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70
Education Research Journal
ISSN
2026-6332
Basilia Igbokwe et al, Volume (12) Issue (6): 70 – 80 June - 2022. RESEARCH PAPER
Gender inequality: A semiotic analysis of representation
of the Nigerian woman in Mike Asukwo’s “Laughter in
the Mirror”
*Basilia Igbokwe1, Winifred Ngozi Nwachukwu2 and Josephine Ijeoma Adolalom3
1,2, 3Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
E-mail: wnwachukwu@yahoo.com2, Tel.: 08035819503
*Corresponding Author
Basilia Igbokwe
Federal Polytechnic Nekede,
Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author email:
macybon70@yahoo.com1,
0803710327
Abstract
There has been an outcry of gender imbalance in the representation of the
Nigerian woman over the years in all spheres of life. The patriarchal nature
of the society has kept women relegated to the background and from
actively participating in the mainstream political activities. The study
examined the semiotic representation of the Nigerian woman in Mike
Asukwo’s “Laughter in the Mirror” with a view to ascertaining their level
of representation. A qualitative research approach was employed and a
case study design adopted. Data for the analysis was purposively
selected from the 344 cartoons. Content analysis and semiotic designs
were used to analyse the data. The findings revealed the imbalance in the
discourse as a reflection of gender imbalance in the larger society. The
study recommends fair representation of women in the political arena and
the media to present positive image of women as these have impact on
their views of self-worth.
Key words- Gender imbalance, Semiotic representation, Cartoons, and
Society.
Introduction
Many societies are rooted in gender differentiation, mainly
of male domination and female subordination. These
differentiation roles take shape historically and socially
within the frame of power-governance relationship.
Institutionalized patriarchal system perpetuates gender
inequality in societies. This is one of the basic and persistent
barriers to women’s meaningful participation and
contribution to national development. Not much will be
experienced in national development until women are given
a fair chance to participate in the matters affecting them.
Contributing to the discourse, von der Leyen (2019) made
her commitment to gender equality and parity very clear
stating that “the equal representation and influence of
women and men in political life, at all levels of governance,
is a prerequisite for a democratic society.
According to the UNESCO Priority Gender Equality
Action Plan (2014-2021), “gender equality refers to the
equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women
and men and girls and boys. Gallagher (1980) and Fejes
(1992) reviewed studies by other scholars on stereotypes
and found that women are underrepresented in the media,
in staffing as well as in content. Again, a global study carried
out by the World Association of Christian Communication’s
Global Media Monitoring Project showed little changes in
these realities after many years of the Beijing Conference
declarations. Only 24% of people seen or heard about in the
news are women. Almost 48% of all stories reinforce
71
stereotypical representations of men and women (Grizzle
and Torras Calvo, 2013).
Women’s full and substantive political participation, both
as citizens and in public office, is essential for good
governance and policy making” (Women in Politics 2019). A
recent study carried out by (Women in Politics, 2019) shows
the marginal changes in female representation in
government between 2008 and 2019 (see table 1 below).
None of the countries under study had up to a 50%
representation. Another study conducted in African
indicated a 16% women sources in politics and government.
(Media Portrayal of Women and Media Gender Gap in
African 2017). Women in Politics (2019) affirms the official
recognition of the equality between men and women in
Europe as a fundamental right according to the Treaty of
Rome 1957 and the Treaty of Amsterdam 1997. However,
many countries are reluctant to accord women this right.
Lawrence (2004) notes that the media has the power to
project women in public sphere however, a remarkable
difference has not been noticed as Global Media Monitoring
Project 2015 observed only a marginal increase of 3% of
African women presence in the news from 19% in 2010 to
22% in 2015. (Media Portrayal of Women and Media Gender
Gap in African 2017).
Table 1: Sample of Women Representation in Politics in 2008 and 2019
The Nigerian society is traditionally patriarchal in nature,
where culture and religion have dictated men and women
relationship over the years and entrenched male domination
into the structure of social organization and institution at all
levels of leadership. Patriarchy justifies the marginalization
of women in all spheres of life (Salaam, 2003). This is our
undoing as a nation as all the efforts by women to make
meaningful contributions towards national development are
either relegated to the background or they go unnoticed.
Granted that marginalization held sway in the colonial
era as the native administrators (Ikpe, 1979) erected
structures that were not favourable to the women folk,
unfortunately, little has changed since then. The question
then is, should such domination and marginalization of
women continue in the 21st century? The United Nations
Secretary General’s Report on women observes that
“systems of governance and many political leadership
positions remain under the control of elite men” (Sec. Gen
Report 3) leaving little or no room for the women to
participate in governance.
Issues such as patriarchy, traditional and cultural
practices, stigmatization, lack of funding, nepotism in
politics, heavy monetization of the political process, low
value placed on women’s substantive participation, have
resulted in the marginalization of women CEDAW (2017).
Moreover, initiatives taken to combat gender discrimination
and gender-based violence have been compromised by the
fact that many harmful practices are grounded in widely
accepted cultural and religious norms CEDAW (2017).
According to Corner (2003), the media in politics
constitute the real public through which citizens understand
the ‘political’ scenario. Studies have shown the
72
underrepresentation of women by the media. Media reports
on women are often negative, reflecting widely held
stereotypes in society which have nothing to do with their
political aspirations (Mervi 2006; Jenkins 2002). Although
the Nigerian woman has made her marks in all walks of life,
still she remains under represented not just by the media but
by the society at large. The constitution speaks of gender
equality which is not practiced in reality. This viewed gender
imbalance has led to series of talks and debates on the
status of women and the need to integrate them into the
development process Olaleye (2008).
Development has become a topical and critical issue
worthy of the attention of scholars in recent times due to its
importance to human existence. The term development
means different things to different people. It could be seen
in terms of the economy, industrial technology and other
material conditions (Bamikole 2007). It is also inclusive of
all round development of the people. The development of
individuals educationally, socially, economically, politically
and culturally irrespective of gender therefore, is
synonymous with the development of the nation. A
development in the right direction will lead to the overall well-
being of the citizens.
There is no gainsaying that the wealth of nations is built
by the collective will of the citizens and creative hard work.
It is evident that one of the weaknesses of the emerging
economies of African nations today is the failure to deeply
involve women in the process of governance and
development (Okereke, 2010).
In the time past, women in peasant societies made large
contributions to community and national development, in
addition to caring for their homes and families (Okereke,
2010). They were actively engaged in the development of
their societies. Incidentally, the situation is different now.
One of the most serious problems faced by Nigeria as a
developing nation is non-active participation of women in her
national affairs. No nation can develop to the limit of its
potentials unless women are fully empowered to take up
responsibilities and their efforts towards the political and
socio-economic development of the country acknowledged.
It is against this background that the paper discusses the
semiotic representation of women in the cartoons of Mike
Asukwo, “Laughter in the Mirror”, the book being a reflection
of the political activities in the larger society and the
representation of women in general in Nigeria.
Political Cartoons
Political cartoons are a visual communicative discourse
pursuing the transmission of political meanings and
implications. They adorn a small corner of newspapers, but
defining significant topics of political discourse of the time
thereby reflecting the passions of the moment and a
historical perspective of the nation over a period of time.
“Political cartoon serve four functions entertainment;
aggression reduction; agenda-setting and framing; and
specific political policy and history” De Sousa and Medhurst
(1981). Visualization of meaning has proved to be a critical
tool for political expression. According to Ademilokun and
Olateju, (2015), “…visual images are used in media
representations or constructions of politicians, political
parties, their attitudes to the public, or the effects of their
actions and inactions on the public.
Considering the importance of political cartoons as
weapons, Napoleon of Great Britain was reported to have
said that the English caricaturist James Gillray “did more
than all the armies of Europe to bring me down” (Navasky
2013). Cartoons are important in the representation of
identities, attitudes, values and stereotypes (Calder et al,
2000). They are reflections of our “… actions, inactions,
apathy, zeal, love, hate, tendencies, intolerance,
sentiments, greed, ambition, grudges, grievances,
complaints, hopes, dreams” according to Asukwo (2018).
Cartoons reflect the ideologies and political climate
prevalent in the society at the material time. They educate
and entertain through their humorous visual presentations.
Though scholars have dwelt much on verbal news
messages, relatively not much is done on the influence of
visual news messages (Domke et al. 2002). This is
remarkable since “nonverbal cues can be more influential on
assessments of individuals than verbal ones” (Barrett and
Barrington 2005).
Plato dismissed images as having nothing to do with truth
and veracity and as such, verbal precision is superior to
visual allusions” but in defence of images, Steve Bell, the
English cartoonist, remarked that cartoons gave one the
opportunity to get through to people in a direct way,” as they
read it in a second”. He added that cartooning was
“blazingly important because everything about politics
screams imagery at you. (Navasky 2013).
Statement of the problem
Every Nigerian family comprises men and women who strive
for the wellbeing of the nation. The press reports such
activities on daily basis, some through cartoons genre. In
spite of the efforts by women at nation building, the
prejudiced treatment is yet to stop as the women do not
enjoy the same privileges as their male counterparts in press
coverage. This discrimination manifests itself across all
facets of life; hence, women with great potentials have been
forced to take the back seat and remain silent in the political
arena. It is against this backdrop that the study investigates
the representation of women in the work of Mike Asukwo,
Laughter in the Mirror, being a compilation of political events
which “… have shaped and still shaping our socioeconomic
and political history as a nation” (Asukwo 2018).
Objectives of the study
Some studies show that women are not given fair
representation in the society. This study aims to ascertain to
what extent the representation of men and women are
balanced in the cartoons published in Laughter in the Mirror
Since political cartoons are reflections of the political
activities of the Nigerian nation, the study seeks to verify
73
how the issues of gender imbalance have been addressed
in the society through the works of Mike Asukwo. Secondly,
it seeks to discover how stereotyping undermine the worth
of women in the society and the need to project women
positively.
Literature review
Various studies carried out focus on how political cartoons
perform the critical function of communicating socio-
economic and political meanings to newspaper readerships.
Generally, political cartoons in newspapers and magazines
readily come handy when people who are deprived of
freedom of expression seek alternative ways of doing so.
Cartoons are often humoristic or satiric, presenting an
ideological perspective on society. Walker (2003) examined
political cartoons in respect of communication. He argued
that one of the most powerful weapons that a cartoon has is
its innocent-seeming humour which can be easily absorbed
without much resistance or reflection. He added that political
cartoons form the resource of the dominant; reinforce the
opinions of the media ownership and serves as the
instrument for the bourgeois. He also noted that cartoons
are of social importance as they are used to set social
agenda. The social commentaries are geared towards
transforming the socio-political climate of the society.
Udoaka (2003) examined political cartoons readership in
Nigeria. He verified the claim that political cartoons
readership was for the literate and his findings were to the
contrary. On the other hand, El Refaie (2009) investigated
political cartoons as multimedia texts. He employed the use
of newspapers to examine young people’s views in respect
of reading meanings from cartoons. He found that opinions
could be swayed through their use.
Minx explored the nature and conventions of political
cartoon art and their use of rhetoric as a persuasive device
to convey messages. His findings revealed that political
cartoons portray issues of public interest and employ the use
of visual rhetoric which serves as a persuasive
device. Cornnors (2004) examined cartoons and the
popular culture in the 2004 American Presidential
campaigns and found out that political cartoons were used
for the purposes of manipulating voters’ opinion of
candidates captured during the campaign period. Najjar
(2007) conducted an exploratory study of the Palestinian
cartoonist, Naji al-Ali where he contends that cartoons are
essential for the construction of a people’s identity. He used
different approaches such as the cognition, social
psychology, anthropology and the cartoon codes. He,
however, failed to give adequate explanation of the code as
a semiotic concept.
Political cartoons have a healthy tradition of criticizing
intolerance, injustice, political corruption and social ills. In
this regard, Jimoh, (2011) examined the role of editorial
cartoons in the democratization process in Nigeria. He
submitted that cartoons played a vital role in documenting,
critiquing and reflecting social and political issues. In the
quest for the new role of cartoons in promoting democracy,
Adejuwon and Alimi (2011) analyzed selected cartoons to
show how they are used to illustrate the political process in
Nigeria. They submit that the cartoon is perhaps one of the
sternest forms of communication in modern times. The study
adds that cartoon is a pungent art form which enables the
artist to subtly inform, educate and entertain the viewers.
Sani explored how Nigerian cartoonists employed verbal
and visual devices in the construction of satire to ridicule
politicians and public office holders as a way of persuading
and influencing public opinion. His findings show that
cartoons mainly use satirical tones creatively to achieve a
specific communicative purpose.
Jimoh (2010) explored how political cartoons are used as
opinion molding devise to serve as contemporary check and
balances on government policies. His findings show that
editorial cartoons have pushed and enlarged boundaries of
freedom of expression in the African democratic setting.
Ariyo (2017) identified the multimodal discourse features of
cartoons and related the features to the context in which
they were used. He concluded that cartoons were deployed
to enhance easy comprehension of messages on sensitive
political issues.
El Refaie's (2009) study was on multi-literacies and
political cartoons interpretation, Mazid (2008) explored
political and ideological representations in Bush and bin
Laden’s cartoons depictions, Edwards and Ware (2005)
studied how public opinions were represented through
political cartoons in campaign media. Significantly, the
review of literature demonstrates that although there has
been considerable research done on political cartoons, but
little research has focused on how political cartoons
represent the gender imbalance especially in the Nigerian
socio-political context. The review of literature demonstrates
that although there has been considerable research done on
political cartoons, little research has explored it as means
cartoons xraying gender imbalance in the society.
Theoretical Framework
The agenda-setting theory of the media and semiotic theory
of Roland Bathes constitute the theoretical frameworks of
this study. The agenda setting theory is based on the fact
that the media filter and shape reality and use its great
influence to determine and shape news items that are
worthy of the public’s viewing. The theory was propounded
by McCombs and Shaw (1972) whose argument is on how
the media influences the viewers and how the issue is made
important by giving it more space and time Miller (2002).
Bathes’ model of semiotics states that meaning in any
semiotic analysis, which he terms “signification”, is
embedded in two layers. The first layer, called denotation, is
“the most obvious message and is uncovered through a
superficial inspection of the image” (Giarelli and Tulman,
2003:953). Denotation answers the question “Who or what
is depicted [in the composition]?” (Kress and van Leeuwen,
2001:93). The second and more complex layer manifests in
an image in social semiotics in the connotation, or signified
meaning. The image attempts to answer the question “What
74
ideas and values are expressed through what is represented
and through the way in which it is represented?” (Kress and
van Leeuwen, 2001:93).
The current study seeks to answer the following research
questions.
Questions
1. To what extent were females adequately
represented by the cartoons in Laughter in the
Mirror?
2. To what extent were the cartoons positive
representations of the Nigerian woman?
3. What were the significant issues portrayed by the
images of women in Laughter in the Mirror?
Methodology
The study employed a qualitative paradigm using the
content analysis and semiotics as the analytical framework.
The main purpose of content analysis is to reach the
concepts and relationships which could be used to explain
the data collected. Content analysis requires in-depth
analysis of the data. Through content analysis, data could
be defined and the details revealed. The data analysis
process involves grouping of similar data under specific
concepts and themes, and organizing and interpreting those
data.
The paper also utilized the theory of social semiotics to
investigate forms of visual elements in the selected
cartoons. Social semiotics refers to a tradition in which the
meaning, experience and knowledge communicated
through signs and symbols are studied, more so, how they
are relevant in the society where they exist. A sign can be a
word, sound or a visual image. It is an object which stands
for another in somebody’s mind. The study adopts Roland
Bathes’ semiotic model for the analysis. His model premised
on the idea of layered meaning of images consisting of the
first layer of representation which is the denotative meaning
and another layer of connotation or symbolic meaning.
Bathes created ways to enable people gain better
understanding of language and how it operates in the
society. According to his model, the first order of signification
is the denotational level where there is a signifier and a
signified. (Chandler 1994). At the level of denotation, words
are the names of phenomena in the world and language is
stable so that relations of word to object are fixed (Cobley
2017). Bathes’ interest in how things mean rather than what
they mean makes his model adequate for the analysis of
these political cartoons. Bathe’s theory is important in this
study as many newspapers use visual images with the aim
of helping readers to have an understanding of the contents
of newspaper articles.
The cartoons analysed were from Mike Asukwo’s
Laughter in the Mirror being a collection of cartoons
published in the BussinessDay Magazine in 2018. A total of
344 cartoons were in the book. The entire 344 were utilized
for the content analysis while seven cartoons were
purposively selected for the semiotic analysis being about
ten per cent of the representation on women. The analysis
fell into these categories among others: the number of
cartoons, number of appearances allotted according to
gender, number of speech bubbles given to the characters
according to gender, positive/negative depiction of women
in the cartoons.
Discussions of the findings
Question 1: To what extent were women adequately
represented by the cartoons in Laughter in the Mirror?
Table 2: Frequency of occurrence of images according to gender in Laughter in the Mirror
Gender
Frequency
Percentage %
Males
273
79.4
Females
71
20.6
Total
344
100
Table 2 showed a 79.4% representation of the males and a
20.6% representation of the females in the book. This
means that the proportion of male representations in the
cartoons is significantly greater than that of the females and
hence lacks gender equality or balance.
Results show the marginalization of women in general,
especially within the political space, due to the commonly
held notion that politics is for men. One easily observes that
women do not have a fair representation vis-à-vis their male
counterparts. The while the images of men appeared 273
times being (79.4%) of the entire images, those of women
occurred 71 times, being (20.6%) of the entire content. From
the cartoon captioned “Representation in the National
Assembly”, there is a clear indication that out of the fifteen
assembly members, only one of them is a woman. This
cartoon further reinforces societal perception that women
are outsiders in the political arena. The above
representation is in line with Okunna (2002) who avers that
“… tradition, culture, religion and other factors have
continued to widen the disparity between Nigerian men and
women, by keeping women in a subordinate position to men”
with the larger society and the male subculture still
marginalizing, trivializing, and stereotyping the Nigerian
woman. In some other cartoons presented in the book,
women were hardly included in the representations.
75
Figure 1: Representation of women in the National Assembly
Question 2: To what extent do the images in the cartoons positively portray the Nigerian woman?
Table 4: Showing how the images in the cartoons positively portray the Nigerian woman
Images
Frequency
Percentage %
Negative image
26
7.6
Positive image
16
4.7
Not represented
302
87.7
Total
344
100
The analysis shows that women had a 26 (7.6%) negative
representation in the entire book and 16 (4.7%) positive
representation. 87.7% reveal other contents where they
were not so relevant. In Figure 2 below captioned “Depiction
of women as call girls”, women were portrayed as seductive
creatures that were at the beck and call of powerful male
politicians. They are shown dressed in skimpy clothes
standing in front of the hotel waiting for the affluent
politicians as indicated with the APC logo (the ruling political
party) on the vehicle. Ironically, this is the cartoon with the
greatest representation of the female gender at a time in the
entire book. This is in line with instances where the media
have negative reports on women, reflecting widely held
concepts of their stereotypes in the society (Mervi 2006;
Jenkins 2002; Eshiet 2013).
76
Figure 2: Depiction of women as “call girls”
An instance of positive female representation in the book
was in the character of the former Minister of Finance who
was held in high repute. She was seen in the cartoon on
Figure 3 as a mother dishing food from the big pot tagged
“Budget 2014”, to the many outstretched hands. Though in
this instance she was in control of the food, by implication,
the budget of the nation, connotatively, she represents the
assertion that “a woman’s best place is in the kitchen”, her
educational attainment as a Harvard trained personnel
notwithstanding. In many other representations in the book,
the same Minister of Finance was presented as a nurse,
either caring for the President or the ailing economy.
Lawrence (2004) corroborates the idea adding that in the
past, the media’s starting point was that women belonged at
home and they were expected to marry and raise children.
It was only in the areas of domestic activities or in giving
care as mothers or nurses that women were projected
positively.
Figure 3: Domestication of women
The cartoon in Figure 4 below shows a positive
representation of the woman as a defender of a course she
believes in. it indicates a woman armed with her weapon of
war which is the traditional pestle, playing a complementary
role to her husband who takes the lead in escorting their
daughter to school amidst the insecurities in the land. The
77
girl child is also shown as being focused in her quest for
education.
Figure 4: Taking no Chance
Question 3: What are the significant issues portrayed by the images of women in Laughter in the Mirror
Table 5: Some relevant issues portrayed by the images in the cartoons
Issue
Frequency of occurrence
Percentage %
Government
1
0.1
Violence
8
2.3
Corruption
2
0.6
People &economy
25
7.3
People & infrastructure
2
0.6
Governance
2
0.6
Policies
53
15.4
Stereotype
26
7.6
Economy
5
1.5
Not related
220
64
Total
344
100
The significant issues in Laughter in the Mirror were
variously represented as follows: government (0.1%),
violence (2.3%), corruption (0.6%), people and economy
(0.6%); people and infrastructure (0.6%); governance
(0.6%); policies (15.4%); stereotype (7.6%); economy
(1.5%) and other issues not related as (64%). From all
indications, issues pertaining to women were not adequately
represented as they ranged from 0.6% - 15.4% which was
the greatest representation. The economy was purported to
have fared well under the leadership of the then Minister of
Finance, that probably accounted for the positive coverage
of events and issues pertaining to her though represented in
a domesticated manner either as a cook or a nurse.
Figure 5. below shows a battered girl taking refuge
behind the statue of justice. Will she get justice with four men
after her armed with various weapons and tools of violence?
The first is a parent ready to flog her with a belt. Next to him
is a criminal with a spear (weapon) ready to molest her while
the third is a spouse/partner with his glove ready to give her
the punches. Yet, the fourth in row is a teacher with the whip
all for the girl child. The spouse derogatorily asks her if she
was hiding behind a woman. His query by repeating the
word WOMAN? Indicates her inability to protect her. The
cartoon connotes the plight of the girl child in the society she
finds herself, she is unsafe wherever she turned with the law
not give her justice either.
78
Figure 5: Women as victims of violence
Figures 6: Stereotyping of Women as being Quarrelsome
The above cartoon portrays the former President Ebele
Goodluck Jonathan and the current President Muhammadu
Buhari exchanging banters. They pun on the word “issues”
referring to the number of children each has as a home
keeper rather than the substance of governance in question.
The cartoonist chose to portray both men in the image of
classical ladies connoting the quarrelsome nature of
women.
79
Figure 7: Stereotyping Women as not being Seriously Minded
Again, the cartoon in Figure 7 show both men and women
who went to the National Conference relaxing in a lousy
manner after collecting sacks of money. The women were
further portrayed in a stereotypical manner of being
feministic. They were rather busy with makeup and chatting
away instead of deliberating on serious issues at the
conference.
Conclusion
The media representation of women can go a long way in
changing the society’s perception and recreating
womanhood. The media is an important tool for changing
attitudes and creating new perceptions. In today’s world, the
media has become even more important in providing
knowledge and shaping attitudes. This study has shown that
the cartoons in Laughter in the Mirror are gendered. This
finding corroborates the findings of other studies
(Nwaolikpe, 2014, Okunna, 2012, Jenkins 2002). It also
revealed that they were stereotyped and relegated to the
background even when they excelled in their vocations. This
is indicated in the cartoon on the Minister of Finance, who in
spite of her education as a Harvard trained graduate was
portrayed as being relevant in the kitchen where she dished
food to others or in the nursing professing considered as an
effeminate profession in Nigeria. This notion therefore
portrayed her as being a woman rather than the office she
represented. The study further revealed that women are
marginalized in the political space. This is obvious in the
various representations on women in national affairs. Eshiet
(2015), confirms this notion. Furthermore, women are
excluded as political actors as there is no female
representation in the present governorship positions in the
entire nation. If women are visibly absent in the political
arena, they will also be absent from the political
representations by the cartoons as the cartoon represent the
activities of the political class Asukwo (2019).
Recommendations
The media has been acknowledged as agents of change in
the society through its agenda setting function. Considering
the developing nature of Nigeria in terms of female balance,
the onus lies on the Nigerian media to increase the
awareness among all, ranging from the law makers to the
generality of the populace, especially among women
themselves. There is the need for re-orientation so that
women will encourage one another in active participation in
politics. By so doing, their presence will be felt in the political
arena and their activities given adequate coverage by the
media.
80
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