education, as well as in connection with the current requirements of society. At the core of the model are several categories of skills, such as communication, scientific, intercultural, entrepreneurial, social and digital. Each type of competence provides the adult learner with the knowledge, skills, values and behaviors to determine professional success. The novelty of the work results from the determination of the categories of skills in accordance with the training needs of adult learners, which ensures their optimal integration in the socio-professional level.

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Moldavian Journal for Education and Social Psychology
ISSN: 2559-7620
Covered in: CrossRef; RePEc; CEEOL; KVK; WorldCat; Google Scholar
2021, Volume 5, Issue 1, pages: 38-54 | https://doi.org/10.18662/mjesp/5.1/31
Developing a
Competency-Based
Model in Relation to
the Training Needs of
Adult Learners
Iulian-Ciprian BERTEA1
1 PhD Student, "Ion Creangă" State
Pedagogical University of Chișinău, Chișinău,
Republic of Moldova,
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6356-3044
Abstract: The aim of the paper is to develop an innovative
model of learners' skills from the perspective of adult
education. Several categories of skills are involved, as a result of
the current holistic approaches in the field of adult education,
as well as in connection with the current requirements of
society. At the core of the model are several categories of skills,
such as communication, scientific, intercultural, entrepreneurial,
social and digital. Each type of competence provides the adult
learner with the knowledge, skills, values and behaviors to
determine professional success. The novelty of the work results
from the determination of the categories of skills in accordance
with the training needs of adult learners, which ensures their
optimal integration in the socio-professional level.
Keywords: skills, adult caregivers, professional integration, model,
training needs.
How to cite: Bertea, I.-C. (2022). Cross-Curricular Topics
of Contemporary Curricula in the Lower Grades of Primary
School in the Republic of Croatia. Moldavian Journal for
Education and Social Psychology, 5(1), 38-54.
https://doi.org/10.18662/mjesp/5.1/31

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39
1. Introduction
Current approaches in adult education focus on assessing training
needs, from a personal or professional perspective. To increase learning
motivation, adults want to clarify their concrete needs so that they know
clearly how they will be able to use the learning experiences in which they
are to be trained (Butnaru, 2012). The adult learner will be understood as
skills are explored in close connection with their training needs and training
strategies. Developing a competency-based model in accordance with the
training needs of adult learners is an innovative approach, since many studies
focus on trainers (Mikulec, 2019; Miulescu, 2018; Research voor Beleid,
2010; Zagir & Mandel, 2020; Žeravíková et al., 2015). It has been found that
there is very little research centered on the identification of competencies in
adult learners (Salleh et al., 2015). Therefore, the proposed study offers the
possibility of developing a new model of learner skills, based on knowledge
of their training needs.
Adult learners have specific needs as learners and it is important that
these needs are taken into account when planning training programmes (Ota
et al., 2006). Capitalizing on training needs becomes a necessity when there
are individual differences in learning style, motivation, interests of learners.
Based on knowledge of training needs, educators can create educational
experiences that will improve the learning of participants.
The quality of adult learning depends on how trainers engage in this
process. The level of professionalism of people working in adult education is
both a managerial exercise related to achieving the prescribed standards, and
a way to delimit the normative dimension, which indicates responsibility for
the quality of professional actions in their relationship with their learners and
towards the achievement of the goal of the educational profession (Biesta,
2017).
2. Conceptual framework
The key concepts of the paper are as follows: adult education, adult
learning, skills and training needs. In the view of Schaub and Zenke (2001),
adult education represents a "wide range of instructional offerings that
consciously address adults with the aim of broadening their spiritual horizon
and fulfilling expectations of professional qualification, which is not subject
to legal regulations, having freedom of choice in terms of content and
organization".

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The basic characteristics of adult learning are as follows: creating and
maintaining an atmosphere of respect between trainer and participant and
between all trainees; taking into account the professional experience of
trainees; structuring the training/ improvement program based on the needs
and availability of the beneficiaries; ensuring an immediate applicability of
those learned: adults are pragmatic and therefore their learning will be
productive if; involving adults in solving problems relevant to concrete
situations; guiding adults towards action and reflection, developing critical
thinking and using multiple perspectives and approaching learning as a
collaborative effort between trainees and trainers; providing the basis for
their own learning, continuous training and professional development.
The concept of competence is as challenged as it is diverse in the
definitions given to it from different perspectives by various authors. From a
broad, general perspective, competence is understood as " the cumulative
result of the personal history of an individual and his interactions with the
outside world. The European Union defines key competences as "a
combination of knowledge, capacities and attitudes adapted to the context"
(Council of the European Union, 2018, p. 7). This is the ability of a person
to exercise a responsibility or to execute a task” (Dumitriu, 2004, p. 190).
According to a similar definition, competence means "the ability, the ability
that allows success in the performance of a function or in the execution of a
task". Thus, competence means an "acquired ability, thanks to the
assimilation of relevant knowledge and experience, which consists in
circumscribing and solving specific problems" (Dobrota, 1999, p. 544).
Competence cannot be limited only to making good decisions, it also means
the ability to translate decisions into actions, into deeds. Thus, competence
designates the ability to achieve something right, good, useful. "Competence
is often described as an intellectual capacity that has various possibilities of
transfer (the ability to communicate, decide, Detect, Select, evaluate data,
information, relationships), a capacity that associates affective and attitudinal
components, motivating action". Competence involves " integrated
complexes of knowledge, skills, capacities and attitudes (competences built
on attitudes)" (Popescu-Neveanu, 1994). Legendre (Dumitriu, 2004, p. 162)
also defines competence as a "set of knowledge and skills that allows the
performance of a task or several tasks". In the conception of Ph. Perrenoud
(1997, p. 7), competence represents "an ability to act effectively in a time
defined by the situation/or well-defined situation, a capacity that relies on
knowledge, but is not reduced to it". Within the framework of psychology,
the distinction between skills, capabilities, competencies is operated.
According to P. Popescu-Neveanu (1994), competence is demonstrated not

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by long reflections and calculations, but by rapid adaptations to the changes
occurring in the context. The intervening automatisms diminish the appeal
to intellectual functions, giving way to specific and accumulated skills. This
means that skills will always be renewed, with permanent appeal to cognitive
processes and mental abilities. Having an important role in the formation of
skills, skills prove their usefulness, first of all, through intellectual and
cognitive qualities. Thus, the notion of competence differs from that of
aptitude (operational systems, developed superior, which lead to above-
average results in activity, being potential skills to be valued) and the notion
of capacity (fulfilled aptitude, which has been strengthened through
experience, exercise, assimilation of knowledge and training of skills). The
role of skills in the acquisition of competences is manifested in the period of
schooling, in the learning activity, provided that it is focused on the
achievement of well-specified tasks and problem situations. In Francophone
countries, the terms "savoir", "savoire - faire", "savoir-être", in the sense of
an action pedagogy, are used to designate the progressive transition from "to
know" to "to know how to do" and "to know how to be". Competence
involves knowing, knowing how to do (succeed in a concrete professional
situation), but also knowing how to be, having attitudes that support both
the present action and The becoming, the evolution of competence over
time. Thus, Gh. Dumitriu (2004, p. 191) states that the idea of competence
signifies a shift of emphasis from the informative ("what?", "how much?")
on the formative ("how?") and implies longer intervals of time for training
and development. L. Șoitu (1997) highlights the same changes, stating that
the notion of competence targets a new category of individual
characteristics, which requires a multidimensional analysis to integrate the
images of one's own competences, the possibilities of identification and
those of development pursued at the individual, institutional, organizational
level. The area of competence is encoded in capabilities (skills, skills, skills)
and knowledge, which helps the learner in the performance of certain tasks.
In the generic sense, competence implies a system of capabilities (skills,
skills, skills) and knowledge, through which the successful realization of the
action in each of its moments is ensured. The ability can be understood as
that "demonstrated or potential ability of the subject to be able to act, think,
feel or become" (Neacșu, 1990, p. 196). Abilities constitute the ability of
man to perform consciously, with a certain rapidity an action appropriate to
a purpose, under variable conditions. In the activity that the student carries
out there are a number of reactions, actions, operations, acts that are not
always driven and performed consciously, but are carried out by themselves,

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automatically, and become skills (reading, writing, calculation operations,
etc.). these are "automated components of activity" formed by exercise
(Popescu-Neveanu, 1978, p. 187). As a rule, these components of activity are
automated by the fact that they are repeated several times, a lot of practice is
done by the student. An activity cannot be fully automated because it is
triggered, directed and controlled as a whole consciously, being the result of
learning and exercise. Once formed skills have schematization, abbreviation,
operationalization, cursivity, stability and efficiency (Dumitriu & Dumitriu,
2003, p. 112). Skills represent an optimal combination and restructuring of
skills and knowledge, in order to carry out an action in new situations
(Popescu-Neveanu, 1994). By its specificity, skill confers superior quality in
the exploitation of knowledge and the integration of skills, giving them
plasticity. Behaviors constitute "the objective manifestation of global human
action" (Popescu-Neveanu, 1978, p. 123). Competence is assessed not only
by the number (volume) of information assimilated in a given time, but also
by the degree of their understanding, by the ease of their integration into the
previous system of knowledge and, above all, by the skill of operating with
them (in practice, in solving problems, in producing material) (Neacsu, 1990,
p. 340). The Integrative model of the functioning of a competence is shown
in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The Integrative model of the functioning of a competence
Source: Authors’ own conception

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3. Training needs of adult learners
According to Knowles et al. (2005), there are six types of specific
needs that are involved in the learning process in adult education (Figure 2):
need to know, self-concept, previous experience, willingness to learn,
learning orientation, and motivation to learn. Trainers will facilitate adult
learning by determining them to become aware of their"need to know".
Also, the role of trainers is to create environments in which adults develop
their self-directed learning skills, which gives them a high level of personal
responsibility. The richest resource for learning in adult education is one's
own experience, which will be harnessed through various experiential
techniques, such as participation in discussions, conducting simulations,
implementing problem-solving activities (McKeachie, 2002). Adults '
willingness to learn is driven by their ability to discover things they want to
know and achieve in order to deal with real-life situations effectively.
Learning orientation indicates that adults are focused on solving the
problems they face in everyday situations. The basic need of adults is to
perform various tasks in the context of application in real life. As for
motivation towards learning, adults are receptive to certain external factors,
such as a better job, higher wages, but the strongest motivators are internal,
which are visible through the desire to increase job satisfaction, improve
self-esteem.

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Figure 2. Specific learning needs in adult education (Knowles et al., 2005)
Understanding the training needs of andragogy prepares facilitators
to create successful programs for adult learners. To develop the quality of
education of teachers and to facilitate socio-professional integration,
emphasis will be placed on the training and development of a set of skills
with general and specific functions.
3. Types of skills specific to adult learning
The educational action centered on the formation of skills implies
both the presentation of theoretical notions and the cultivation and
consolidation on the basis of concrete activity, motivation and attitudes,
norms and practical principles of approach and solution of various
problems. In 2011, the Council of the European Union (2011) adopted the
"resolution on a renewed European agenda for adult learning", which refers
to the "Europe 2020"strategy. One of the priority areas is "improving the
quality and efficiency of education and training".
At the basis of the competency model in the context of adult
learning, several categories are delimited: communication, scientific,
intercultural, social, entrepreneurial, digital skills.
Training
needs
knowledge
needs
self-
concept
experience
availability
learning
orientation
motivation

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Communication competence can be understood as the most
important function of communication (Panisoara, 2004, p. 37). According to
Parks (Jablin & Putnam, 2001, p. 820), communication competence
represents "the degree to which individuals satisfy the goals they have set
themselves within the limits of the social situation, without risking their
abilities or opportunities to pursue other, more important goals from an
individual point of view". The competence of a speaking subject is given by
the set of possibilities put exclusively on account of the fact that the subject
Masters the respective language, which implies his ability to construct and
recognize the infinity of grammatically correct phrases, to interpret those
endowed with meaning. Another perspective is provided by the ecological
model, according to which communication competence is a result of the
dynamic interaction between the environment and the development of the
person/group/organization. The development of communication
competence at the individual, group or organizational level is influenced and
in turn influences the environment in each process that occurs. Conceived as
schemes, mobilized knowledge, skills, etc., communication skills can become
major stakes of trainees ' training, because they correspond to social
requirements aimed at adapting to the labor market and dynamic changes.
They can also empower learners with the means to master reality and relate
effectively. Gh. Dumitriu (2004, pp. 130-131) highlights the role of
communication skills on the harmonious and balanced psychological
development of the personality. It can be stated that the meaning of
communication competence in the context of adult education refers to the
ability of the learner to perform verbal behaviors in the intentional
relationship of situational communication, by activating a set of personal
abilities.
Scientific competencies constitute a complex ensemble, comprising
the skills necessary for problem solving, as well as the ability to reflect on
problem solving at a meta-level (Krell et al., 2018). These categories of skills
promote the acquisition and generation of knowledge for learners, with a
view to qualification through training in the field of Sciences (Véliz et al.,
2015). Therefore, scientific competencies become elements that favor the
development of critical thinking in learners (Conchado et al., 2015; Falicoff,
2015), which is one of the main factors of professional integration. Two
types of scientific competences have been delineated (Valdés et al., 2013):
basic and advanced. Basic skills allow the discovery, generation of
knowledge, to facilitate the ability to use them in practice, as well as the
ability to formulate an evidence-based conclusion. Advanced skills enable
resource management and knowledge marketing. According to Campos and

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Chinchilla (2009), scientific competences have a transversal character, since
they are necessary for learners in the context of skill development for all
disciplines.
Intercultural competencies refer to " the ability to interact effectively
and adequately in intercultural situations, based on specific attitudes,
intercultural knowledge, skills and behaviors (Bebenova-Nikolova, 2014, p.
180). These are the key competences for the development and maintenance
of sustainable democratic societies. Through the prism of its function,
intercultural competence represents "the ability to negotiate cultural
meanings and adequately perform effective communication behaviors that
recognize the different identities of interactions in a specific environment
"and implies" the ability to mobilize knowledge, methods of action, but also
affective experiences, positive attitudes in solving intercultural interaction
situations"(Cozma et al., 2006, p. 85). Intercultural competence represents "a
set of specific intercultural beliefs and conduct that advocate for openness,
empathy, and communication, for understanding and valorizing the logic of
each culture, whether appropriate or distant, for perceiving and respecting
otherness in all its differentiating elements" (Nedelcu, 2008, p.25). After an
analysis of several definitions, Deardorff (2020) considers that these
categories of skills involve improving human interactions between different
people within a society (differences due to age, gender, religion, socio-
economic status, political affiliation, ethnicity, etc.) or across borders. M.
Barrett (2018) proposes a classification а types of intercultural competences,
based on other studies and conceptual models proposed: attitudes towards
other cultures, expressed by respect, curiosity, desire to а know more about
them, openness, elimination of judgments, adaptation to what is unknown
and putting into value а cultural differences; skills good listener, and of the
interactions related to the use of a language is related to the degree of
flexibility in the culture of the foreign and skills related to empathy, and the
existence of а of multiple perspectives, as well as the skills of the critical
assessment; knowledge of their own culture in the first place, but also the
knowledge about the importance of communication, in other cultures,
literacy, and other skills that help in the process of intercultural interaction,
and the individual.; behaviour with reference to the way of communication,
reaction and action in general in meetings with different cultures, but also to
express a slight adaptation from a behavioral and communicative point of
view, so as to easily reach a common and beneficial agreement for both
parties. Some of the common elements of intercultural competencies in
different cultures include (UNESCO, 2013, p. 24): respect, self-awareness/
identity, different worldviews, obedience, adaptation, relationship building,

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and cultural humility. It is important to look at the acquisition of
intercultural skills as a learner-centered process.
Entrepreneurial skills are a complex set, comprising personality
traits, skills and knowledge. They reflect the total ability of an entrepreneur
to successfully fulfill professional roles. Bolzani and Luppi (2021) developed
an entrepreneurial model based on five areas of competence: positive
attitude and initiative, communication and interaction, teamwork and
collaboration, critical and analytical thinking or problem solving, including
risk assessment; creativity and innovation. On the basis of a systematic
review, Tittel, and Terzidis (2020) has identified the key entrepreneurial
skills: the acquisition and development of resources, collaboration,
communication, and the development of business plans, co-operation, co-
ordination, the ability to make decisions, and the development of the
organizational culture, empathy, skills, financial skills, ethics, creativity,
leadership skills, logical thinking, and monitoring of the activities, skill,
planning, problem-solving, etc. the recent Research on entrepreneurship
education (Bureau & Komporozos-Athanasiou, 2017; Stenholm et al., 2021)
focus on learning environments and contexts that are specifically designed to
develop learners ' entrepreneurial skills.
Social skills are aimed at "the ability to engage in meaningful
interactions with others" (Junge et al., 2020), "a type of behavior that leads
to social performance" (Chelcea, 1998). From a social perspective,
competence is the ability of a person or group to interpret a phenomenon,
solve a problem, make a decision or perform an action. Argyle (1999)
proposed a descriptive and explanatory model of social competencies, in
which it differentiates seven components: assertiveness, gratification and
support, nonverbal communication, verbal communication, empathy and
cooperation, knowledge and problem solving, respectively self-presentation.
Social skills "facilitate positive interactions, corresponding to cultural norms,
in such a way as to allow achieving one's own goals and, at the same time,
respecting the needs of others" (Stefan & Kallay, 2010, p. 27). In the
conception of author Goleman (2001), social competence is an important
dimension of emotional intelligence. The elements that make up this type of
intelligence are self-confidence, self-control, motivation, empathy,
establishing and directing human relationships. After Topping et al. (2000),
social competencies include both the knowledge and capabilities involved in
processing information revealing for social interaction contexts, and the
skills and abilities that include: perceiving relevant social cues, interpreting
social cues, anticipating obstacles that may arise in the way of personal
behavior designed in a particular social context and the consequences of this

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behavior for oneself and others, identifying effective solutions to various,
transposition of decisions taken in connection with various problems into
effective social behavior, expression of a sense of self-efficiency in
interpersonal relationships. Social skills are formed during experiences in
family life, through interactions within informal groups of friends and, later,
on the basis of interactions occasioned by professional activity in various
organizations. Therefore, the social skills of an individual are constantly
changing, as they evolve with age, due to the permanent influences exerted
by the family, the school, the group of friends and, later, the relationships at
work. Digital skills are related to the development of technology, as well as
the formation of citizenship in a knowledge society. Types of digital skills
involve technical skills of general use of digital technologies, skills of
harnessing them in professional activities, learning and everyday life in
various activities, skills of critical evaluation of digital technologies and
motivation to participate in digital culture (Ilomäki et al., 2011). Currently,
digital competence becomes an indicator of quality education in the Twenty-
First Century (Maderick et al., 2016). Digital competence is required in
various activities (Punie et al., 2013): technical information on the use of
digital technologies, formal and informal digital environments, evaluation
and management, communication and collaboration, digital content creation,
digital media, security and problem solving, professional integration,
community inclusion. Some concrete tools have been developed, such as the
DigComp framework, to help improve digital skills and to plan initiatives at
the level of training programmes (Vuorikari et al., 2016). According to this
tool, five different areas of digital skills are delineated (Punie et al., 2013):
Information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital
content creation, safety and problem solving.
At the level of expression of competences specific to adult learning,
a synthesis of specific knowledge, skills, skills, attitudes and behaviors is
carried out. Therefore, a visible and measurable product results, defined in
concrete situations of solving problem-situations created in the framework
of training programs, as well as life situations involving solving difficulties.
4. A new competency-based model in line with the training needs of
adult learners
The model in the context of adult learners, based on your skills, you
will promote a more systematic analysis of the intervention, to education,
which covers all of the components of the curriculum (see Table 1). the
objectives and content of the curriculum, which perform the function of

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guidance/ planning/ design of the training, strategies that perform the
function of making the training for problem-solving and problem-situations;
to evaluate, which performs the function of the expert and of the regulation-
self-regulation of the activity of the training. Pedagogy of competences
(Gillet, 1991) offers an integrative vision on the training of learners, in
accordance with social-economic expectations.
Table 1. Pedagogy of competences from the perspective of adult learning
Components
Pedagogy through skills
Purposes
- They are distinguished by clarity and utility from a social
point of view.
- The aims are formulated from the perspective of the training
needs of the learners.
- The pedagogical goal is achievable: it offers a field of
practical realization.
Methodology
-The activity of the trainer is centered on the development of
skills.
- It is focused on the training needs of learners.
Evaluation
- The results of integrated learning in skills are harnessed.
- Competences provide a real basis for the integration of
knowledge.
- Evaluation results become significant for learners.
Source: Authors’ own conception
At the base of the competency-based model are the three main
dimensions (epistemological, anthropological, professional) and the
component elements of the curriculum (aims, methodology, evaluation),
closely related to the training needs of adult learners (Figure 3). The
structural components arranged in a logical sequence outline the model of
formation of specific learning skills in adult education. The proposed model
stages the skills training actions from the cognitive-theoretical and action-
practical perspectives, being closely related to the objectives of the training
program. The starting point in the development of the model is the
consideration that adult education materializes in practice through the
dimensions analyzed: epistemological, which includes all current concepts
and approaches in this field; anthropological and professional, in order to
highlight the importance of adapting to the dynamic requirements of the
labor market.

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Figure 3. The competency-based model in the context of adult learning
Source: Authors’ own conception

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Conclusions
The development of the competency-based model in line with the
professional development needs of adult learners facilitates the adaptation of
learning according to the psycho-pedagogical characteristics of the age.
Communication skills, scientific, intercultural, social, entrepreneurial, digital
can be formed in adult learners based on the three dimensions
(epistemological, anthropological, professional), which express the current
tendencies of adult education to modify its purpose, evolving from knowing
to knowing to be, to know what you have to do and act.
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