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ENERGY AND AGRI-FOOD SYSTEMS: PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
Abstract
The objective of this chapter is to present the role of energy in the Mediterranean agri-food sector and to discuss the possibilities. Agri-food chains require large amounts of energy and produce various wastes that can be utilised for energy generation. Therefore, these chains are both consumers and producers of energy. Additionally , rural areas can explore their renewable energy potential in order to increase energy supply and create additional incomes to the farmers. Improvements in energy efficiency and higher use of renewable energies in this sector can increase its sustainability. Considerations regarding how developed and developing countries differ in terms of energy efficiency and bioenergy are very relevant to discuss links between energy and agri-food systems in the Mediterranean Basin because the region includes both types of countries. After a presentation of global issues, this chapter provides an overview of energy mix and discusses challenges and opportunities regarding energy efficiency and increased renewable energy in the Mediterranean agri-food sector. We briefly address the relevance of the water-energy-food nexus approach to tackle energy issues in the agri-food sector in the region before stressing the importance of gender equality in the production and consumption energy in the sector in order to enhance its sustainability. Global considerations on energy in agri-food systems Current energy consumption in agri-food systems is unsustainable on the long term (FAO, 2011). Food systems currently consume 30% of the world's available energy, with more than 70% occurring beyond the farm gate, and produce over 20% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (around 31% if land-use change is included). At the same time, about one-third of the food we produce is lost or wasted, and with it about 38% of energy consumed in food systems. Moreover, modern food systems
... From one side, the global energy consumption in the agri-food systems is almost 30% of available energy globally, with over 70% converted off-farm. While about one-third of the produced food is wasted or lost, and so it is about 38% of the energy used in food production systems [1]. The global population has increased about two folds since the early 1960 s and it is estimated to reach over 9.8 billion by 2050. ...
... In this regard, the provision of modern 2 energy services including heating, cooling, transport, lighting, and mechanical power, have extensively become dependent on fossil fuels [20]. Modernizing agricultural and food systems through increased use of fossil fuels, as it has been the case in the past, is neither an affordable nor a sustainable solution due to the impact of expensive fossil fuels and their highly volatile prices on the production costs and food prices and the impact of climate changes [1]. ...
Agrivoltaic is a strategic and innovative approach that combines photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion with agricultural production, enabling synergies in the production of food, energy, and water, as well as the preservation of the ecological landscape. Shading management, intensity adjustment, and spectral distribution allow innovative PV systems to generate significant amounts of electricity without affecting agricultural production. Demonstration projects have already been developed around the world and there is a wealth of experience with various design solutions for commercial use. One of these new technologies is concentrator photovoltaics (CPV). The CPV has excellent spectral processing capabilities and highly concentrated power generation efficiency, which makes it a perfect solution for integrating with photosynthesis. This study aims to present the working principle of CPV modules considering agricultural applications and discuss the recent advancements in concentrating agrivoltaics. In this method, the problem of shading is mitigated by two main strategies: (i) parabolic glasses covered with a multilayer dichroic polymer film that reflects near-infrared (NIR) radiation onto the solar cells installed at the focal area and transmits photons in the range of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), and (ii) highly transparent sun-tracking louvers or Fresnel lenses that concentrate direct sunlight onto the solar cells to generate electricity. In the latter solution, the remaining diffuse sunlight is directed to the ground for use by growing plants. Although the CPV development trend has been slow due to the lower cost of crystalline silicon, the development of CPV for agriculture with accurate spectral separation could revitalize this industry. In this regard, more research and development are needed to evaluate the suitability of materials that split solar radiation and their impacts on the electrical performance of CPV modules, taking into account the physiology of plants.
... Wastewater sludge generated during different food industry technologies alone or co-digested with food industry waste holds many beneficial properties in terms of biogas production (e.g. high concentration of organic compounds, appropriate water content) 12,13 , and these industries are especially in the need of locally available, alternative energy sources, as their energy demand is usually remarkably high 14-16 , and/or natural gas or other fossil fuels are not easily accessible, particularly in rural areas 17,18 . Since the utilization and preprocessing of meat industry originated sludge for biogas production has not been widely investigated before, in our study we solely focused on the pretreatment and anaerobic fermentation of this biogas feedstock. ...
Our study investigates the effects of iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles combined microwave pretreatment on the anaerobic digestibility and soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) of meat industry sludge. One of our main objectives was to see whether the different microwave-based pretreatment procedures can enhance biogas production by improving the biological availability of organic compounds. Results demonstrated that combining microwave irradiation with magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles considerably increased SCOD (enhancement ratio was above 1.5), the rate of specific biogas production, and the total cumulative specific biogas volume (more than a threefold increment), while having no negative effect on the biomethane content. Furthermore, the assessment of the sludge samples’ dielectric properties (dielectric constant and loss factor measured at the frequency of 500 MHz) showed a strong correlation with SCOD changes (r = 0.9942, R² = 0.99), offering a novel method to evaluate pretreatment efficiency.
... It guarantees a steady and dependable energy source, which is essential for running different kinds of agricultural operations. Optimizing agricultural productivity and efficiency requires a steady flow of energy, which is essential for irrigation systems, machinery, and processing facilities [129,130]. Furthermore, smart grids help facilitate precision agriculture processes by utilizing real-time data analytics [131]. This will, in turn, allow farmers to maximize resource utilization, minimize waste, and improve total yield. ...
Energy and agriculture are two independent sectors that share a mutual coexistence referred to as the energy-agriculture nexus. In an attempt to facilitate the capacity of this coexistence simultaneously, there is a need for involvement of latest technologies such as the artificial intelligence (AI). This research focused on the incorporation of AI along the energy-agriculture nexus, in an attempt to explore the applications, opportunities, challenges and its potential implications for various stakeholders. According to an intensive literature survey conducted, AI applications were found to be on a significant rise since the last decade, specifically in prediction applications and optimization applications, respectively, with research literature focusing mainly on bioenergy (55%), energy use analysis (17%), process value chain (6%), energy-efficient irrigation (6%), energy in greenhouse (6%), livestock management (2%), farm power and machinery (4%) and risk management (4%). Challenges observed in the literature were observed in terms of data availability, data complexity and heterogeneity, computing power, accountability and transparency in decision-making and research focus. In order to fully comprehend the implications of AI integration along the energy-agriculture nexus and to develop strategies and guidelines for maximizing the advantages of this technology while minimizing potential risks and adverse effects on stakeholders, future research works were discussed.
... Agriculture accounts for 10-12 percent of total yearly anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Tjandra et al. 2016;Ashoka et al. 2017), hence compounding the situation of global warming and climate change (Lobell and Gourdji 2012). Improving agricultural production's energy use efficiency (EUE) minimizes carbon dioxide emissions, limits energy dependence, and effectively offsets rising oil prices (Vourdoubas 2016). Crop management practices that sequester carbon and require low energy inputs should be prioritized due to their notable significance in environmental sustainability (Meena et al. 2022). ...
The use of energy and carbon-intensive inputs in agriculture is unsustainable as it contributes to climate change, adversely affecting crop productivity and human life. Barley, the fourth most important cereal crop, has been restricted to areas with limited resources. Maintaining a balance between productivity, profitability, and sustainability by identifying viable genotypes that adapt well to resource-restricted settings and assessing them under low energy-carbon intensive management is critical. A field experiment was conducted during 2016-17 to 2018-19 to assess the energy-carbon footprint, productivity and profitability of five barley cultivars under two contrasting tillage-residue management systems in semi-arid plains of North-West India. The zero-till + residue retention (ZT+RR) system, among the tillage-residue management options, and RD-2552 followed by BH-946, among the cultivars, provided significantly higher crop productivity and profitability. Although cultivars' responses to the tillage-residue management method were not statistically significant in terms of grain yield, they were in terms of net returns. Therefore, RD-2552 and BH-946 cultivars could provide higher profitability with the ZT+RR system as compared to those with the conventional-till + residue incorporation (CT+RI) system. Although cultivars did not affect the energy-carbon footprints of barley production, tillage-residue management methods did. The ZT+RR system enhanced the energy and carbon use efficiencies of the barley cultivation with lower energy-carbon footprints. The cultivar RD-2552 followed by BH-946 under the ZT+RR system could provide higher productivity and profitability with lower energy-carbon footprints. Adoption of conservation agriculture-based tillage-residue management practices could improve productivity and profitability of barley crop with reduced energy-carbon footprints in the semi-arid ecologies of India.
... Food production represents between 20% to 30% of the total energy consumption in Europe, from which 15-20% is due to food processing [25]. These figures reveal the significant energy consumption in the primary sector related to food production, representing, as an example, an average between 7 to 10% of the annual input costs for farmers and between 4% and 9% of the total agricultural income in Spain [26], although these figures vary widely between different crops and countries. ...
The potential for the generation of pico- and micro-hydropower through hydraulic energy recovery has been demonstrated across many sectors of the water-energy-food nexus, often termed hidden hydropower. The potential to recover energy from hidden hydropower in water supply, crop production, food processing, and energy production has been demonstrated via numerous in-depth case studies, regional assessments, and physical experiments. This paper presents a holistic overview of the potential role and impacts of micro-hydropower energy recovery on the water-energy-food nexus in the context of climate change. The paper comprises a review and synthesis of the available literature. The paper outlines the potential impacts of hidden hydropower on cost of water supply, energy and food production, considering also the potential impacts on crop yield and food supply. Policy and technological barriers to the exploitation of hidden hydropower resources within the nexus are outlined and recommendations to overcome these are provided. The results of this investigation highlight the potential of micro-hydropower energy recovery in water systems to reduce energy consumption by 0.005–3.7% across various sectors and regions, with consequent impacts in the operating and consumer costs of food, water and energy, as well as on the CO2 emissions of these activities. This hidden hydropower has the potential to ease the pressures of the water-energy-food nexus and is an important element of the route towards sustainability within the nexus.
... Currently, agri-food systems consume 30% of the world's available energy, with more than 70% occurring beyond the farm gate, and are responsible for nearly 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions [66]. Improvement in energy efficiency is generally considered the best strategy to reduce CO 2 emissions and further limit energy dependence in agriculture. ...
Citation: Manoj, K.N.; Shekara, B.G.; Sridhara, S.; Mudalagiriyappa; Chikkarugi, N.M.; Gopakkali, P.; Jha, P.K.; Vara Prasad, P.V. Carbon Footprint Assessment and Energy Budgeting of Different Annual and Perennial Forage Cropping Systems: A Study from the Semi-Arid Region of Karnataka, India.
... More so, the production of the required huge quantity of biofuels might cause some adverse effects on resources such as water (water depletion), land (competition with food), and energy (economic activities requiring energy might stagnate should energy shortage occur)-if not well-managed or governed. Crop production and processing accounts for about 30% of the total energy used around the world [11] and consumes 90% of global freshwater [12], and producing 1 TJ of bioethanol requires the number of crops sufficient to feed 90 people [13]. Bioethanol is one of the types of biofuels having a high-octane number fuel and a high oxygen content, making it a suitable substitute and additive for gasoline. ...
The increasing global population leading to increased consumption of finite resources is a major challenge facing the ecosystem. This constraint creates the need for a well-coordinated system for producing a sustainable source of food, water, and clean energy (biofuels) which can be achieved by employing nexus principles. As the Nigerian government has been promoting sugar and bioethanol production from sugarcane in a bid to achieve food and energy security, this study aims to evaluate the water-energy-land-food nexus for the development of bioethanol in Nigeria. To assist this evaluation, indicators—constituting the nexus index—were applied to measure the consumption, mass, and economic productivity of resources. Land productivity was added to the nexus assessment as part of this research. Producing biofuels from crops impacts nexus resources, importantly land and food but also water and fossil energy resources used in the cultivation and processing phase. The nexus assessment helped to show areas of resource use inefficiencies needing possible improvements to move production towards sustainable use of resources. Two sites were studied and both had an average nexus performance; however, the site having modern irrigation used lesser energy leading to a better performance in the water consumption, energy, mass, and economic productivity indicators. This research provides literature as well as quantitative values that can help stakeholders analyse and make judicious decisions (policy) using the nexus system to improve resource management.
Graphical abstract
Енергетична оцінка різних технологій виробництва продукції рослинництва і систем землеробства є актуальною, бо дозволяє провести аналіз складного процесу на основі застосування зведених даних, та порівняти різні процеси або етапи виробництва за уніфікованим розрахунковим показником або коефіцієнтом. Вона полягає у визначенні співвідношення енергетичних витрат на виробництво продукції рослинництва до кількості отриманої енергії з урожаєм на рівні агроекосистем. Технологію виробництва доцільно вважати ефективною, якщо коефіцієнт енергетичної ефективності вище 1, оскільки вихід валової енергії перевищує витрачену сукупну непоновлювану енергію. Основною ідеєю цієї роботи є проведення агроекологічної оцінки наслідків ведення сучасного землеробства впродовж тривалого часу на основі зміни енергопотенціалу ґрунтів як головного засобу сільськогосподарського виробництва. Актуальність проведення агроекологічних досліджень і представлених результатів полягає у визначенні витрат енергії гумусу як природного резерву і ресурсу для формування і збереження енергопотенціалу ґрунтів України у процесі вирощування сільськогосподарських культур. Визначено баланс гумусу орного шару ґрунту, валову енергію, накопичену господарсько-цінною частиною врожаю основних сільськогосподарських культур, зміну енергоємності ґрунту за вмістом органічного вуглецю і кількість гною, енергетично еквівалентну показнику зниження енергоємності ґрунту впродовж 1990–2021 рр. в масштабах країни і адміністративних областей. Запропоновано інформативний показник, що характеризує агроекологічну ефективність землеробства – коефіцієнт зміни енергопотенціалу ґрунту відносно формування урожаю культур (КΔег). Це відношення зміни енергоємності ґрунту до валової енергії урожаю досліджених культур, включаючи основну і побічну продукцію рослинництва, виражене у %. Також окремо виділено енергію основної і побічної продукції рослин, що виноситься з ґрунту. Встановлено, що нині у більшості регіонів України виробництво продукції рослинництва є неефективним у контексті збереження енергопотенціалу ґрунту. Впродовж 2000–2021 рр. енергоємність ґрунтів в Україні щорічно знижується на 11,0–39,9 ГДж/га. Лише в 1990 р. виявлено позитивний баланс гумусу – 115,8 кг/га, або в енергетичному еквіваленті – 2,5 ГДж/га. Виявлено негативне значення КΔег на формування урожаю досліджених культур в усіх адміністративних областях України. Найнижчий показник у Чернігівській (–48%), Житомирській (–45%) та Івано-Франківській (– 39%) обл. Кількість гною, яка енергетично еквівалентна показнику зниження енергоємності ґрунтів, на одиницю площі становить 26,3–95,0 т/га/рік.
Agriculture is a sector of economy of crucial importance for global population, as it is a basic source of food and inputs used in other industry sectors. Also, agriculture is a sector primarily based on use of various inputs, while initiating usually harmful effects to local and global environment. In time of tightened economic, social and environmental expectations, burdened with frequent economic and energy shocks, or constant increase in population growth, contemporary agriculture is forced to seek for innovations, i.e. production alternatives that are environmentally friendly, economically justified and socially eligible. The main goal of the paper is to present the few successfully tested alternatives in the last few years that could be used in agriculture, before discussing their economic side. All alternatives are generally turned to renewable energy use at the farm level, mostly in irrigation, while they encourage wider involvement of automatisation and digitalisation in national agriculture.KeywordsAgricultureFarmInnovationsAlternativesAutomatisationDigitalisationSerbia
Shocks and stresses such as the recent COVID-19 pandemic reveal the vulnerabilities of cities, especially in the domain of food security. In a resilient urban food system, communities have reliable access to adequate, nutritious and affordable food. It is evident that to establish a more resilient food system, cities must create an enabling environment where food can be produced, processed and sold locally, while retaining access to national and international sources. Following this approach, food supply chains can be shortened, simplified and become more accessible. Vulnerable urban communities in developing countries such as South Africa, should be encouraged to enhance their personal resilience for food security. Various aspects of the food system fall outside the legal jurisdiction of cities. However, city administrations can pursue key interventions to build more resilient urban communities. The purpose of this article is to explore the nexus between city resilience and food security during times of shocks and stresses and to uncover applicable lessons from cities around the globe in their response to the pandemic.
Purpose:
Conventional agriculture practice without proper diversification of crop rotations has become more energy-intensive having deteriorating effects on the environment due to high carbon emissions. Diversification of existing crop rotations for obtaining higher productivity and profitability per unit energy and carbon consumption is necessary to sustain the livelihood of farmers and ensure environmental safety.
Methods:
A field study was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 9 crop rotations involving 14 different crops to assess the system productivity, profitability, and environmental sustainability in terms of energy and carbon footprint in the semi-arid plains of India. The cereal-based crop rotation pearl millet-wheat-pearl millet-wheat is the conventional crop rotation of the region. The experimentation period (2010–2016) consists of 3 cycles of crop rotations with a 2-year rotational period each.
Results:
The study revealed that groundnut-wheat-cluster bean-onion (Gnut-Wh-Cb-O) crop rotation resulted in significantly higher system productivity (44.5%) and profitability (60.8%) with lower energy consumption (5.2%) and carbon footprint (21.8%) as compared to that of the conventional pearl millet-wheat-pearl millet-wheat (Pm-Wh-Pm-Wh) rotation. Another crop rotation, pearl millet-wheat-cluster bean-barley (Pm-Wh-Cb-Bly), with 36.4% lower irrigation water energy requirement than that of Gnut-Wh-Cb-O rotation, gave significantly higher system productivity (14.6%) and profitability (23.2%) than that of Pm-Wh-Pm-Wh.
Conclusions:
The study concluded that the groundnut-wheat-cluster bean-onion rotation (when irrigation water is not limited) and pearl millet-wheat-cluster bean-barley (when irrigation water is limited) would be the most productive, profitable, and energy and carbon-efficient crop rotation in semi-arid plains of North-West India that could be sustainable in the long run without having adverse impacts on climate change.
Site characterization and rapid reliable identification of energy resources play a key role for future efficient energy production. Over the last several decades, many laboratory and in-situ techniques were developed to qualitatively and quantitatively characterize the sites and minerals. Despite the advancements, there are still many challenges associated with exploration, rapid detection, and spatial interpolation of the energy resources within a site. Spectroscopy techniques offer solutions to the current on-going efforts on site characterization, exploration and collection of resources, quality control monitoring during production, and reclamation of the production sites due to environmental contamination. Spectral analysis has shown great promise in providing in-situ measurements that are comparable to arduous laboratory physio-chemical analysis. Spectroscopy is a fairly new technology in some sectors and has seen limited use but has shown great potential in exceeding the minimum standards implemented. This paper presents review of the current spectroscopy techniques that have been used in the agriculture, landfill, nuclear power, mining, and ground contamination industries with respect to the production of energy. A general overview of how spectral analysis techniques are being used to benefit each of these sectors along with some of the drawbacks associated with each is presented. Three frameworks including basic process, operation flowchart, minimum number of tests to be performed, and information on spatial interpolation analysis are presented. These frameworks along with the basic processes can be implemented for characterization of energy resource sites.
Heating greenhouses results in higher productivity and better quality of the produced crops mainly in Northern climates. Apart of conventional fuels already used for heating them, renewable energy sources are expected to play an important role in the near future. Among them solar energy, geothermal energy and biomass have been used in various greenhouses all over the world. A successful operation of a greenhouse cultivated with flowers during 2012-2014 in Crete-Greece heated with olive kernel wood proves that this solid fuel is a cheap energy source which can cover all the heating needs of the greenhouse lowering at the same time its CO2 emissions due to energy use. Olive kernel wood is an endogenous, renewable and CO2 neutral energy source in areas where olive trees grow. Additional installation of a Photovoltaic system in the greenhouse already heated with solid biomass in Crete will result in zeroing its CO2 emissions due to energy use in it. Since the heat demand in the greenhouse is much higher than the electricity demand, replacement of fossil fuel with a renewable fuel results in significant decrease of CO2 emissions due to energy use.
This paper has two objectives. First, it attempts to establish the potential of policies on energy efficiency and energy demand-side management in the southern Mediterranean region. Second, by examining past trends in energy intensity and trends up to 2030, it analyses the prospects and costs of such policies, compared with expected developments in the price of energy resources. Based on both analyses (MEDPRO WP4) and on prospects for growth (MEDPRO WP8), it seems that energy intensity in the Mediterranean should fall perceptibly by approximately 13% in the next 20 years. But given the programmed energy mix, this will not limit emissions of CO2, which are likely to increase by more than 90%.The paper first presents the rationale for demand-side management (DSM) policies. After a general discussion of concepts, it tackles the question of instruments and measures for implementing such policies, before posing the question of the cost-efficiency approach for monitoring the measures the authorities introduce. Secondly, the paper assesses energy consumption and energy efficiency in the countries of the southern Mediterranean and the ways in which their main economic sectors have changed in recent decades. The third section outlines the demand management measures introduced and, taking Tunisia and Egypt as examples, estimates the cost of such policies. The fourth and last section offers a forecast analysis of energy consumption in the Mediterranean up to 2030, highlighting probable trends in terms of final consumption, energy intensity, energy mix and emissions of CO2. The section concludes with estimates in terms of cost, comparing objectives for lower intensity, results in terms of resource savings and the types of costs this approach represents.
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