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Introduction
The global socio-economic benets of coral reefs have been
estimated at USD 375 billion annually.1 However, coral reefs are
anticipated to decline globally by 70% by the middle of the 21st
century due to rapid ocean warming.2-4 To counteract this decline and
to introduce coral reefs to more suitable environments, there has been
a sustained eort, particularly since the 1950’s,5 to create articial
reefs to increase marine biodiversity and density in targeted undersea
environments to enhance commercial sheries.6-8 These improvements
include ‘increasing the harvest of algae [and seaweed], lobster, other
shellsh, and shes’,5 reversing the existing decline in coral cover,
serving to protect vulnerable coastlines from damaging wave forces.
The structural elements that have been used to construct these
articial reefs range across a wide spectrum: from sunken objects
like train carriages, tanks, decommissioned ships, discarded vehicular
tires, bridge rubble (i.e. ‘materials of opportunity’.6) or repetitive use
of concrete blocks or PVC pipes. However, research into the structural
qualities of articial reefs has turned to purpose-built modular design
and arrangement features to enhance marine livestock diversity and
habitat-enhancement for desirable species.9,10 The structural forms of
these articial reefs take shape from the dierent desired objectives
of the project, whether it may be for coral spawning, diversity and
production of marine products, kelp assemblages, or where these reefs
are introduced to mitigate habitat loss.11 Within the eld of reef design
for shery improvement, articial reefs take on two primary purposes:
rst, those that are oriented to the recruitment of adult shes, as
seen from the rst articial reefs constructed in the US during the
mid-19th Century and the approach to articial reef deployment
in Australia; or second, those that are oriented to enhancing the
improvement of ‘spawning, recruitment, and survival of earlier life
history stages’, as seen in Japanese articial reef construction over
the past centuries.5,12,13 These divergent objectives produce articial
reefs of dierent materials and structural forms.5 Other research has
focused on the hydrodynamic characteristics of the articial reef
structure to ‘provide a structure with low ow resistance, which will
be a more suitable shelter for shes and marine organisms’.14 The
authors posit that this need to create highly-specialised articial reef
forms suggests that the design and construction of articial reefs is
developing towards a responsive highly-customisable design and
construction process to address local environmental conditions, such
as 3D printing technology.
Most articial reefs are sited on the seabed (bottom-founded) and
must be located in shallower ocean environments. This places the
articial reef close to threats such as coastal development and pollutants
(such as agricultural run-o and sedimentation). For example, the Great
Barrier Reef ecosystems are vulnerable to phosphorus and nitrogen in
fertiliser run-os, which can lead to increased algae production and
increased incidences of crown-of-thorn outbreaks that damage coral
reefs.15 Seagrasses can also be aected by sedimentation from soil
erosion due to land-clearing upstream, which aects the turbidity of
undersea environment and reduce sunlight penetration.15 However,
the phenomenon of reefs developing on oshore structures—most
notably reefs on oil rigs—has seen an emerging focus on the potential
for oating articial reefs in the upper photic zone (depths ≤ 40m)
to support more environmentally-sustainable oshore development.
This has resulted in an emerging consciousness around repurposing
decommissioned oil rigs into marine environments.16,17 Between 1980s
and 2018, more than 532 oshore platforms have been repurposed as
articial reefs in the Gulf of Mexico (accounting for just over a tenth
of decommissioned platforms).16
At present, there have been limited purpose-built oating articial
reefs, such as articial reefs as oating sculptures18 or as part of
oating vessels or habitats.19 However, the authors’ opinion is that
when combined with modular very large oating structures (VLFS),
articial reef components that are attached to or in-built into these
J Aquac Mar Biol. 2022;11(2):58‒63. 58
©2022 Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially.
Opportunities for further development of
3D-printed oating articial reefs
Volume 11 Issue 2 - 2022
Brydon Wang,1,2 Ding Wen Bao,3,5 Selina
Ward,4 Dan Luo1
1School of Architecture, University of Queensland, Australia
2TC Beirne School of Law, University of Queensland, Australia
3School of Architecture and Urban Design, RMIT University,
Australia
4School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland,
Australia
5Centre for Innovative Structures and Materials, School of
Engineering, RMIT University Australia
Correspondence: Dan Luo, School of Architecture, University
of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,
Email
Received: August 08, 2022 | Published: August 23, 2022
Abstract
This article sets out the potential benets of combining oating structures with 3D-printed
articial reefs to increase sustainable development of articial reefs. Traditional articial
reefs are often sited on the seabed (bottom-founded) and are limited to a narrow range
of suitable deployment sites. By utilising oating structure technology to create oating
articial reefs, these ecological installations leverage the advantages of oating structures
to create more conducive conditions for improved bio-diversity, aquacultural harvests, and
coral growth. These advantages include the ability to sensitively deploy oating reefs in the
photic zone of deeper waters or where there are soft seabed conditions, speed and exibility
in deployment, creative use of mooring systems to reduce the impact of climatic and
navigational threats, and the use of reefs to reduce the impact of coastal erosion and increased
urbanisation. This article then considers how oating articial reefs oer biological and
environmental advantages, with the potential to deploy these reefs under environmental
oset policies. Importantly, the article considers how 3D-printing technology can produce
topographical optimisation of the oating structure, and potentially increase the speed of
coral coverage, diversity of sh species and reduced settlement predation. It concludes with
identifying future research opportunities to realise the delivery of 3D-printed articial reefs
as part of oating oshore development projects or for environmental oset programs.
Keywords: articial reefs, oating structures, additive manufacturing, 3D printing,
aquaculture, coastal infrastructure, environmental oset
Journal of Aquaculture & Marine Biology
Mini Review Open Access
Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs 59
Copyright:
©2022 Wang et al.
Citation: Wang B, Bao DW, Ward S, et al. Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs. J Aquac Mar Biol. 2022;11(1):58‒63.
DOI: 10.15406/jamb.2022.11.00337
structures will leverage the technical advantages of oating structures,
leveraging the ecological benets that have been observed with novel
ecosystems developed around oshore platforms.20 At the same time,
purpose-built modular oating articial reefs could be specied as
part of the technical brief and structure of oshore infrastructure
projects, improving the overall environmental sustainability of the
built structure. Such deployments of oating articial reefs could
potentially serve as oset sites to support ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity21
under environmental oset policies used globally.22 We set out the
advantages of a oating articial reef in the next section.
Advantages of oating articial reefs
Floating modular articial reefs structure oer numerous
advantages:
I. Floating articial reefs do not disrupt soft seabed oor
environments and pose little impact to marine life within this
stratum. Where accompanied by sensitive cut-outs to permit
greater light penetration, there is no destruction of the existing
marine environment below the footprint of the structure, unlike
bottom-founded articial reefs.23,24
II. Within certain biological parameters, the articial reef structure
would be suitable for deeper water or soft seabed conditions as the
articial reef could be oated and suspended 5 to 25 m below the
ocean surface, allowing the reef to be located in the photic zone
of deeper ocean environments where there is less marine biomass
and diversity. Rigs-to-reef programs have been found to enhance
marine life, including the bacaccio rocksh (Sebastes paucipinis)
in southern California and cowcod (Sebastes levis).25,26 A study
of reefs on oil rigs demonstrated that decommissioned oil rigs
deployed at depths greater than 500m could potentially oer
suitable articial reef habitats in the photic zone of the deep
sea, particularly when ‘epifaunal (encrusting) communities
develop’.27
III. Flexibility in deployment – articial reef modules could
potentially be attached to oshore infrastructure and towed out
and recongured – however, for these more exible applications
of oating articial reefs, the structural design would need to
be less customisable. The advantage oered is not just habitat
enhancement for multiple aquacultural applications for a diverse
range of marine livestock and seaweed farming, but also to
propagate and seed new coral environments. Such articial reefs
could also be strategically placed to recruit and retain larvae ‘that
would otherwise be “lost” to inhospitable substrates’.28
IV. The mooring system for the oating structure also provides some
unique advantages. First, the buoyancy of the oating structure
and be adjusted to respond to impending above sea threats such
as cyclones or heatwaves. By temporarily lowering the oating
articial reef by up to 5m below the ocean surface in response
to these threats, there is an ability for the reef to be made less
vulnerable to cyclone damage and bleaching events during a heat
wave. Where required, mooring systems can also be lowered to
avoid marine vessel trac and the threat of collision. Finally,
the adoption of a taut mooring line system can also be designed
to generate electricity through wave energy converters attached
to the mooring lines.29 With this power supply, there is further
potential for these articial reefs to be equipped with pump-
and-sprinkler systems to sprinkle seawater and break the ocean
surface to reduce light penetration, cool the reef and further
reduce bleaching events
V. Increased pace of maturity to allow these modules to be rapidly
constructed to create new marine habitats and be customised
for oyster farming, sea cucumber farming, lobster farming,
increasing biomass of specic sh species, or new coral reefs.
Individual articial reef modules can be seeded with coral or other
marine life prior to assembly. Surfaces of the articial reef will be
prepared to maximise coral and other invertebrate settlement with
the use of settlement inducers and crustose coralline algae. This
would increase deployment rate and improve overall construction
periods for the articial reef. For example, to expedite this
process of starting the growth of an articial reef, the authors
suggest that there could be a collection of collect coral larvae at
spawning time, which would then be allowed to settle on small
settlement tiles covered with crustose coralline algae and suitable
bacterial lms. Once these coral recruits reach a suitable growth
stage – when they have acquired their Symbiodiniacaea (the
symbiotic microalgae that live within the coral cells and supply
most of their carbon) and have calcied to the appropriate level,
these small tiles could be attached to the articial reef. A number
of dierent species of coral larvae could also be raised including
brooding species that settle and grow quickly and would form
an important part of the articial reef fauna. Small quantities of
adult tissue could also be grafted onto substrates and attached to
the articial reef as well as a way of accelerating coral growth.
VI. Floating articial reefs may also assist in reducing coastal erosion
that is impacting economic activity and property values along
coastlines, shading and cooling waters to reduce the eect of
warmer waters on wet weather events on our coastlines. These
reefs could be deployed as a oating or submerged breakwaters to
protect sensitive coastlines and nearshore facilities.30
Biological and Environmental advantages of articial
reefs
Articial reefs serve to increase biomass of a particular species
of marine life where the specic regional population is limited by
suitable habitat (i.e. available resources). In these scenarios, the
availability of an articial reef serves to decrease predation risk,
allow for increased food availability and better opportunities for
reproduction. Where the regional population limitations arise from
recruitment with uctuations in population numbers due to ‘survival,
dispersion and settlement of larvae’, articial reefs might have limited
eect on increasing biomass.31
The marine life population of various species can vary over time
on the articial reef—one species may dominate for a season, or a
‘successional pattern can occur ’ across time. However, ‘equilibrium
community structure’ generally occurs within half a decade.32
Articial reefs oriented on specic aquacultural outcomes can also be
seeded with the specic species desired: clams, abalone, oysters, sea
urchins and new coral reefs.32
Oshore platforms repurposed as articial reefs have seen
increased sh biomass within a radius of a 300m radius.32,16 The
authors anticipate that the deployment of articial reefs with highly-
customisable void spaces that support a spectrum of complexity of
structural modication will produce more conducive environments
for coral reef sh larvae and increase the recruitment of juvenile sh.33
Similarly, the potential to customise structural modications allow
these articial reefs to serve as specialised habitats for a wider range
of sh stocks and marine products, such as for lobster farming and
seaweed farming, potentially unlocking the co-location of multiple
marine industries, increasing marine livestock and diversity, improve
Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs 60
Copyright:
©2022 Wang et al.
Citation: Wang B, Bao DW, Ward S, et al. Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs. J Aquac Mar Biol. 2022;11(1):58‒63.
DOI: 10.15406/jamb.2022.11.00337
commercial and recreational catch rates. Customisable articial reef
modules can also provide visual interest to provide reef attractions for
divers, expanding eco-tourism possibilities.34
Oshore platforms repurposed as articial reefs have been
suggested as means of discouraging illegal trawl shing, particularly
in at-bottom areas such as the north-west shelf of Australia, sections
of the North Sea and the Adriatic Sea. This oers a potential signicant
advantage where oating articial reefs could be deployed to protect
benthic habitats.16 These oshore platforms have also been observed
to play a key ecological role in serving as a ‘refuge for… megafauna
such as seals and whales’.35
Floating articial reefs could also potentially be deployed to
serve as sites for environmental osets in the marine environment
(for example, under the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) in Australia). While environmental oset
mechanisms are not without controversy or criticism on ecological,
legal and political grounds, the global use of osets stems from a
desire for net neutral or positive impact on the marine environment
based on allowing conservation eorts undertaken by a developer to
compensate for environmental harm caused in a dierent location.15
In scenarios where oating articial reefs are a required component
of oshore developmental approvals, there is potential to address the
phenomenon of coastal hardening—where natural marine habitats
are replaced with man-made structures—and shift some of the
complexities and costs associated with preservation and rehabilitation
of coastal habitats (such as seagrass) onto oshore developers. In other
jurisdiction-specic oset policies (such as Australia), developers can
potentially outsource osets to the government (or third party) to
carry out environmental oset activities, allowing the government to
potentially take on board the deployment of oating articial reefs.
However, ocean governance of oshore development is
complex and involves multiple regulatory stakeholders tasked with
environmental protection. In Australia, the installation of a oating
articial reef would involve discussions with, and potentially
obtaining approvals from, federal, state, and in some cases, local
government agencies. For example, the installation of a oating
articial reef in Queensland, Australia varies depending on the exact
site of deployment, potentially requiring Tidal Works development
approval, a Marine Park permit, engagement with the Sea Installations
Act 1987 (Cth) and the Environment Protection and Sea Dumping
Act 1982 (Cth) (and potential Commonwealth sea dumping permit).
Further, in situations where the approval of an oset for an oshore
development could result in a nancial benet to government entity
tasked with carrying out oset activities, including the deployment of
oating articial reefs, vigilance will be required against the threat
of regulatory capture.15 It is imperative that environmental oset
mechanisms are intended to be used as a last resort, after options to
avoid or minimise environmental harm have been explored and ruled
out.
Potential articial reef project
The authors propose a highly-customisable oating articial
reef comprised of 3D-printed modules attached to oating pontoons
that are submerged 2 to 25m deep to avoid strong surface waves.
These modules can be rapidly constructed to create new marine
habitats and be customised for a range of ecological and commercial
purposes, including: oyster farming, sea cucumber farming, lobster
farming, increasing biomass of specic sh species, or new coral
reefs. For example, these marine habitats could be used as oyster
farms, providing not just commercial benets through aquaculture,
but also the inherent benet of improved water quality through
the natural ltration provided by oysters (for example, Saccostrea
commercialis).36
By adopting a hybrid system comprising modular oating
structures and 3D-printed modules, the articial reef could be oated
and suspended 5 to 25m below the ocean surface, allowing the reef
to be located in sterile, deeper ocean environments (oshore ocean
space) to create marine habitats ideal for aquaculture, and alive with
corals and sh. A novel taut mooring line system will be designed to
generate electricity by using wave energy converters and to allow the
buoyancy of the articial reef to be adjusted in response to cyclones
or heatwaves.
In terms of the proposed structural design of the oating reef, the
authors suggest the deployment of generative design and structural
topology optimisation. The application of generative design and
topology optimization methods instead of traditional ways of
designing articial reefs is crucial to customizing reef habitat. This
innovating structural design method will yield crevices and voids to
allow higher surface-area-to-volume ratios and increase the speed of
coral coverage, diversity of sh species, biomass, juvenile attraction
and reduce post-settlement predation.1,6,37 Simultaneously, such a
structural design approach provides an additional ability to seamlessly
design innovatively-shaped articial reefs for attracting divers to
boost the local tourism industry.
The optimal shape of the articial reef under the wave and current
actions will be determined by using topology optimisation techniques.
The optimisation constraints include satisfying the strength, stiness,
stability and durability criteria to ensure the printed reef has adequate
strength to withstand wave actions, storms/typhoons and other
hydrodynamic/combined actions. The reef will also feature surface
textures and contours to provide a conducive environment for coral
and algae growth and internal spaces for sea creatures to hide and
build their homes. Generative design or topology optimization enables
the production of free-form and porous structure components that are
highly customizable and material ecient to suit a range of economic
and environmental outcomes.
Building on the previous research on “Environmental data-driven
performance-based topology optimisation for morphology evolution
of articial Taihu stone”38 and “Human-made corals for marine
habitats: Design optimization and additive manufacturing”,39 the
authors suggest a hybrid generative design method that integrates
the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Bi-directional
Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO) techniques to predict
and optimise the performance of coral reef and environment in the
early stage of the design.40 CFD simulation enables engineers to
predict and optimise the performance of buildings and environment
in the early stage of the design and topology optimisation techniques.
BESO is a nite element-based topology optimisation method, that
has been widely used in structural design to evolve a structure from
the full design domain towards an optimum by gradually removing
inecient material and adding material simultaneously. For example,
an articial reef can be generated based on the environmental data-
driven performance feedback using the hybrid generative design
method to increase the variety of reef’s porous and intricate form
to support aquaculture, commercial shing activities, and seaweed
farming to be co-located in dierent sections of the articial reef
structure.
To allow such structural design to be as customisable as possible,
the authors also propose the use of 3D printing technology. Printing
material for the articial reefs would be biologically friendly to coral
Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs 61
Copyright:
©2022 Wang et al.
Citation: Wang B, Bao DW, Ward S, et al. Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs. J Aquac Mar Biol. 2022;11(1):58‒63.
DOI: 10.15406/jamb.2022.11.00337
and marine-friendly, ensuring that its pH is similar to that of seawater
and that any leaching that occurs stays within acceptable limits. The
printed reef provides a suitable substrate and good recruitment surface
for coral attachment and growth.
Owing to the water buoyancy and preference of irregular surfaces
for attachment of marine organism, 3D printed structures have
great potential for fabricating submerged structures compared with
3D printing systems deployed onshore. First, printing submerged
structures allows the buoyancy force in the water body to reduce
the self-weight of the overlaying layers, reducing deformation of
material as successive layers are added,41 and improving its ability
to create structural overhangs. This allows the rapid printing of
structures with additional geometrical complexity without increasing
the cost of production. Second, as these underwater structures full
an environmental or aquacultural requirements, they do not need
to meet onerous industry standards or comply with building codes,
permitting the use of coarser-grained aggregates, which reduce the
need for cement and result in less shrinkage. This again provides a
signicant advantage compared with traditional 3D printing given
the increase in construction speed and eciency.42 Third, water ow
will naturally wash away loose particles over time, reducing the post-
processing workload for particle-based prints. Finally, 3D printing
systems potentially oer rapid large-scale low-cost printing which
can be based on cement or bio glue in sensitive habitat, where local
materials can be used. Other ingredients such as glass-bre reinforced
polymers and slow-releasing reef nutrients, bacterial cultures, or
extracts of crustose coralline algae can potentially be added to the
base aggregates of 3D printing to facilitate the growth of the reef;
thereby increasing the aquaculture benets of the articial reef.43
The authors note that 3D printing is currently used in limited
ways in the construction of articial reefs. The current large scale
3D printing approaches use 3D printing techniques such as Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM) or Powder Bed Fusion. However,
these techniques are primarily developed for building construction,
which has signicant limitations such as costly customized printing
materials,44 sub-optimal structural performance with mixed isotropic
and anisotropic properties,45 and low printing resolution with rough
surface nishing that reduces complex voids crucial for providing
conducive environments for a wide spectrum of marine life.6 However,
printing for submerged structure brings unique opportunities for
additive manufacturing. Being submerged in water, buoyancy
provide additional support for printed objects that facilitates the
aggregate of materials. Also adopting local materials such as reef
debris would increase the entanglement within the aggregate, thus
allowing additional geometrical exibility for the printed structure
with potentially increasing ability to print cantilevers and overhangs.
With increasing geometrical exibility, and the possibilities of wash-
away-able temporary support, structures with complex cavities
at dierent scales can be printed for marine habitat with complex
ecosystems such as articial reef. Also, adopting local coarse debris
not only minimize the impact to local environment, but also generates
perforation and cavities withing the aggregate itself, provide ideal
surface quality for the growth of micro-organism and attachment of
coral. Incorporating modern workow of digital design and advance
manufacture, it’s possible to design and print customizable structure
optimized either as a stand-alone deployable base for articial reef, or
as an integrated part of oating structure that bears the dual purpose
of fostering designated habitat. (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Floating articial reefs –digital model, 3d printing model and rendering from RMIT Master Studio CORAL.
Concluding remarks
With increasing oshore oating developments and advances
in oating structures technology, there is an opportunity to create
oating articial reefs that allow the creation of new marine
environments within the 5 to 25 m depth in deeper oshore waters
that typically have little marine biomass and diversity. Such a project
builds on existing research that demonstrates the use of oil rigs (and
other oating structures) as articial reefs in oshore environments
produces higher biomass and diversity. Wave energy can be harvested
by installing Power Take-O systems in between segments of taut
mooring line system as for the heaving wave energy converter.
There is a wider application of such oating articial reef
technologies beyond oshore development, including nearshore and
wetland environments. For example, these same oating components
can also be customised for purposes beyond articial reefs, including
for use as oating garden spaces on wetlands. For example, such
modules can be used to grow native Australian plants (Phragmites
australis, Baumea articulata, and Juncus kraussii) in wetlands that
can detox PFAS-contaminated water.46,47
Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs 62
Copyright:
©2022 Wang et al.
Citation: Wang B, Bao DW, Ward S, et al. Opportunities for further development of 3D-printed oating articial reefs. J Aquac Mar Biol. 2022;11(1):58‒63.
DOI: 10.15406/jamb.2022.11.00337
Articial reefs have the potential to be included in project briefs
for future oating developments to ensure that these projects meet
potential technical and regulatory requirements. It is anticipated that
the inclusion of articial reefs with oshore developmental approvals
will allow superior sustainability outcomes for projects as diverse as
oating breakwaters and oating windfarms.
Acknowledgements
None.
Conict of interest
Author declares there are no conicts of interests.
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